Augmented Cognition 13th

International Conference AC 2019 Held

as Part of the 21st HCI International
Conference HCII 2019 Orlando FL USA
July 26 31 2019 Proceedings Dylan D.
Schmorrow
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/augmented-cognition-13th-international-conference-a
c-2019-held-as-part-of-the-21st-hci-international-conference-hcii-2019-orlando-fl-usa-j
uly-26-31-2019-proceedings-dylan-d-schmorrow/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

HCI in Games First International Conference HCI Games

2019 Held as Part of the 21st HCI International
Conference HCII 2019 Orlando FL USA July 26 31 2019
Proceedings Xiaowen Fang
https://textbookfull.com/product/hci-in-games-first-
international-conference-hci-games-2019-held-as-part-of-the-21st-
hci-international-conference-hcii-2019-orlando-fl-usa-
july-26-31-2019-proceedings-xiaowen-fang/

HCI International 2019 Posters 21st International

Conference HCII 2019 Orlando FL USA July 26 31 2019
Proceedings Part I Constantine Stephanidis

https://textbookfull.com/product/hci-
international-2019-posters-21st-international-conference-
hcii-2019-orlando-fl-usa-july-26-31-2019-proceedings-part-i-
constantine-stephanidis/

HCI International 2019 Posters 21st International

Conference HCII 2019 Orlando FL USA July 26 31 2019
Proceedings Part III Constantine Stephanidis

https://textbookfull.com/product/hci-
international-2019-posters-21st-international-conference-
hcii-2019-orlando-fl-usa-july-26-31-2019-proceedings-part-iii-
constantine-stephanidis/

HCI International 2019 Posters 21st International

Conference HCII 2019 Orlando FL USA July 26 31 2019
Proceedings Part II Constantine Stephanidis

https://textbookfull.com/product/hci-
international-2019-posters-21st-international-conference-
hcii-2019-orlando-fl-usa-july-26-31-2019-proceedings-part-ii-
HCI International 2019 Late Breaking Papers 21st HCI
International Conference HCII 2019 Orlando FL USA July
26 31 2019 Proceedings Constantine Stephanidis

https://textbookfull.com/product/hci-international-2019-late-
breaking-papers-21st-hci-international-conference-
hcii-2019-orlando-fl-usa-july-26-31-2019-proceedings-constantine-
stephanidis/

HCI International 2019 Late Breaking Posters 21st HCI

International Conference HCII 2019 Orlando FL USA July
26 31 2019 Proceedings Constantine Stephanidis

https://textbookfull.com/product/hci-international-2019-late-
breaking-posters-21st-hci-international-conference-
hcii-2019-orlando-fl-usa-july-26-31-2019-proceedings-constantine-
stephanidis/

HCI for Cybersecurity Privacy and Trust First

International Conference HCI CPT 2019 Held as Part of
the 21st HCI International Conference HCII 2019 Orlando
FL USA July 26 31 2019 Proceedings Abbas Moallem
https://textbookfull.com/product/hci-for-cybersecurity-privacy-
and-trust-first-international-conference-hci-cpt-2019-held-as-
part-of-the-21st-hci-international-conference-hcii-2019-orlando-
fl-usa-july-26-31-2019-proceedings-abbas-moa/

Distributed Ambient and Pervasive Interactions 7th

International Conference DAPI 2019 Held as Part of the
21st HCI International Conference HCII 2019 Orlando FL
USA July 26 31 2019 Proceedings Norbert Streitz
https://textbookfull.com/product/distributed-ambient-and-
pervasive-interactions-7th-international-conference-
dapi-2019-held-as-part-of-the-21st-hci-international-conference-
hcii-2019-orlando-fl-usa-july-26-31-2019-proceedings-norbert/

Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics 16th

International Conference EPCE 2019 Held as Part of the
21st HCI International Conference HCII 2019 Orlando FL
USA July 26 31 2019 Proceedings Don Harris
https://textbookfull.com/product/engineering-psychology-and-
cognitive-ergonomics-16th-international-conference-
epce-2019-held-as-part-of-the-21st-hci-international-conference-
 Dylan D. Schmorrow
Cali M. Fidopiastis (Eds.)
LNAI 11580

Augmented Cognition
13th International Conference, AC 2019
Held as Part of the 21st HCI International Conference, HCII 2019
Orlando, FL, USA, July 26–31, 2019, Proceedings

123
Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 11580

Subseries of Lecture Notes in Computer Science

Series Editors
Randy Goebel
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
Yuzuru Tanaka
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Wolfgang Wahlster
DFKI and Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany

Founding Editor
Jörg Siekmann
DFKI and Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/1244
Dylan D. Schmorrow Cali M. Fidopiastis (Eds.)
•

Augmented Cognition
13th International Conference, AC 2019
Held as Part of the 21st HCI International Conference, HCII 2019
Orlando, FL, USA, July 26–31, 2019
Proceedings

123
Editors
Dylan D. Schmorrow Cali M. Fidopiastis
Soar Technology Inc. Design Interactive, Inc.
Orlando, FL, USA Orlando, FL, USA

ISSN 0302-9743 ISSN 1611-3349 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence
ISBN 978-3-030-22418-9 ISBN 978-3-030-22419-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22419-6
LNCS Sublibrary: SL7 – Artificial Intelligence

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the
material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are
believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors
give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or
omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Foreword

The 21st International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, HCI International

2019, was held in Orlando, FL, USA, during July 26–31, 2019. The event incorporated
the 18 thematic areas and affiliated conferences listed on the following page.
A total of 5,029 individuals from academia, research institutes, industry, and
governmental agencies from 73 countries submitted contributions, and 1,274 papers
and 209 posters were included in the pre-conference proceedings. These contributions
address the latest research and development efforts and highlight the human aspects of
design and use of computing systems. The contributions thoroughly cover the entire
field of human-computer interaction, addressing major advances in knowledge and
effective use of computers in a variety of application areas. The volumes constituting
the full set of the pre-conference proceedings are listed in the following pages.
This year the HCI International (HCII) conference introduced the new option of
“late-breaking work.” This applies both for papers and posters and the corresponding
volume(s) of the proceedings will be published just after the conference. Full papers
will be included in the HCII 2019 Late-Breaking Work Papers Proceedings volume
of the proceedings to be published in the Springer LNCS series, while poster extended
abstracts will be included as short papers in the HCII 2019 Late-Breaking Work Poster
Extended Abstracts volume to be published in the Springer CCIS series.
I would like to thank the program board chairs and the members of the program
boards of all thematic areas and affiliated conferences for their contribution to the
highest scientific quality and the overall success of the HCI International 2019
conference.
This conference would not have been possible without the continuous and unwa-
vering support and advice of the founder, Conference General Chair Emeritus and
Conference Scientific Advisor Prof. Gavriel Salvendy. For his outstanding efforts,
I would like to express my appreciation to the communications chair and editor of
HCI International News, Dr. Abbas Moallem.

July 2019 Constantine Stephanidis

 HCI International 2019 Thematic Areas
and Affiliated Conferences

Thematic areas:
• HCI 2019: Human-Computer Interaction
• HIMI 2019: Human Interface and the Management of Information
Affiliated conferences:
• EPCE 2019: 16th International Conference on Engineering Psychology and
Cognitive Ergonomics
• UAHCI 2019: 13th International Conference on Universal Access in
Human-Computer Interaction
• VAMR 2019: 11th International Conference on Virtual, Augmented and Mixed
Reality
• CCD 2019: 11th International Conference on Cross-Cultural Design
• SCSM 2019: 11th International Conference on Social Computing and Social Media
• AC 2019: 13th International Conference on Augmented Cognition
• DHM 2019: 10th International Conference on Digital Human Modeling and
Applications in Health, Safety, Ergonomics and Risk Management
• DUXU 2019: 8th International Conference on Design, User Experience, and
Usability
• DAPI 2019: 7th International Conference on Distributed, Ambient and Pervasive
Interactions
• HCIBGO 2019: 6th International Conference on HCI in Business, Government and
Organizations
• LCT 2019: 6th International Conference on Learning and Collaboration
Technologies
• ITAP 2019: 5th International Conference on Human Aspects of IT for the Aged
Population
• HCI-CPT 2019: First International Conference on HCI for Cybersecurity, Privacy
and Trust
• HCI-Games 2019: First International Conference on HCI in Games
• MobiTAS 2019: First International Conference on HCI in Mobility, Transport, and
Automotive Systems
• AIS 2019: First International Conference on Adaptive Instructional Systems
 Pre-conference Proceedings Volumes Full List

1. LNCS 11566, Human-Computer Interaction: Perspectives on Design (Part I),

edited by Masaaki Kurosu
2. LNCS 11567, Human-Computer Interaction: Recognition and Interaction
Technologies (Part II), edited by Masaaki Kurosu
3. LNCS 11568, Human-Computer Interaction: Design Practice in Contemporary
Societies (Part III), edited by Masaaki Kurosu
4. LNCS 11569, Human Interface and the Management of Information: Visual
Information and Knowledge Management (Part I), edited by Sakae Yamamoto and
Hirohiko Mori
5. LNCS 11570, Human Interface and the Management of Information: Information
in Intelligent Systems (Part II), edited by Sakae Yamamoto and Hirohiko Mori
6. LNAI 11571, Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics, edited by Don
Harris
7. LNCS 11572, Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction: Theory, Methods
and Tools (Part I), edited by Margherita Antona and Constantine Stephanidis
8. LNCS 11573, Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction: Multimodality
and Assistive Environments (Part II), edited by Margherita Antona and Constantine
Stephanidis
9. LNCS 11574, Virtual, Augmented and Mixed Reality: Multimodal Interaction
(Part I), edited by Jessie Y. C. Chen and Gino Fragomeni
10. LNCS 11575, Virtual, Augmented and Mixed Reality: Applications and Case
Studies (Part II), edited by Jessie Y. C. Chen and Gino Fragomeni
11. LNCS 11576, Cross-Cultural Design: Methods, Tools and User Experience
(Part I), edited by P. L. Patrick Rau
12. LNCS 11577, Cross-Cultural Design: Culture and Society (Part II), edited by
P. L. Patrick Rau
13. LNCS 11578, Social Computing and Social Media: Design, Human Behavior and
Analytics (Part I), edited by Gabriele Meiselwitz
14. LNCS 11579, Social Computing and Social Media: Communication and Social
Communities (Part II), edited by Gabriele Meiselwitz
15. LNAI 11580, Augmented Cognition, edited by Dylan D. Schmorrow and Cali M.
Fidopiastis
16. LNCS 11581, Digital Human Modeling and Applications in Health, Safety,
Ergonomics and Risk Management: Human Body and Motion (Part I), edited by
Vincent G. Duffy
x Pre-conference Proceedings Volumes Full List

17. LNCS 11582, Digital Human Modeling and Applications in Health, Safety,
Ergonomics and Risk Management: Healthcare Applications (Part II), edited by
Vincent G. Duffy
18. LNCS 11583, Design, User Experience, and Usability: Design Philosophy and
Theory (Part I), edited by Aaron Marcus and Wentao Wang
19. LNCS 11584, Design, User Experience, and Usability: User Experience in
Advanced Technological Environments (Part II), edited by Aaron Marcus and
Wentao Wang
20. LNCS 11585, Design, User Experience, and Usability: Application Domains
(Part III), edited by Aaron Marcus and Wentao Wang
21. LNCS 11586, Design, User Experience, and Usability: Practice and Case Studies
(Part IV), edited by Aaron Marcus and Wentao Wang
22. LNCS 11587, Distributed, Ambient and Pervasive Interactions, edited by Norbert
Streitz and Shin’ichi Konomi
23. LNCS 11588, HCI in Business, Government and Organizations: eCommerce and
Consumer Behavior (Part I), edited by Fiona Fui-Hoon Nah and Keng Siau
24. LNCS 11589, HCI in Business, Government and Organizations: Information
Systems and Analytics (Part II), edited by Fiona Fui-Hoon Nah and Keng Siau
25. LNCS 11590, Learning and Collaboration Technologies: Designing Learning
Experiences (Part I), edited by Panayiotis Zaphiris and Andri Ioannou
26. LNCS 11591, Learning and Collaboration Technologies: Ubiquitous and Virtual
Environments for Learning and Collaboration (Part II), edited by Panayiotis
Zaphiris and Andri Ioannou
27. LNCS 11592, Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population: Design for the
Elderly and Technology Acceptance (Part I), edited by Jia Zhou and Gavriel
Salvendy
28. LNCS 11593, Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population: Social Media, Games
and Assistive Environments (Part II), edited by Jia Zhou and Gavriel Salvendy
29. LNCS 11594, HCI for Cybersecurity, Privacy and Trust, edited by Abbas Moallem
30. LNCS 11595, HCI in Games, edited by Xiaowen Fang
31. LNCS 11596, HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems, edited by
Heidi Krömker
32. LNCS 11597, Adaptive Instructional Systems, edited by Robert Sottilare and
Jessica Schwarz
33. CCIS 1032, HCI International 2019 - Posters (Part I), edited by Constantine
Stephanidis
 Pre-conference Proceedings Volumes Full List xi

34. CCIS 1033, HCI International 2019 - Posters (Part II), edited by Constantine
Stephanidis
35. CCIS 1034, HCI International 2019 - Posters (Part III), edited by Constantine
Stephanidis

http://2019.hci.international/proceedings
 13th International Conference on Augmented
Cognition (AC 2019)

Program Board Chair(s): Dylan D. Schmorrow

and Cali M. Fidopiastis, USA

• Brendan Allison, USA • Julie Marble, USA

• Amy Bolton, USA
• Micah Clark, USA
• Martha Crosby, USA
• Fausto De Carvalho, Portugal
• Daniel Dolgin, USA
• Sven Fuchs, Germany
• Rodolphe Gentili, USA
• Scott S. Grigsby, USA
• Katy Hancock, USA
• Monte Hancock, USA
• Frank Hannigan, USA
• Robert Hubal, USA
• Kurtulus Izzetoglu, USA
• Øyvind Jøsok, Norway
• Ion Juvina, USA
• Benjamin Knott, USA
• Benjamin Knox, Norway
• Chang S. Nam, USA
• Banu Onaral, USA
• Sarah Ostadabbas, USA
• Lesley Perg, USA
• Robinson Pino, USA
• Mannes Poele, The Netherlands
• Lauren Reinerman-Jones, USA
• Stefan Sütterlin, Norway
• Suraj Sood, USA
• Ayoung Suh, Hong Kong, SAR China
• Georgios Triantafyllidis, Denmark
• Christian Wagner, Hong Kong,
SAR China
• Melissa Walwanis, USA
• Quan Wang, USA
• Martin Westhoven, Germany

The full list with the Program Board Chairs and the members of the Program Boards of
all thematic areas and affiliated conferences is available online at:

http://www.hci.international/board-members-2019.php
 HCI International 2020
The 22nd International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, HCI International
2020, will be held jointly with the affiliated conferences in Copenhagen, Denmark, at
the Bella Center Copenhagen, July 19–24, 2020. It will cover a broad spectrum
of themes related to HCI, including theoretical issues, methods, tools, processes, and
case studies in HCI design, as well as novel interaction techniques, interfaces, and
applications. The proceedings will be published by Springer. More information will be
available on the conference website: http://2020.hci.international/

General Chair
Prof. Constantine Stephanidis
University of Crete and ICS-FORTH
Heraklion, Crete, Greece
E-mail: general_chair@hcii2020.org

http://2020.hci.international/
 Contents

Cognitive Modeling, Perception, Emotion and Interaction

Creating Affording Situations with Animate Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Chris Baber, Sara Al-Tunaib, and Ahmed Khattab

FUNii: The Physio-Behavioural Adaptive Video Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Alexis Fortin-Côté, Nicolas Beaudoin-Gagnon, Cindy Chamberland,
Frédéric Desbiens, Ludovic Lefebvre, Jérémy Bergeron,
Alexandre Campeau-Lecours, Sébastien Tremblay,
and Philip L. Jackson

Deriving Features for Designing Ambient Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Kota Gushima, Shuma Toyama, Yukiko Kinoshita, and Tatsuo Nakajima

Cognitive Dissonance in a Multi-mind Automated Decision System . . . . . . . 41

Monte Hancock, Antoinette Hadgis, Katy Hancock, Benjamin Bowles,
Payton Brown, and Tyler Higgins

A Hierarchical Characterization of Knowledge for Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Monte Hancock, Jared Stiers, Tyler Higgins, Fiona Swarr,
Michael Shrider, and Suraj Sood

A Study on the Development of the Psychological Assessment a Using

Eye-Tracking: Focused on Eye Gaze Processing of Literacy Text . . . . . . . . . 74
Joon Hyun Jeon, Gyoung Kim, and Jeong Ae Kim

Impedances of Memorable Passphrase Design on Augmented Cognition . . . . 84

Lila A. Loos, Michael-Brian Ogawa, and Martha E. Crosby

Tokens of Interaction: Psychophysiological Signals, a Potential Source

of Evidence of Digital Incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Nancy Mogire, Randall K. Minas, and Martha E. Crosby

The Artificial Facilitator: Guiding Participants in Developing Causal

Maps Using Voice-Activated Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Thrishma Reddy, Philippe J. Giabbanelli, and Vijay K. Mago

Human Cognition and Behavior in Complex Tasks and Environments

Augmented Cognition for Socio-Technical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Scott David and Barbara Endicott-Popovsky
xviii Contents

Using Eye Tracking to Assess the Navigation Efficacy of a Medical

Proxy Decision Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Soussan Djamasbi, Bengisu Tulu, Javad Norouzi Nia, Andrew Aberdale,
Christopher Lee, and Susanne Muehlschlegel

Considerations for Human-Machine Teaming in Cybersecurity . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Steven R. Gomez, Vincent Mancuso, and Diane Staheli

Do We Need “Teaming” to Team with a Machine? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Craig Haimson, Celeste Lyn Paul, Sarah Joseph, Randall Rohrer,
and Bohdan Nebesh

Automating Crime Informatics to Inform Public Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Katy Hancock and Monte Hancock

Visualizing Parameter Spaces of Deep-Learning Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Monte Hancock, Antoinette Hadgis, Benjamin Bowles, Payton Brown,
Alexis Wahlid Ahmed, Tyler Higgins, and Nikki Bernobic

Geometrically Intuitive Rendering of High-Dimensional Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Monte Hancock, Kristy Sproul, Jared Stiers, Benjamin Bowles,
Fiona Swarr, Jason Privette, Michael Shrider, and Antoinette Hadgis

Enacting Virtual Reality: The Philosophy and Cognitive Science

of Optimal Virtual Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Garri Hovhannisyan, Anna Henson, and Suraj Sood

The Impact of Game Peripherals on the Gamer Experience

and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Xiaobo Ke and Christian Wagner

Biomimicry and Machine Learning in the Context

of Healthcare Digitization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Corinne Lee, Suraj Sood, Monte Hancock, Tyler Higgins, Kristy Sproul,
Antoinette Hadgis, and Stefan Joe-Yen

Facilitating Cluster Counting in Multi-dimensional Feature Space

by Intermediate Information Grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Chloe Chun-wing Lo, Jishnu Chowdhury, Markus Hollander,
Alexis-Walid Ahmed, Suraj Sood, Kristy Sproul, and Antoinette Hadgis

Training to Instill a Cyber-Aware Mindset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Kelly Neville, Larry Flint, Lauren Massey, Alex Nickels, Jose Medina,
and Amy Bolton
 Contents xix

Demonstrably Safe Self-replicating Manufacturing Systems: Banishing

the Halting Problem—Organizational and Finite State Machine
Control Paradigms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Eli M. Rabani and Lesley A. Perg

Usability Inspection of a Mobile Clinical Decision Support App

and a Short Form Heuristic Evaluation Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Blaine Reeder, Cynthia Drake, Mustafa Ozkaynak, Wallace Jones,
David Mack, Alexandria David, Raven Starr, Barbara Trautner,
and Heidi L. Wald

Holarchic Psychoinformatics: A Mathematical Ontology for General

and Psychological Realities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Suraj Sood, Corinne Lee, Garri Hovhannisyan, Shannon Lee,
Garrett Rozier, Antoinette Hadgis, Kristy Sproul, Tyler Higgins,
Anna Henson, Michael Shrider, and Monte Hancock

Computing with Words — A Framework for Human-Computer Interaction . . . 356

Dan Tamir, Shai Neumann, Naphtali Rishe, Abe Kandel,
and Lotfi Zadeh

Brain-Computer Interfaces and Electroencephalography

Assessing Correlation Between Virtual Reality Based Serious Gaming

Performance and Cognitive Workload Changes via Functional Near
Infrared Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Emin Aksoy, Kurtulus Izzetoglu, Banu Onaral, Dilek Kitapcioglu,
Mehmet Erhan Sayali, and Feray Guven

Construction of Air Traffic Controller’s Decision Network Using

Error-Related Potential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Sim Kuan Goh, Ngoc Phu Tran, Duc-Thinh Pham, Sameer Alam,
Kurtulus Izzetoglu, and Vu Duong

UAS Operator Workload Assessment During Search and Surveillance

Tasks Through Simulated Fluctuations in Environmental Visibility . . . . . . . . 394
Jaime Kerr, Pratusha Reddy, Shahar Kosti, and Kurtulus Izzetoglu

Processing Racial Stereotypes in Virtual Reality: An Exploratory Study

Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Gyoung Kim, Noah Buntain, Leanne Hirshfield, Mark R. Costa,
and T. Makana Chock

An Enactive Perspective on Emotion: A Case Study

on Monitoring Brainwaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Vanessa Regina Margareth Lima Maike and M. Cecília C. Baranauskas
xx Contents

An Immersive Brain Painting: The Effects of Brain Painting

in a Virtual Reality Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Willie McClinton, Sarah Garcia, and Marvin Andujar

Predicting Java Computer Programming Task Difficulty Levels Using EEG

for Educational Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Ramaswamy Palaniappan, Aruna Duraisingam, Nithyakalyani Chinnaiah,
and Murugappan Murugappan

Towards Hybrid Multimodal Brain Computer Interface for Robotic

Arm Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Cristian-Cezar Postelnicu, Florin Girbacia, Gheorghe-Daniel Voinea,
and Razvan Boboc

Interpolation, a Model for Sound Representation Based on BCI . . . . . . . . . . 471

Hector Fabio Torres-Cardona, Catalina Aguirre-Grisales,
Victor Hugo Castro-Londoño, and Jose Luis Rodriguez-Sotelo

Wavelet Packet Entropy Analysis of Resting State Electroencephalogram

in Sleep Deprived Mental Fatigue State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Yanjing Wang, Zhongqi Liu, Qianxiang Zhou, and Xuewei Chen

Augmented Learning

Holographic and Related Technologies for Medical Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . 497

Christine Allen, Sasha Willis, Claudia Hernandez, Andrew Wismer,
Brian Goldiez, Grace Teo, Lauren Reinerman-Jones, Mark Mazzeo,
and Matthew Hackett

Nature Inspired Scenes for Guided Mindfulness Training: Presence,

Perceived Restorativeness and Meditation Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Mark R. Costa, Dessa Bergen-Cico, Trevor Grant, Rocio Herrero,
Jessica Navarro, Rachel Razza, and Qiu Wang

Calculating Cognitive Augmentation – A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

Ron Fulbright

Designing an Interactive Device to Slow Progression

of Alzheimer’s Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Ting-Ya Huang, Hsi-Jen Chen, and Fong-Gong Wu

Cognitive Profiles and Education of Female Cyber Defence Operators . . . . . . 563

Ricardo G. Lugo, Andrea Firth-Clark, Benjamin J. Knox,
Øyvind Jøsok, Kirsi Helkala, and Stefan Sütterlin
 Contents xxi

Self-control Strategies: Interpreting and Enhancing Augmented

Cognition from a Self-regulatory Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Mina Milosevic, Nicholas A. Moon, Michael W. McFerran,
Sherif al-Qallawi, Lida P. Ponce, Chris Juszczyk,
and Patrick D. Converse

Guided Mindfulness: New Frontier to Augmented Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586

Nisha Quraishi, Nicholas A. Moon, Katherine Rau, Lida P. Ponce,
Mina Milosevic, Katrina Merlini, and Richard L. Griffith

Reading Behavior and Comprehension of C++ Source Code -

A Classroom Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Jonathan A. Saddler, Cole S. Peterson, Patrick Peachock,
and Bonita Sharif

Self-regulated Learning and Expertise: Dual Cognitive Processes . . . . . . . . . 617

Webb Stacy, Jeffrey M. Beaubien, and Tara Brown

Clarifying Cognitive Flexibility from a Self-regulatory Perspective . . . . . . . . 631

Melissa M. Walwanis and Shelby-Jo Ponto

Enhancing Simulated Students with Models of Self-regulated Learning . . . . . 644

Robert E. Wray

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655

Cognitive Modeling, Perception,
Emotion and Interaction
 Creating Affording Situations
with Animate Objects

Chris Baber(&) , Sara Al-Tunaib, and Ahmed Khattab

University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

c.baber@bham.ac.uk

Abstract. In this paper, we report the design, development and initial evalu-
ation of the concept of animate objects (as a form of Tangible User Interface,
TUI) to support the cueing of action sequences. Animate objects support user
actions through the provision of affordances, and developments in actuator
technologies allow those devices to change their physical form. Each object
communicates (in a small-scale ‘Internet of Things’) to cue other objects to act,
and these, in turn, provide cues to the user. The set of cues creates affording
situations which can be understood in terms of Forms of Engagement. A user
trial was conducted in which participants had to either perform a simulated tea-
making task or search for letters hidden under objects to spell words. The first
task involved a familiar sequence (and we also included an unfamiliar
sequence), and the second task involved either real or false words. We show
that, when cues provided by the objects correspond to a ‘logical’ task sequence
(i.e., familiar and/or easily interpretable), they aid performance and when these
cues relate to ‘illogical’ task sequences, performance is impaired. We explain
these results in terms of forms of engagement and suggest applications for
rehabilitation.

Keywords: Tangible User Interface
Animate objects
Affordance

1 Introduction

1.1 Tangible User Interfaces

Tangible User Interfaces (TUIs) employ physical objects to collect data from, or dis-
play information to, users [1–3]. With the decreasing cost of sensors, actuators and
processors, and access to 3D printing, it is easy to design and build all manner of things
that have the appearance of familiar objects combined with the capability to sense and
respond to user activity, and communicate with other objects. The networking of
objects, the recognition of user activity and prediction of user intent, and the use of
intent prediction to cue specific actions create new challenges for Ergonomics. In a
previous paper, we described the underlying concepts relating to activity and intent,
and the use of the Blynk protocol for managing networked communications between
smart objects [4]. We also, in that paper, reported development of an initial set of
objects and conducted a user trial which showed that, when the handle on a jug rose

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

D. D. Schmorrow and C. M. Fidopiastis (Eds.): HCII 2019, LNAI 11580, pp. 3–13, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22419-6_1
4 C. Baber et al.

automatically, most (22/23 participants in the trial) people would use the hand adjacent
to the handle to pick it up rather than their dominant hand – even if, during interview
after the experiment, they did not notice that they had done this. We believe that this
finding implied that their behaviour was influenced by that of the object, and that the
influence could well be occurring at a pre-conscious level. Encouraged by this, we have
developed more objects and an experimental protocol that allows us to explore such
interactions.
In this paper, familiar objects are fitted with sensors (to support ‘awareness and
monitoring’) and with actuators and other means of display to provide cues to a user.
Of particular interest are questions relating to the interpretation of an appropriate action
in response to the cues presented by the object. So, if one is performing a familiar task,
will the cues be irritating or distracting? If the cues are erroneous (in that they cue a
sequence that is different to the one that you intended), will you continue to respond to
the cues? In order to hypothesize why users might either ignore cues or respond
erroneously, we propose that the interactions between users and smart objects can be
considered in terms of affording situations.

1.2 Affording Situations

Gibson [5] introduced the term affordance into psychology, suggesting that we perceive
the world in terms of opportunities for action. What an object affords is determined by
the physical properties of the objects (e.g., shape, orientation, size), by the action
capabilities of the agent, and by the intention that the use of this object will support.
This means that ‘affordance’ cannot simply be a property of an object (so it does not
make sense to simply state that a ‘cup affords drinking’). Rather, one needs to be situate
the use of the object in the context of an ongoing goal-driven activity being performed
by an individual with sufficient ability to use that object to achieve that goal. Thus, an
affordance is the relationship between an individual’s ability to act and the opportu-
nities provided to that person in the given situation in pursuit of a given goal. That is, a
cup of particular dimensions can be grasped by a person with particular physical
abilities (e.g., hand size, motor skills etc.) in the context of performing a task with a
particular goal: a person laying the table will pick up the cup differently than a person
who intends to drink from it; picking up a cup that is full to the brim will be different
from picking up a half empty cup. These simple observations lead to the proposal that
affordance emerges from the interactions between person and object in a given envi-
ronment and in pursuit of a given goal and this relationship is captured by the idea of
Forms of Engagement, illustrated by Fig. 1 and developed in [6–8].
In Fig. 1, interaction (between person and object) involves several Forms of
Engagement. Responding to the specific features of an object in an environment in
order to perform an action defines the ‘affordance’ (indicated by a dotted line around
Environmental and Motor Engagement). This results in a change of state of the object,
which the person attends to through Perceptual Engagement (i.e., interpreting visual,
tactile, kinaesthetic, auditory etc. information as feedback from the performance of an
action). So, this proposes two forms of perception by the person: in environmental
 Creating Affording Situations with Animate Objects 5

engagement the person responds to features of the object that can support actions (i.e.,
perception-action coupling) and in perceptual engagement, the person responds to the
changing state of the object (and environment) as an action is performed. As the object
(and environment) change, so this can produce new opportunities for environmental
engagement. In order to act on an object, there is a need to respond to the ‘information’
(in a Gibsonian sense) that it conveys. In other words, people are able to ‘see’ aspects
of the object, or the environment, in terms of an action that they want, and are able, to
perform in pursuit of a goal. We further separate Motor Engagement (the ability to
perform an action) from Morphological Engagement, the disposition of the person,
e.g., in terms of the size of the hand. We have a two-way link between these because
hand shaping will be influenced by subsequent actions.

Fig. 1. Forms of engagement [9]

The role of Cognitive Engagement, in this description, is two-fold. First, it provides

high-level management on ongoing actions (checking for lapses, slips, mistakes etc.)
and second, to manage the actions in terms of an overarching goal (e.g., in terms of the
Anticipative Actions of the Adaptive Control Model). Of particular interest to this
paper, is the extent to which these goals might not be fully-defined prior to performing
an action but might evolve in response to the opportunities presented by the objects.
6 C. Baber et al.

Finally, the notion of an ‘acceptable’ goal (or ‘acceptable’ actions to perform on

objects) could relate to the culture in which one is acting and is characterized as
Cultural Engagement.

1.3 Specifying Animate Objects

Having proposed that interaction comprises Forms of Engagement, one can relate these
to the possible inferences that animate objects could make (about user intention) as they
are being interacted with. At the most basic level, sensors on the object could provide
data to characterize the motion, orientation, position, etc. of the object. These data
would define the motor engagement with which the person was interacting with the
object. The object, assuming that it can modify its appearance, could encourage
Environmental Engagement through changes that emphasize specific features. So,
when a handle rises on the side of a cup, people are more likely to use the hand on that
side of the cup to pick it up [9]. Thus, the action that is selected in anticipation of motor
engagement, could be cued by the appearance of the object, and the morphological
engagement that is necessary for the action would correspond to the physical
appearance of the object. Having some knowledge of where the object is being used
could also influence the definition of appropriate actions, through Cultural Engage-
ment, e.g., one might anticipate that drinking from a tea cup in the Savoy Hotel is not
identical to drinking from a tea cup in one’s kitchen at home. Combining inferences
drawn from Motor and Morphological Engagement, the object could infer the most
likely goal of the person, and use this inference to provide additional cues and guidance
of action [10]. A mapping of Forms of Engagement to the cues provided by animate
objects in shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Mapping of forms of engagement to cues from animate objects.

Form of engagement Cues
Environmental Spatial layout of objects; form of objects
Morphological Grasp permitted by object
Motor Manipulation supported by object
Perceptual State and appearance of object
Cognitive Intention (of user or ‘system’)
Cultural Conventions governing object manipulation

Let us assume that the Animate Object looks like something familiar which has
been fitted with sensors [9]. For example, Fig. 2 shows a jug with its sensor unit
(developed for the CogWatch project1).

1
https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/impact/original/cogwatch.aspx.
 Creating Affording Situations with Animate Objects 7

Fig. 2. Jug and sensor unit

On the one hand, a jug is an object that we ‘know’ how to use, but on the other
hand, this is an alien object that is capable to doing things that we do not, necessarily,
fully understand. The jug could, for example, be part of a system that monitors our
daily cream intake and the system could have a ‘intention’ of ensuring that we drink a
specified quantity of liquid, or it might be part of a system that has the ‘intention’ of
reducing our caffeine intake (using the pouring of cream as a proxy for drinking
coffee). One way in which such ‘intentions’ could be communicated to the user would
via the objects themselves (through lights, sounds, movement etc.), providing feedback
and cues to the person. In this way, the form of the objects could display their function
and we can create ‘affording situations’ in which the appropriate action is cued by the
objects that the person needs to use.
Relating this to Forms of Engagement and the cues provided by Animate Objects,
we could suggest that the motion of an object (part or whole) would be compatible with
a movement to be made by the person, e.g., if the handle on the object moved, then one
might expect the person to move their hand to that handle. Alternatively, a light on the
object turned on (or the object made a noise), one would expect the person’s attention
to turn to that object. From this, Cue Compatibility draws on environmental and
perceptual Forms of Engagement, and can influence Morphological and Motor
Engagement. Cognitive Engagement relates to selecting which action to perform, and
Cultural Engagement constrains selection of action in terms of ‘normal’ behavior. From
this one can propose a set of tasks that reflect the relationship between the Task that the
person ought to perform and the State of the Object (Table 2).
8 C. Baber et al.

Table 2. Mapping user action to object state

Action State (object after Pre-condition (object prior to action)
action)
Pick Raised Jug.Lowered = true ^ Jug.Handle = up ^ Jug.LED = on ^
up Jug.Audio = ‘pick_me_up’
Put Lowered Jug.Raised = true
down
Move Location changed Jug.Raised = true
Pour Object tilted Jug.Raised = true ^ Jug.Location(proximal.cup) = true

1.4 Constructing Animate Objects

The objects used in this study were designed and 3D printed to look like familiar,
everyday objects, e.g., mugs, jugs, kettle, drawer handle, spoon handle. They were
designed to incorporate electronics, i.e., sensors, a microprocessor (Arduino), Wi-Fi
communications. Communications were managed using the Blynk Bridge Application,
which allowed each object to communicate on a network and also allowed an Apple
iPhone to be used to send commands to each object and log their status. Figure 3 shows
some of the objects used in this study. Each object is powered by a rechargeable power
pack and all objects have multi-colour Light Emitting Diode (LED) strips. Commands
(from the iPhone or from other objects via the Blynk Bridge network) can turn the
LEDs on or off, or change the colour of LED on the objects. Some objects had small
motors that could vibrate the object (e.g., the spoon) or lower and raise the handles
(e.g., jug, kettle), and small audio chip to replay recorded voice messages.

Fig. 3. Animate objects arranged for the ‘tea-making’ task

 Creating Affording Situations with Animate Objects 9

2 User Trial

The aim of the user trial was to explore the interaction between cues offered by
Animate Objects and actions provided by users. A basic question was whether cueing
from Animate Objects could over-ride participants’ expectations of familiar tasks. So,
participants were asked to perform two tasks. That is, whether the top-down control of
action implied by cognitive engagement could be over-ridden by environmental
engagement. In the first task (‘simulated tea-making’) we assumed that participants
would have a well-learned ‘script’ that defined a sequence of tasks. In this case, the
cues from the Objects should have little impact (other than, perhaps, slowing the
participants as the waited for the next cue). Conversely, if the Objects cued a sequence
that was unfamiliar or illogical, participants would be likely to ignore the cues and rely
on their prior knowledge. In a second task (‘letter finding’), participants could not rely
on prior knowledge. In this case, individual letters were hidden under the Objects and
participants had to lift each Object to find the letter in order to spell a 3-letter word. In
this case, good performance would involve lifting only correct Objects.

2.1 Participants
Twenty participants (Female = 7, Male = 13, age = 26±, 3.2 years) were recruited
from Undergraduate students in the School of Electronic, Electrical and Systems
Engineering. None of those recruited had any previous experience interacting with the
previous project.

2.2 Procedure
The design of evaluation trials was approved by the School of Engineering, University
of Birmingham ethics committee and followed the Declaration of Helsinki. Once they
had signed an informed consent form, each participant was shown a printed copy of
instructions, to be read prior to commencing their experiments. The instructions were
removed from the participants after they had been read and understood. This was done
to create a situation to resemble natural interaction with objects.
Three restrictions were imposed on the participants:
1. There was an upper time limit of one minute
2. Only the use of one hand was permitted.
3. Participants were asked to imagine there was water in the jugs in the tea making
task.
Two sets of tasks were used. The first set relied on participants being able to define a
goal and use this to complete a familiar task sequence. We used simulated tea-making, in
which participants acted out the tasks involved in making tea. In the second set, we
required participants to learn an unfamiliar sequence. In this case, letters were hidden
under each object and participants had to lift the object to find the letters and then spell
out a 3-letter word. In this condition, one sequence of cues resulted in the real word
‘TIN’ and another sequence resulted in the false word ‘TEI’. The order in which par-
ticipants performed these conditions were counter-balanced to minimise learning effects.
10 C. Baber et al.

Prior to each task, participants placed both hands on the table in front of the
Objects. In the no cue condition (for ‘simulated tea making’), participants were asked
to interact with the Objects as if they were making a cup of tea. In the cue conditions
(for both tasks), Object states were controlled by the Experimenter according to a
defined script. This allowed motor, audio and LEDs to be turned on or off, so that the
State of the Objects changed to provide cues to the participants. The Dependent
Variable in the experiment was Total Task Time, which began when one or both hands
were lifted and ended when the participant declared that the task was complete.

2.3 Results
The corpus of data is collected from 320 trials, together with 10.5 h of video (which
was analyzed for timing of actions; 2 analysts viewed the video and agreed (r = 0.92)
on timings), and 40 feedback forms completed by participants. The results are orga-
nized by the dependent variables: total time taken and recall of LED colors.
As there were three conditions in which tea-making was performed, a one-way
Analysis of Variance (no cues x familiar x unfamiliar) was run. This showed a sig-
nificant main effect [F (2, 59) = 8.79, p = 0.0005]. Subsequent pairwise comparison,
using paired t-tests, showed a difference between no cues and familiar [t(19) = 2.23,
p < 0.05], between no cues and unfamiliar [t(19) = 3.6, p < 0.005], and between and
familiar and unfamiliar [t(19) = 5.8, p < 0.0001]. This is illustrated by Fig. 4.

0.40
0.35
Total Task Time (m)

0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
no cues familiar unfamiliar
CondiƟons

Fig. 4. Average time to complete tea-making tasks

For the spelling task, there were two conditions (real word and false word).
A paired t-test showed a significant difference [t(19) = 2.65, p = 0.05]. This is illus-
trated by Fig. 5.
 Creating Affording Situations with Animate Objects 11

0.35

Total Task Time (m)

0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
real word false word
CondiƟon

Fig. 5. Average time to complete ‘spelling’ task

3 Discussion

As might be expected, participants took longer to complete the tea-making task when
they were prompted to follow an unfamiliar sequence. More interestingly, participants
were faster when they were prompted (in the tea-making task) than when there were no
cues. This suggests that, even with familiar task sequences, the provision of cues could
be beneficial (at least, in terms of task completion time). For the ‘spelling’ task,
performance on the ‘real word’ was faster than on the ‘false word’ – as if participants
were trying to align the sequence with a goal but struggling to determine what this
might be.
From observation, and discussion with participants during debrief, the use of cues
in the unfamiliar tea-making sequence or for the false word task caused participants to
interrupt the task sequence or led to them becoming confused. They might, for
example, ask for clarification, e.g., ‘is it meant to do that?’ before continuing with the
task. Thus, in the tea-making task, the vibrating spoon was a distraction from the
intended sequence but led to a pause while the participant noticed it and then decided
whether or not to respond.

3.1 Cues for Action

The cues that were employed in the experiment (audio, LED, moving parts) were
attended to and commented upon by participants. Whether or not the cues were
responded to depended on when the cues occurred and how the participant would
incorporate this into the task sequence that was being followed. If the cue accorded
with a logical sequence, it was followed, but if not then it was questioned (or, at least,
responded to more slowly).
In the ‘spelling’ task (in which there might not be so clear a script to define the
logical sequence), the cues were more likely to be followed. However, even in this task,
participants would seek to make sense of what sequence the cues were guiding them
12 C. Baber et al.

towards. Further, the LEDs were not the only source of information used. Several
participants mentioned that the position of objects (for the ‘spelling’ task) was felt to be
important (even though the position of the objects was randomized across trials and so
did not provide such information). We infer from this that the association of LED to
object to letter was not made as consistently as we had expected, particularly if par-
ticipants regarded the task as one of managing the spatial arrangement of objects. On
reflection, if the only reliable source of information available is spatial arrangement
(because they are not certain what the LEDs are telling them), then this strategy makes
some sense.

3.2 Forms of Engagement

The role of animate objects in user activity varied across the different tasks. Thus, it is
incorrect to assume that the cues would always provoke a response, but equally wrong
to assume that these are over-ridden by prior knowledge. More interestingly, it appears
that the cues were more beneficial when they support a logical (or familiar) sequence of
tasks, and exacerbated confusion on illogical (or unfamiliar) sequences. According to
the notion of Forms of Engagement, environmental engagement (in terms of the state of
the object) can guide a sequence of actions, with perceptual engagement (as a way of
interpreting the state of objects) being mediated by cognitive engagement (as a way of
defining a logical sequence) but only when the sequence begins to feel wrong.

3.3 Affording Situations

The notion of ‘affording situations’ is intended to highlight the importance of context in
understanding affordance; it is not simply a matter of saying a ‘jug affords lifting or
pouring’. While these actions are, of course, possible with a jug, in order to know that
this particular jug could be lifted or poured at this moment in time, one needs to know
the capabilities of the users. Furthermore, in order to know whether either lifting or
pouring is appropriate, one also needs to know the intention of the person (or the
intention that is plausible for the predicted task sequence). Our aim is to develop
technologies that can recognize and interpret contextual factors (based on the analysis
of data defining the Forms of Engagement) and use these to discern the plausibility of
actions in a given sequence. We can then adapt the animate objects to encourage (or
discourage) specific actions.

3.4 Implications for Medical Aids

While the focus of this paper has been on the design and testing of animate objects, it is
clear that there could be scope for exploring this concept in the medical domain.
Connecting smart objects into a ‘rehabilitation internet of things’ [11] could offer
benefit for monitoring patient activity. Having such objects present cues to guide users
can encourage patients to develop or practice actions, particularly if the cues are
auditory [12]. Prior work, in the CogWatch project, suggests that adapting familiar
objects can reduce anxiety in stroke patients undergoing rehabilitation and also that this
can help recall of previously known sequences (lost as a result of stroke). It is a moot
 Creating Affording Situations with Animate Objects 13

point as to whether the type of animate object developed in this project (in which
moving parts are intended to cue specific morphological and motor engagement) will
prove beneficial for rehabilitation and this is a matter for future research.

3.5 Conclusions
In this paper, we continue our exploration of the ways in which everyday objects can be
modified to become animate, and consider how such objects can encourage specific
user actions. We demonstrate that people will respond to cues if these correspond to
their expectation and understanding of the task. This suggests that the response is
mediated by expectation and interpretation. However, relating this mediation to the
notion of forms of engagement, we propose that this implies different levels of control.
That is, ‘affordance’ is not simply a matter of responding to the opportunity to act, but
is contextualized in terms of the definition of the context. When the context is clear,
there appears to be seamless combination of cue response and user activity, such that
the cues actually speed-up performance. When the context is unclear or ambiguous
(i.e., a cue that is not related to the task being performed, or an outcome that is not
clearly understood), response to the cues could be helpful but people expend cognitive
effort in making sense of these.

References
1. Hornecker, E., Buur, J.: Getting a grip on tangible interaction: A framework on physical
space and social interaction. In: CHI 2006, pp. 437–446. ACM, New York (2006)
2. Ishii, H., Ullmer, B.: Tangible bits: towards seamless interfaces between people, bits and
atoms. In: CHI 1997, pp. 234–241. ACM, New York (1997)
3. Ishii, H.: The tangible user interface and its evolution. Commun. ACM 51, 32–36 (2008)
4. Baber, C., Khattab, A., Hermsdörfer, J., Wing, A., Russell, M.: Coaching through smart
objects. In: Proceedings of the 11th ACM/EAI International Conference on Pervasive
Computing Technologies for Healthcare, pp. 298–306 (2017)
5. Gibson, J.J.: The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Houghton Mifflin, Boston
(1986)
6. Baber, C.: Cognition and Tool Use. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2003)
7. Baber, C.: Cognitive aspects of tool use. Appl. Ergon. 37, 3–15 (2006)
8. Baber, C.: Designing smart objects to support affording situations. Front. Psychol. 9, 292–
302 (2018)
9. Baber, C., Khattab, A., Russell, M., Hermsdörfer, J., Wing, A.: Creating affording situations:
coaching through animate objects. Sensors 17, 2308 (2017)
10. Jean-Baptiste, E.M., et al.: Intelligent assistive system using real-time action recognition for
stroke survivors. In: 2014 IEEE International Conference on Healthcare Informatics (ICHI),
pp. 39–44, September 2014
11. Dobkin, B.H.: A rehabilitation internet of things in the home to augment motor skills and
exercise training. Neurorehabilitation Neural Repair 31, 217–227 (2016)
12. Bienkiewicz, M.N., Gulde, P., Schlegel, A., Hermsdorfer, J.: The use of ecological sounds in
facilitation of tool use in apraxia. In: 2nd International Conference on Neurorehabilitation
(ICR 2014) (2014)
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 CHAPTER XIV
THE GROWTH OF CIVILIZATION: OLD WORLD
PREHISTORY AND ARCHÆOLOGY

211. Sources of knowledge.—212. Chronology of the grand divisions of

culture history.—213. The Lower and Upper Palæolithic.—214. Race
influence and regional differentiation in the Lower Palæolithic.—215.
Upper Palæolithic culture growths and races.—216. The Palæolithic
aftermath: Azilian.—217. The Neolithic: its early phase.—218. Pottery
and the bow.—219. Bone tools.—220. The dog.—221. The hewn ax.
—222. The Full Neolithic.—223. Origin of domesticated animals and
plants.—224. Other traits of the Full Neolithic.—225. The Bronze Age:
Copper and Bronze phases.—226. Traits associated with bronze.—
227. Iron.—228. First use and spread of iron.—229. The Hallstadt and
La Tène Periods.—230. Summary of development: Regional
differentiation.—231. The Scandinavian area as an example.—232.
The late Palæolithic Ancylus or Maglemose Period.—233. The Early
Neolithic Litorina or Kitchenmidden Period.—234. The Full Neolithic
and its subdivisions in Scandinavia.—235. The Bronze Age and its
periods in Scandinavia.—236. Problems of chronology.—237.
Principles of the prehistoric spread of culture.

211. Sources of Knowledge

The story of the growth and development of culture in the Western
Hemisphere which has been sketched in reconstruction in the last
chapter is built up from the incomplete information of excavations
and the indirect evidence of culture trait distributions and analyses.
Earlier than about ten thousand years ago, this hemisphere has no
known human history. In the Old World, conditions are doubly
different. There is a long primeval record, stretching perhaps a
hundred thousand years beyond 8000 B.C., documented much like
the subsequent culture history of America, but with a wealth of
geological, faunal, and skeletal data to compensate for the loss of
ancient cultural evidences in the lapse of time. Secondly, for the last
ten thousand years, there is a fuller record than for America. This
greater fullness is partly due to the earlier start toward its higher
forms which civilization took in the Eastern Hemisphere. And this
relatively early advancement brought it about that by 3000 B.C.
adequate systems of writing had been achieved in Africa and Asia,
so that contemporary inscriptions have been preserved to throw
direct light on the thoughts and institutions of the people of that day,
and to date the centuries of their rulers for us. These last five
thousand years thus belong to history, rather than to prehistory, in
some parts of the hemisphere; and they allow many a close
inference as to what happened in the previous five thousand years
when writing was as yet unknown or its first systems were being
evolved.
These ten thousand years since the close of the Old Stone Age,
half of them studied by the methods of anthropology, half also by
those of history, and the whole forming the richest field in human
culture history, are the subjects of the present chapter and the next.
First, however, it is necessary to refer back to the earliest known
development of civilization in the Old Stone Age (Chapter VI), whose
close is our present starting point.

212. Chronology of the Grand Divisions of

Culture History
The period of human existence since the first tool was made is
generally divided into four grand divisions (§ 66, 67): the Palæolithic
or Old Stone Age; the Neolithic or New Stone Age; the Bronze Age;
and the Iron Age. The duration of these four ages is diverse and
notably diminishing from earliest to latest. The last three are
comprised within the past ten thousand years: 8000 B.C. may be
looked upon as a reasonably accurate date for the commencement
of the Neolithic. For western Europe, at least, the probable error of
this date is not over one or at most two thousand years. Back of this
approximately fixed point stretches the immeasurably longer
Palæolithic, for the determination of whose duration there is
available not even any semi-historical evidence, and which can only
be estimated in terms of geological alterations, continental
glaciations, and faunal and floral changes—all unsatisfactory means
for arriving at an absolute chronology expressible in years.
To a vague 100,000 B.C. as the tentative figure for the beginning
of the Palæolithic, and an approximate 8000 B.C. for the
commencement of the Neolithic, there can be added 3000 B.C. for
the onset of the Bronze and 1000 B.C. of the Iron Age. The last two
dates are averages only. The Greek islands, for instance, received
bronze about this period, the Orient had it earlier, western Europe
not until about 2500 B.C., northern Europe still later. In the same
way, iron is well attested for western Asia in the thirteenth century
before Christ, for Central Europe and France about 900 B.C., in
Scandinavia some centuries later, in fact becoming abundant only
shortly before the Roman period.
In the wide sense, the outstanding generalizations derivable from
these figures are twofold. As regards the later periods, those of
metal and probably the Neolithic, the west lagged behind the east,
the north behind the south; Asia preceded and invented, Europe
followed and imitated. As regards the entire duration, a tremendous
disproportion is observable. The vast bulk of the total time of culture
is covered by the Palæolithic: the three following Ages are all
squeezed into a tenth of the whole. Within this fraction again the
Neolithic takes up half, leaving the two metal Ages to divide the other
half between them. There is a clear tendency toward acceleration of
development.

213. The Lower and Upper Palæolithic

Within the Old Stone Age, a primary division is to be made
between the Lower and Upper Palæolithic. The Lower Palæolithic
comprises the Chellean, Acheulean, and Mousterian periods, when
Europe was inhabited by Neandertal man, who was distinct from the
modern human species, and possibly by a pre-Neandertal race not
yet discovered. The Upper Palæolithic, or Reindeer Age, consists of
the Aurignacian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian, with the Azilian as
epilogue. Through these Upper Palæolithic periods long-headed
branches of Homo sapiens—ourselves—existed: the Cro-Magnon,
Grimaldi, and Brünn types, some of them foreshadowing the existing
Caucasian and Negroid races (§ 14, 16-18). The longest step
forward in the development of European Palæolithic civilization
comes in the passage from its Lower to its Upper phase. Before this
transition, new achievements were rare and their total small. The use
of fire, of flint cores and flakes, of fracturing and retouching, possibly
the use of wooden handles, a minimal employment of bone, and a
definite disposal of the dead, about sum up known human
attainments to the end of the Lower Palæolithic (§ 81).
Compared with this stock of culture, that of the Upper Palæolithic
is elaborate. Bone awls and weapon points; shell necklaces and
armlets; clothing; painting of the dead; sculpture and engraving—a
greater number of elements than the Lower Palæolithic had been
able to accumulate in perhaps 75,000 years—appear in the
Aurignacian. The foundations of the whole of the Upper Palæolithic
civilization were laid in this period. That the Solutrean added needles
and surface retouching of flint, the Magdalenian a more vigorous
development of pictorial line and use of colors, lamps, harpoons, and
spear throwers, represented in the main only an enriching of the
general Upper Palæolithic culture, whose essentials were
determined at the outset.[32]

214. Race Influence and Regional

Differentiation in the Lower Palæolithic
This profound change raises a natural conjecture. The Lower
Palæolithic culture, at least in its latest form, was carried by
Neandertal man; Upper Palæolithic culture is in great part associated
with Cro-Magnon man, whose anatomy was nearer our own. Did not
this relatively modern structure involve also a relatively modern set
of mental faculties, and these in turn, by their own sheer worth,
produce the richer culture? The supposition is plausible enough, and
has been made. But it is sounder procedure to withhold commitment
of opinion. The inference involves the assumption that approach to
our own bodily type is accompanied by higher native intelligence;
and the further assumption that higher intelligence will automatically
produce advance in civilization. Probable as both these assumptions
may seem, they are still undemonstrated, in general and in
particular. The application of the assumptions to the facts therefore
gives an apparent explanation in terms of an ultimate but really
unknown causality. By accepting this hypothetical causality, it turns
attention away from the question of its validity. But the validity of the
causal relation between the body and intelligence, and between
intelligence and culture, is precisely a point that needs elucidation. It
needs elucidation as much as does the change of civilization that
occurred in Europe about 25,000 years ago; and is a much broader
problem—indeed, part of the most fundamental problem that
anthropology still faces as unsolved. Instead of a snapping
interpretation of a dubious point in human history in terms of a
couple of still more dubious principles, it will be wiser to lay these
principles aside, for a time at least, and to reconsider more
intensively the facts bearing on the particular point at issue.
There are two obvious lines of evidence that may help to throw
light on the change from the Lower to the Upper Palæolithic, and in
fact aid understanding of the whole Palæolithic. The first comprises
the relations between western Europe and other areas during that
period; the second, regional differences within Europe. In the
previous chapter on the Palæolithic, such considerations have been
disregarded in favor of a schematic presentation of what seemed the
salient facts in a field made sufficiently difficult by the antiquity and
incompleteness of data. The best of these data, and those which
arrange themselves most systematically, are those from Europe,
which have therefore been presented as if they constituted a self-
sufficient unit. But it is unlikely that the culture should have
developed in Europe in complete detachment for a hundred
thousand years or that it should have remained identical over the
whole of that continent. It is necessary, in short, to revise the simple
outline of Chapter VI by giving heed to geographical and other
disturbing considerations.
 First of all, it is well to realize that what has heretofore been called
the first tool, the Chellean pick or coup-de-poing, was not so much
the only tool of its period as the most characteristic one. It seems to
have been accompanied at all times and everywhere by smaller, less
regularly made implements, some of which were even worked out of
flakes instead of cores and subjected to crude blow-retouching.
Further, these medium-sized pieces were probably “invented” before
the coup-de-poing; which is after all what might be expected, the
coup-de-poing being a comparatively effective, regularly shaped,
symmetrical implement involving both an ideal of form and a
tolerable, rough skill to produce. Several Pre-Chellean stations,
containing such smaller implements but no coups-de-poing, are now
recognized by many specialists in prehistory. The most notable are
those of St. Acheul and Abbeville, in northern France; the remainder
are in the same part of that country, in Belgium, or in southern
England, which at that time formed part of the continent. The fauna
of some of these sites is an early one and has been attributed to the
second interglacial era (§ 69) as compared with the third interglacial
in which the Chellean and Acheulean fall.
When the Chellean proper, with its typical, well-developed picks, is
examined, it becomes clear that the distribution of this distinctive
form is limited to a narrow strip of westernmost Europe from Belgium
to Spain. The picks recur in north and east Africa and the districts of
Asia bordering on the Mediterranean. They may not be of exactly the
same age in these regions as in westerly Europe, but they are of the
same type, and in view of the continuity of their distribution must be
historically connected. In fact, the coup-de-poing Chellean might well
be described as essentially an African (or Africo-Asian) development
which underwent an extension across what was then the land-bridge
of Gibraltar up the Atlantic face of Europe (Fig. 37).
The remainder of Europe was evidently also inhabited in this era;
but by people of a variant culture. From Germany eastward into
Russia, possibly Siberia, implements were worked which in part
suggest the Pre-Chellean ones of northern France, in part
developments of such Pre-Chellean pieces, and in part forms
approaching Mousterian types. They do not include Chellean picks.
The name Pre-Mousterian has been proposed for this central and
east European culture. This name is appropriate, provided it is
remembered that Pre-Mousterian denotes not a phase intermediate
between the Acheulean and Mousterian of western Europe, but a
culture developed, like the Chellean, yet more or less independently,
out of the Pre-Chellean, and approximately coeval with the pure
Chellean of western Europe and its Acheulean continuation. In other
words, two culture-areas, an African-west-European and an east
European, begin to be discernible from an extremely early time in the
Lower Palæolithic (Fig. 37).

Fig. 37. Early Lower Palæolithic culture-areas (about 100,000-50,000 B.C.).

Vertical shading, Chellean-Acheulean culture, with coups-de-poing. The
principal European districts containing typical Chellean coups-de-poing are
 marked “C.” Stippling, “Pre-Mousterian” culture, probably contemporaneous
with Chellean and Acheulean, but lacking coups-de-poing. White, uninhabited
or unexplored. (Mainly after Obermayer.)

During the Acheulean, the western culture spread somewhat: into

southern England, southeastern France, Italy, and began to overlap
with the eastern culture along the Rhine. In the Mousterian, an
assimilation seems to have taken place: culture, or at least flint
industry, became more uniform over the whole of Europe, and in a
measure the near parts of Asia and Africa also. This general
Mousterian culture, with its small implements and emphasis on
retouching, seems more likely to have evolved out of the pickless
eastern Pre-Mousterian than out of the western Chellean-Acheulean
with its large hewn coups-de-poing.
This would suggest an eastern origin for Mousterian man—the
Neandertal race. But it is well not to proceed beyond some slight
probability on this point because it is by no means certain that
culture traveled only as races traveled. In their simple way, culture
contacts without migrations may have been substantially as effective
in shaping or altering civilization fifty thousand years ago as to-day.
For all that can be demonstrated at present, the Mousterian
Neandertal men of western Europe may have been the blood
descendants of the undiscovered Chellean-Acheulean inhabitants of
western Europe who had learned more effective retouching and
smaller tools from the east Europeans.

215. Upper Palæolithic Culture Growths and

Races
With the advent of the Upper Palæolithic, possibly some 25,000
years ago, the divergent culture-areas of the early Lower Palæolithic
which had become largely effaced during the Mousterian, emerge
again; but with shifted boundaries. The line of demarcation now is no
longer formed by the Rhine and the Alps, but by the Pyrenees.
Throughout the Upper Palæolithic, most of Spain formed an annex to
the North African province, whose culture has been named the
Capsian after the type station of Gafsa in Algiers. The Aurignacian,
Solutrean, and Magdalenian as they have been previously described
(§ 72-81) ran their course in a middle European belt stretching from
France to Poland (Figs. 38, 39). Northern Spain, southern England,
at times Italy and southern Russia, were more or less in this mid-
European province. The Balkans remain insufficiently explored; all
northernmost Europe was still uninhabited. In general, it may be said
that the mid-European Upper Palæolithic culture is characterized by
the associated traits of work in bone and art; the contemporary
Spanish-African Capsian by specialization along the line of
increasingly smaller and finer flint implements, culminating in neat
microliths measurable only in fractions of inches.
Fig. 38. Aurignacian culture-areas (about 25,000-18,000 B.C.). 1, West-central
European Aurignacian, with art. 2, Italian Aurignacian. 3, Lower Capsian of
North Africa and Spain. 4, Lower Capsian of Syria. 5, South Russia, perhaps
post-Aurignacian. (Mainly after Obermayer.)

The southern equivalent of the mid-European Aurignacian was the

Lower Capsian, of at least equal territorial extent even in its
narrowest form (Fig. 38). The industry of Syria at this period was
allied to the Capsian of Africa and may be regarded as related to it.
The rather scant remains of the age in Italy are perhaps also to be
allied with the Capsian culture rather than with the true Aurignacian.
This makes it look as if at this time a great Lower Capsian culture-
area embraced nearly all the shores of the Mediterranean. As
against this, the mid-European true Aurignacian, so far as now
known, covered only a narrow region.
During the Solutrean and Magdalenian, Africa and Spain were in
the Upper Capsian. Evidence from the eastern Mediterranean begins
to fail. Italy is wholly without discovered remains. There are
indications (§ 240) that at least by the beginning of the Magdalenian
in Europe, the favored land of Egypt had already entered into the
Neolithic. If this is so, westernmost Asia, Greece, and even Italy may
have begun to be affected by this higher phase of culture, and the
paucity or absence of their late Palæolithic remains would be
accounted for. This view seems reasonable, but is unproved.
The Solutrean seems to have been a brief period in western
Europe, and its extent appears limited also (Fig. 39). It reveals two
principal areas: one north of the Danube, the other in southern
France. The former may have been the earlier, from which the
culture, or certain phases of it, such as the art of even surface
retouch on leaf-shaped blades, were carried westward into France.
In this connection two facts may be significant.
First is the circumstance that the north Danubian Solutrean area
possessed an art, apparently largely of Solutrean age, which is quite
different from the Upper Palæolithic art of the west. Naturalism was
scarcely attempted, figures were highly conventional, the style was
one of concentric curves or stippling or hatching.
Fig. 39. Solutrean and Magdalenian culture-areas (about 18,000-10,000 B.C.) S,
areas of pronounced Solutrean industry. 1 (vertical shading), Magdalenian
culture. 2A, 2B, Upper Capsian, western and eastern provinces,
contemporaneous with Solutrean and Magdalenian. (Based on Obermayer.)

The second consideration is the Brünn race. This type, which as

yet is known only from a few examples (§ 17), is generally
considered Neandertaloid, but also shows leanings toward the Cro-
Magnon race as well as differences from it. The less dubious Brünn
remains, those from Brünn, Brüx, and perhaps Predmost, are all
from Czecho-Slovakia, that is, the north Danubian region; and they
seem to be of Solutrean age. These facts render it likely that there
existed a connection between the east Solutrean culture, the
geometric art, and the Brünn race, and they indicate at least some
probability of the spread of Solutrean culture from eastern to western
Europe. Brünn man may have been a modified Neandertal man who
persisted in the east after Cro-Magnon man had become established
in the west during the Aurignacian. Or he may have been a local
eastern variant of a generic type whose better known western form
we call Cro-Magnon man.
As to Grimaldi man, his Negroid affiliations also seem less startling
once it is clear that the Aurignacian civilization was a mid-European
phenomenon, and that contemporary Spain and probably Italy
formed part of the essentially African development of the Lower
Capsian. With southern Europe a cultural annex of north Africa at
this period, the presence there of a Negroid type is reasonable
enough. Further, both the strait of Gibraltar and that between Tunis
and Sicily were land bridges during part of the Pleistocene; Gibraltar,
for instance, probably during the Lower Capsian and, again, after a
subsidence, in the Upper Capsian. The Mediterranean, in other
words, must be conceived not as a great barring sea, but as a land-
locked lake or pair of lakes, so that Europe and Africa were joined
geographically as well as racially and culturally.
As to the Cro-Magnon race, its association with the Aurignacian-
Magdalenian culture of mid-European type is clear enough, but its
origin remains problematical. One naturally looks eastward: to the
north lay ice, to the west the Atlantic, to the south a different even
though related culture. But nothing is really known; no ancestral
Asiatic form, no closely cognate later race, no eastern culture out of
which the Aurignacian might have sprung nor to which it might have
been specifically related. All or some of these may have existed, but
in the absence of discovery, speculation is of little profit. There is the
further difficulty about a theory that brings Cro-Magnon man out of
the east into the west of Europe, that a little later, in the Solutrean,
central Europe, through which he presumably passed, seems to
have been in possession of the Brünn race. True, this might have
been a later wave out of the east; but to derive both races out of
Asia, and perhaps the preceding Neandertal type also, is a bit
monotonous as a hypothesis, besides being one of those
assumptions that seem to answer problems without really helping
their understanding.
Much the same may be said as to the fate of Neandertal man—
whether he was exterminated by the Cro-Magnons, or absorbed, or
was driven away, or died out. A single discovery on this point will be
worth more than the most elaborate conjecture.
Two points seem clear, whatever may have been the diffusions of
race and culture at the time that the Lower Palæolithic was being
replaced by the Upper. On the side of flint industry, there was no
break: the Aurignacian is the continuation of the Mousterian. The
experts occasionally have difficulty in agreeing whether a station or
level is to be assigned to the late Mousterian or early Aurignacian.
Whatever, therefore, was imported in the Upper Palæolithic was
joined to something that remained over and continued in middle
Europe from the Lower Palæolithic. Secondly, the center of known
naturalistic art development was the west, southern France
especially; perceptibly in the Aurignacian, notably in the
Magdalenian. Yet this tract is peripheral to the Aurignacian-
Magdalenian culture as a whole. It would thus be a forced
explanation to look upon this art as the outright result of a diffusion
or migration: the supposed recipients of the accomplishment would
be carrying it farther than its originators. In other words, Upper
Palæolithic art was in the main a growth on the soil of western
Europe, so far as present evidence indicates. These findings
diminish the probability of any large scale importation of Upper
Palæolithic culture ready made as a by-product of the irruption of a
new race. The change from Lower to Upper Palæolithic was indeed
profoundly significant. But much of it may have been consummated
by a gradual evolution within western and central Europe.
It is worth observing that the Lower Palæolithic of Europe with all
its fundamental unity of culture stretched through different climates.
The Chellean was at least in part sub-tropical, the Acheulean a time
of cooling steppe climate, the Mousterian the period of maximum
glaciation. The Upper Palæolithic again has its transition from the
close of the Würm glaciation to the present temperature of Europe
broken by three temporary advances of the ice, known as they
occurred in the Alps as the Bühl, Gschnitz, and Daun phases. The
following correlation of climatic and cultural periods has been
suggested: Aurignacian, close of the last glacial and beginning of the
post-glacial; Solutrean, first maximum of ice recession
(Achenschwankung); Magdalenian, Bühl advance, second
recession, and Gschnitz advance, corresponding respectively to the
early, middle, and late stages of the period. To these might be added
that the Azilian came at about the third recession and brief final
Daun advance; the Neolithic, with the final recession of ice and
appearance of modern conditions. It is clear that climatic
circumstances were not the chief determining factor in the cultural
development of early Europe. Had they been such, the Chellean
would have differed culturally more from the Mousterian than this
from the Aurignacian.
Southern Europe and North Africa were not glaciated in the
Pleistocene. Heavier rainfall, perhaps accompanied by forestation,
are likely to have taken the place of the ice, whereas a change from
forest to steppe, or steppe to desert, corresponded to the recession
of the ice in Alpine and northern Europe. For more distant regions,
such as India and south Africa, the climatic correlations with Europe
become dubious; which is one of the reasons why as yet no sure
linking in time can be effected between their Palæolithic culture and
that of Europe.

216. The Palæolithic Aftermath: Azilian

After the Magdalenian, there follows in western Europe the Azilian,
or Azylian, named after Mas d’Azil in the French Pyrenees. It has
also been called Tourassian. This was the period in which the
reindeer died out, being replaced by the deer. Harpoons were
accordingly made of deer horn instead of reindeer antler, the
spongier texture of the interior of the material necessitating a coarser
and broader form. Perforations to hold the harpoon line now began
to be regularly provided. Bone implements were fewer, chiefly awls
or simple dart heads. Stone implements became less important. The
best made flint forms were minute points or blades of geometric
form, often trapezoidal. These are the microliths, obviously intended,
in the main, for insertion in wood, sometimes perhaps in sawlike
rows. The great naturalistic Magdalenian art was dead in the Azilian.
Its place was taken by simple conventional designs painted on
pebbles, sometimes curiously suggestive of alphabetic symbols,
although it is unthinkable that they could at this early time, and
among so backward a people as these deer hunters, have served
any purpose of writing. The puzzling designs are more likely to have
been used in magic or religion.
The period of the Azilian was perhaps 10,000-8000 B.C. The
climate was approaching that of to-day, though still cooler. The area
of the Azilian proper was limited to the Pyrenean environs of
southern France and northern Spain. Related and contemporary
cultures can however be traced much farther; and the name Azilian
in a larger sense may justifiably be applied to these also. The greater
part of Spain and Portugal and north Africa were at this time in the
Terminal Capsian. This was a local phase lacking the deer horn
harpoons and painted pebbles of the Pyrenees, but with the
microlithic flint industry especially conspicuous. In fact it is in Africa
that the development of the extreme microlithic forms out of their
antecedents, the reduced implements of the Upper Capsian, has
been most clearly traced. In Europe the Azilian forms do not connect
nearly so closely with the preceding Magdalenian. It looks therefore
as if the culture of western Europe in this period were based to a
considerable extent on traits evolved in Africa, to which various
additions were made locally, like the pebble-painting in the Pyrenean
area. This preponderance of African influences is corroborated by
the occurrence in Syria and southern Italy of small flints allied to the
Terminal Capsian ones. The same may be said of a culture phase of
northern France, the Tardenoisian, which extended also to Belgium
and England—which latter seems not to have become finally
separated from the continent until about this era. The Tardenoisian is
specifically characterized by microliths almost indistinguishable from
the north African ones, but lacks the other traits of the south French
Azilian. It may also have persisted longer, into the period which in
the south was already early Neolithic. Approximately contemporary
and related is also the south German culture represented at Ofnet,
famous for its nests of skulls from decapitated bodies; and that in
southern Scandinavia called Maglemose (§ 233). In Scotland and
northern England, on the other hand, the harpoon head is once more
to the fore, perhaps because here as in the Pyrenean area forested
mountains and the sea were in juxtaposition and deer and salmon
could both be taken abundantly. The food habits of sub-arid and arid
north Africa must have been quite different; in fact it is evident that
snails were seasonally consumed here in large quantities.
All these local phases interrelate and may be grouped together as
Azilian as designative of the period and generic culture. The map
(Fig. 40) shows the extent to which the manifestations of this culture
stage have been traced. They may prove to extend farther.
Spain, at the close of the Palæolithic, possessed art of three
types. In the north, Magdalenian realism flourished as vigorously as
in neighboring southern France. The paintings of the cave of
Altamira, for instance, are no less numerous and superb than those
of Font-de-Gaume. Second, in the south, there prevailed a
conventional style. Men and animals are still recognizable, but
schematically drawn, and among them are pictographic symbols.
Third, in eastern Spain, a cliff art was realistic in purpose, but crude
in execution. One can see without difficulty what the figures are
doing, but the proportions are distorted, and the fresh, vivid, sure
spirit of Magdalenian painting is wholly lacking. The figures represent
people more often than animals: gatherings, dances, long-gowned
women, men with bows. This is the earliest direct or indirect record
of the bow and arrow. It dates from the final phase of the Palæolithic,
and the weapon may not have become employed throughout Europe
until the Neolithic was definitely under way.
It is well to remember in this connection that no specific type of
culture, no matter how old, is likely ever to have existed without
variation over a whole hemisphere or continent. The later any type
is, the greater is the probability that it has had sufficient time for
specific characterization to enable it to be distinguished readily from
the contemporary cultures of other areas. The local provinces or
culture-areas of the Palæolithic foreshadow the deeper regional
differentiations of the Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages.
Fig. 40. Phases of the close of the Palæolithic (about 10,000-8,000 B.C.). A,
Azilian proper; C, Terminal Capsian; M, Maglemose; O, Ofnet, Bavaria; S,
Scotch and north English Azilian; T, Tardenoisian.

There is some variation of usage as to whether the Azilian is

assignable to the Palæolithic or Neolithic. Some include it with the
earliest Neolithic phases to constitute a Mesolithic or Middle Stone
Age. The era has also been designated Epi-Palæolithic and Proto-
Neolithic. The concept of a separate Mesolithic period becomes
important in the degree that the original definition of the Neolithic as
limited to the age of polished stone remains rigorously adhered to.
With the Neolithic conceived more broadly, as discussed in the
following section, a separate Mesolithic becomes unnecessary, and
the Azilian takes its place as a final Palæolithic episode of mixed
African and local developments after the passing of the characteristic
European Upper Palæolithic.

217. The Neolithic: Its Early Phase

The Neolithic is by original definition the age of polished stone as
opposed to the fracturing of stone in the Palæolithic. In a sense, this
definition is a true one, at any rate for Europe and the Near East.
There is no stone grinding in the Palæolithic and there is in the
Neolithic. But since the two stone ages were first discriminated fifty
or more years ago, a vast body of knowledge has accumulated
about them, with the result that the original criterion has become only
an approximate one. The definition of the Neolithic as the age of
ground stone is at the present time so over-elementary as to have
become inaccurate. A long initial phase of this age did not yet grind
stone, but continued to use tools made by the Palæolithic process of
chipping. It was not until the latter part of the New Stone Age was
reached, what we may call the Full Neolithic, that the grinding and
polishing of stone were attempted.
What, then, it is natural to ask, makes the Early Neolithic Age
really Neolithic—what in fact separates it from the Palæolithic? It is a
cluster of traits; a cluster that grew as the Neolithic progressed; but
every one of whose constituents was lacking from the Old Stone
Age.

218. Pottery and the Bow

Outstanding in this cluster of cultural traits that mark the Neolithic
is pottery. Wherever, in Europe and the Near East at least, there is
universal agreement that a stage of development was Neolithic,
pottery is present. And conversely, wherever pottery occurs, no one
has yet doubted that a true Neolithic stage existed. The earliest
potteryless phases, such as that of Maglemose, which have
sometimes been designated as Proto-Neolithic, sometimes as
Mesolithic, can advantageously be considered terminal Palæolithic.
Second in importance is the bow, which in general appeared
contemporaneously with pottery. The evidence for its existence is
sometimes less clear. Pottery is imperishable and unmistakable. The
bow and arrow, on the other hand, are made of materials that decay
in a few years, under ordinary conditions. Only the stone or bone
point preserves, and this cannot always be distinguished with
positiveness from the head of a light spear or even from a small knife
blade. There was a time, for instance, when the smaller flint blades
of the Solutrean were often regarded as arrow points, whereas now
the tendency, based on more intensive comparisons, is to deny the
bow and arrow to the Magdalenian as well as the Solutrean.
Certainly the harpoon and its thrower are so numerous and
indubitable in the Magdalenian that there would be reason to expect
an important weapon like the bow to have left at least some sure
traces: a definitive type of recognizable arrow head would have been
worked out. But such is not the case.
These two culture elements, pottery and the bow, signalized an
enormous advance over the past. Both required definite technical
skill to manufacture. And both were of the greatest service. Whole
lines of foods could now be utilized that had formerly been passed
by: soups, stews, porridges. Plants whose seeds or parts before
were inedible, or almost so, were added to the diet as soon as they
could be boiled. The bow made possible long range fighting, the free
pursuit of large game, and the capture of many small mammals and
birds which previously it must have been difficult to take. The
harpoon was developed chiefly for fishing. It would be of little help in
killing birds, rabbits, and the like, or large and dangerous animals
like wild cattle.

219. Bone Tools

Hand in hand with the invention or rather introduction of the bow
and pottery—it seems doubtful whether they were devised in Europe
—went an increased employment of bone and horn tools at the
expense of stone. This drift had already begun in the Upper
Palæolithic; in fact, is one of the signs that mark it off from the Lower
Palæolithic. It became accentuated as the Upper Palæolithic wore
on, still more prominent in its closing Azilian phase[33]—hence the
increasing minuteness of flint blades—and continued into the early
Neolithic. A good working chisel, wedge, awl, or needle, for instance,
must be smooth. This finish is difficult in chipped stone, but easily
attained in bone or horn by rubbing. It was not therefore until stone
grinding came into use in the later Neolithic, that bone and horn
began to fall in significance as materials. But they had performed
their service. It is unlikely that stone polishing would have been
attempted but for the experience and long habits of the polishing
process as acquired in dealing with the softer materials.

220. The Dog

The first animal was also domesticated about the beginning of the
Neolithic. Dog remains have been found in two very late post-
Magdalenian Palæolithic sites, one in Scotland, the other in
Denmark, both apparently Azilian in age. Then, the Danish
kitchenmiddens, which began in the first stage of the Early Neolithic,
contain innumerable bones that have been gnawed by dogs. The
animals may still have been half wild at this period, since their own
skeletons are rare in the middens. Evidently the species was not yet
firmly attached to man; its members went off to die in solitude. This
is what has generally been predicated on hypothetical grounds of the
history of dog and man. Contrary to most domesticated animals, the
dog is thought not to have been captured and tamed outright, but to
have attached himself to human beings as a parasitic hanger-on, a
shy, tolerated, uncared-for scavenger, living in a stage of symbiotic
relationship with our ancestors before his real domestication. This
view the prehistoric evidence seems to confirm.

221. The Hewn Ax