Climate change and energy production

Energy choices and security

There is a range of energy sources available to societies that vary in their sustainability, availability,
cost, and socio-political implications.

The choice of energy source is controversial and complex. Energy security is an important factor in
making energy choices.

Energy security is ‘the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price’.

Knowledge and understanding:

 Fossil fuels contribute to the majority of humankind’s energy supply and they vary widely in
the impacts of their production and their emissions; their use is expected to increase to
meet global energy demand.

 Sources of energy with lower carbon dioxide emissions than fossil fuels include renewable
energy (solar, biomass, hydropower, wind, wave, tidal, and geothermal) and their use is
expected to increase. Nuclear power is a low-carbon, low-emission, non-renewable resource
but is controversial due to radioactive waste and the potential scale of any accident.

 Energy security depends on an adequate, reliable and affordable supply of energy that
provides a degree of independence. An inequitable availability and uneven distributions of
energy sources may lead to conflict.

 The energy choices adopted by a society may be influenced by availability, sustainability,

scientific and technological developments, cultural attitudes, and political, economic, and
environmental factors. These in turn affect energy security and independence.

 Improvements in energy efficiencies and energy conservation can limit growth in energy
demand and contribute to energy security.
Fossil fuels
Advantages
Infrastructure is set up for its use in most
countries e.g. road and rail links and connection
to electricity grid are well established
High energy content
Relatively cheap
Currently relatively abundant
Nuclear Power
Advantages
Nuclear power stations do not produce carbon
dioxide emissions, reducing the risk of climate
change.
Compared to fossil fuels, nuclear power causes
less deaths e.g. from coal mining accidents or
premature death from urban air pollution
Solar power
Advantages
Can be used in remote areas
Low running cost, sunlight energy is free
Once operational does not produce air
pollutants
Sustainable, renewable and reliable supply
Silent
Disadvantages
Finite source – not sustainable
Extraction can destroy habitats and reduce
biodiversity in an area
Transport of fossil fuels also produces CO2, NOx,
SO2 and particulates
Power plants require relatively large amounts
of water which may compete with other users
of water and also have a detrimental impact on
aquatic ecosystems
Discharge of waste water can result in thermal
pollution of aquatic ecosystems
Disadvantages
Generation of nuclear waste with high
radioactive levels will last thousands of years
Risk of nuclear accidents e.g. Chernobyl and
Fukushima
Potential use of radioactive material from
nuclear power station to produce nuclear
weapons
High capital cost and high decommissioning
cost (when power plant is closed and
dismantled)
Disadvantages
Needs sunlight which varies regionally and
seasonally and is also weather dependent
Relatively high capital cost
Production of solar panels produces pollution
No electricity is produced at night and
therefore electricity produces needs storing for
use when required
Wind power
Advantages
Renewable (inexhaustible), sustainable energy
source
Abundant (large) supply is available
Can be used in remote areas
Once set up does not produce air pollutants
Operational cost is low
Hydropower
Advantages
Relatively low running cost which can
contribute to economic development
Sustainable source of energy
Dam construction can also increase water
resources, reduce risk of flood downstream
The reservoir can provide an ecosystem for
fisheries and opportunities for recreation
Does not produce urban air pollutants,
precursors of photochemical smog or acid rain
Geothermal
Advantages
Cheap to operate
Low emissions of carbon dioxide and other
GHGs
Reliably supply in some areas
Sustainable energy supply
Disadvantages
Wind dependent which varies from place to
place and from time to time
Noise pollution
Aesthetically unpleasing
Can kills birds and bats
High capital cost
(i.e. manufacture and installation cost)
Electricity produced needs storing until it’s
required
Disadvantages
High capital cost
Dam construction can lead to displacement of
people; potential seismic activity; loss of
biodiversity, etc.
Decomposition of the biota flooded to create
the reservoir can result in emissions of
methane and carbon dioxide – GHGs
Disadvantages
High capital cost (drilling can be expensive)
Poisonous gases from within the earth can be
released e.g. methane, ammonia, etc.
Historically limited to areas near volcanic
activity
 Case study

The Narmada River Dam Project, India

In India, biomass is a traditional source of energy. A huge proportion of the population relies on local
sources of firewood for energy because it is the most readily available source and is inexpensive.
Technology such as solar-powered stoves is neither available nor affordable. The Indian government,
in a drive to develop economically, has sought to harness other sources of cheap energy to stimulate
industrial development. In particular, the government is promoting hydroelectric power, which
historically has sometimes been extremely controversial for social and environmental reasons.

The most controversial dam development in India is the Narmada River Dam Project. Plans were
initiated in the 1940s by the country’s first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Legal and logistical
problems delayed the start of the project until 1979. The plan involves the construction of some
3200 dams of varying sizes on the Narmada River.

The Sardar Sarovar Dam is the biggest dam on the river and its construction has been fiercely
opposed. 200,000 people could be displaced by the project, and major damage caused to the
ecosystems of the region. Those in favor of the project say that it will supply water to 30 million
people and irrigate crops to feed another 20 million people. In October 2000, the Indian Supreme
Court gave a go-ahead for the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam, saying that the benefits of
the projects outweigh negative environmental and social impacts. In 2014, the Narmada Control
Authority approved a series of changes in the final height from 80m to 163m in depth. The project is
expected to be completed by 2025.

Climate change: causes and impacts

Climate change has been a normal feature of the Earth’s history, but human activity has contributed
to recent changes.

There has been a significant debate about the causes of climate change.

Climate change causes widespread and significant impacts.

Knowledge and understanding:

 Climate describes how the atmosphere behaves over relatively long periods of time whereas
weather describes the conditions in the atmosphere over a short period of time.

 Weather and climate are affected by ocean and atmospheric circulatory systems.

 Human activities are increasing levels of greenhouse gases (e.g. carbon dioxide, methane…)
in the atmosphere, which lead to

- An increase in the mean global temperature

- Increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events
- The potential for long term change in climate and weather patterns
- Rise in sea level
  The potential impact of climate change may vary from one location to another and may be
perceived as either adverse or beneficial. These impacts may include changes in water
availability, distribution of biomes, and crop growing areas, loss of biodiversity, etc.

 Both negative and positive feedback mechanisms are associated with climate change and
may involve very long-time lags.

 There has been significant debate due to conflicting environmental value systems
surrounding the issue of climate change.

 Global climate models are complex and there is a degree of uncertainty regarding the
accuracy of their predictions.

Consequences of climate change may include:

 Increase in temperature and change in precipitation patterns

 Increase risk of flooding
 Drought conditions
 Increase risk of wild fires
 Increase spread of pests
 Ocean acidification

Climate change – mitigation and adaptation

Adaptation attempts to manage the impacts of climate change.

Mitigation attempts to reduce the causes of climate change.

Knowledge and understanding:

 Mitigation involves reduction and/or stabilization of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and
their removal from the atmosphere

 Mitigation strategies to reduce GHG in general may include:

- Reduction of energy consumption

- Reduction of emissions of nitrogen oxides and methane from agriculture
- Use of alternatives to fossil fuel
- Geo-engineering

 Mitigation strategies for carbon dioxide removal (CDR techniques) include:

- Protecting and enhancing carbon sinks through land management (e.g. UN-REDD
programme)
- Using biomass as fuel source
- Using carbon capture and storage (CCS)
- Enhancing carbon dioxide absorption by the oceans through either fertilizing oceans
with nitrogen, phosphorus, iron to encourage the biological pump, or increasing
upwellings to release nutrients to the surface.
  Even if mitigation strategies drastically reduce future emissions of GHGs, past emissions will
continue to have an effect for some time

 Adaptation strategies can be used to reduce adverse effects and maximize any positive
effects. Examples of adaptations include flood defenses, vaccination programmes, etc.

 Adaptive capacity varies from place to place and can be dependent on financial and
technological resources. MEDCs can provide economic and technological support to LEDCs.

 There are international efforts and conferences to address mitigation and adaptation
strategies for climate change (IPCC, NAPAs, UNFCCC).

Case study

The Thames Barrier, London

The Thames barrier protects London from the most severe form of tidal flooding. Before the
construction of the Thames Barrier, an area of 116km2 was at risk. Much of London is built on the
natural floodplain of the River Thames. Without flood defenses, 420,000 homes on the Thames tidal
floodplain would have a 0.1% annual risk of flooding. This amount to a flood risk property value of
£80 billion. The risk from tidal flooding is expected to increase with rising tide levels. A gradual sea
level rise of 4mm per year is expected as a result of global warming. In addition, the south-east of
England is sinking. London is 30cm lower than it was at the end of WWII.

While the risk of tidal flooding from the River Thames is significant, the probability is low because
the Thames Barrier and a number of other defenses including the Barking and Dartford Creek
Barriers provide London with a higher level of protection than any other part of the UK. The Thames
Barrier became operational in October 1982. On average, it is closed 3 times per year. But during the
winter of 2000/01 there were 24 closures.

Although risk remains small, it is estimated that it will double between now and 2030. From 2030,
the protection offered by the barrier will continue to decline unless improvements are made. By
2030, it is forecast that the barrier will have to close about 30 ties per year to maintain the standards
of tidal defense in the Thames Estuary. With closures this frequent, shipping would be severely
disrupted. This has serious implications for London’s ambitions to revitalize use of the River Thames
for freight and passenger transport.

Similarly, the damage caused by Superstorm Sandy in NY in 2012 (estimated at US$19 billion) has
called for improvements in storm barriers, which could cost as much as US$22 billion. The potential
from more intense storms is driving up the size and cost of protective barriers.