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AMT 227N Study Notes
AMT 227N Study Notes
❖ Safety is the state in which the possibility of harm to persons or property damage
is reduced to, and maintained at or below, an acceptable level through a
continuing process of hazard identification and safety risk management.
Safety
❖ Organization
o Management decisions and organizational processes - Activities over which
any organization has a reasonable degree of direct control
❖ Workplace
o Working conditions - Factors that directly influence the efficiency of people in
aviation workplaces.
❖ People
o Errors and violations - Actions or inactions by people (pilots, controllers,
maintenance engineers, aerodrome staff, etc.) that have an immediate adverse
effect.
❖ Defences
o Regulations
o Training
o Technology
▪ Resources to protect against the risks that organizations involved in
production activities generate and must control.
o Organizational Processes
o Policy-making
o Planning
o Communication
o Allocation of resources
o Supervision
▪ Activities over which any organization has a reasonable degree of
direct control.
➢ Latent Conditions
o Inadequate hazard identification and risk management
o Normalization of deviance
▪ Conditions present in the system before the accident, made
evident by triggering factors.
➢ Defences
o Technology
o Training
o Regulations
➢ Workplace Conditions
o Workforce stability
o Morale
o Credibility
o Ergonomics
➢ Active Failures
o Errors
o Violations
a) Liveware-Hardware (L-H)
b) Liveware-Software (L-S)
• Relationship between the human and the supporting systems found in the
workplace, e.g:
• regulations,
• manuals,
• checklists,
• publications,
• computer software.
• recency of experience,
• vocabulary,
• clarity and
• symbology.
c) Liveware-Liveware (L-L)
• flight crews,
• Crew resource management (CRM) and its extension to air traffic services
(ATS) and maintenance operations has created a focus on the management
of operational errors across multiple aviation domains.
d) Liveware-Environment (L-E)
• Relationship between the human and both the internal and external
environments.
• The relationship between the human internal environment and its external
environment:
Errors
• Humans will commit errors regardless of the level of technology used, the level of
training or the existence of regulations, processes and procedures.
a) Slips and lapses - are failures in the execution of the intended action.
For example, operating the flap lever instead of the (intended) gear lever is a
slip. Forgetting a checklist item is a lapse.
Even if execution of the plan were correct, it would not have been possible to achieve
the intended outcome.
❖ (1) Error reduction strategies intervene at the source of the error by reducing or
eliminating the contributing factors.
➢ Human-centred design
➢ Ergonomic factors
➢ Training
❖ (2) Capturing strategies intervene once the error has
already been made, capturing the error before it
generates adverse consequences.
➢ Checklists
➢ Task cards
➢ Flight strips
➢ System redundancies
Violations
❖ Violation:
❖ a) Situational violations
❖ b) Routine violations
▪ In some cases, routine violations are well grounded and may result in
the incorporation of the routine violation as an accepted procedure
after a proper safety assessment has been conducted and it is
shown that safety is not compromised.
Culture
Culture influences the values, beliefs and behaviours that people share with
other members of various social groups.
Organizational Culture
❖ For the management of safety, the greatest potential for the creation and
maintenance of an effective, self-sustaining culture is at the organizational
level.
Safety Culture:
Hazard
Two definitions
Types of hazards:
❖ Natural
❖ Technical
❖ Economic
➢ E.g.: Icing, freezing precipitation, heavy rain, strong winds, and restrictions
to visibility.
❖ Geophysical events:
❖ Environmental events:
❖ Deficiencies regarding:
➢ Growth
➢ Recession
➢ Etc.
❖ Internal
❖ External
➢ Accident reports
➢ Predictive
➢ Proactive
➢ Reactive
Hazards:
b) Proactive
Involves:
c) Predictive
Involves:
Cost-benefit analysis
❖ Direct costs
➢ The obvious costs, which are easily determined. The high costs of
exposure of hazards can be reduced by insurance coverage.
▪ Purchasing insurance only transfers monetary risk, does not
address the safety hazard
❖ Indirect costs
❖ Indirect costs may amount to more than the direct costs resulting from exposure
to hazards:
➢ Loss of business
Insurance deductibles
Mitigation – Measures to address the potential hazard or to reduce the risk probability
or severity.
Strategies:
• Avoidance
• Reduction
- CANCEL OPERATIONS
➢ Reduction – The frequency of the operation or activity is reduced, or
action is taken to reduce the magnitude of the consequences of the
accepted risks.
➢ Technology
➢ Training
➢ Regulations
Human Factors
• Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the
purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or
dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. It focuses
on the mental well-being of the individual. Clinical psychology can help individuals deal
with stress, coping mechanisms for adverse situations, poor self-image, and accepting
criticism from coworkers.
• Experimental Psychology
• Anthropometrics
Anthropometry is the study of the dimensions and abilities of the human body.
This is essential to aviation maintenance due to the environment and spaces that AMTs
have to work with.
• Computer Science
The technical definition for computer science is the study of the theoretical
foundations of information and computation and of practical techniques for their
implementation and application in computer systems.
• Cognitive Science
• Medical Science
• Organizational Psychology
• Educational Psychology
Educational psychologists study how people learn and design the methods and
materials used to educate people of all ages. Everyone learns differently and at a
different pace. Supervisors should design blocks of instruction that relate to a wide
variety of learning styles.
• Industrial Engineering
There are many concepts related to the science and practice of human factors.
However, from a practical standpoint, it is most helpful to have a unified view of the
things we should be concerned about when considering aviation maintenance human
factors. A good way to gain this understanding is by using a model. For more than a
decade, the term “PEAR” has been used as a memory jogger, or mnemonic, to
characterize human factors in aviation maintenance. PEAR prompts recall of the four
important considerations for human factors programs, which are listed below.
Types of Errors
• Unintentional
• Intentional
Kinds of Errors
1. Lack of Communication
2. Complacency
3. Lack of Knowledge
4. Distraction
6. Fatigue
Fatigue is a major human factor that has contributed to many maintenance errors
resulting in accidents. [Figure 14-21] Fatigue can be mental or physical in nature.
Emotional fatigue also exists and effects mental and physical performance. A person is
said to be fatigued when a reduction or impairment in any of the following occurs:
cognitive ability, decision-making, reaction time, coordination, speed, strength, and
balance. Fatigue reduces alertness and often reduces a person’s ability to focus and
hold attention on the task being performed.
7. Lack of Resources
A lack of resources can interfere with one’s ability to complete a task because
there is a lack of supply and support. [Figure 14-23] Low quality products also affect
one’s ability to complete a task. Aviation maintenance demands proper tools and parts
to maintain a fleet of aircraft. Any lack of resources to safely carry out a maintenance
task can cause both non-fatal and fatal accidents. For example, if an aircraft is
dispatched without a functioning system that is typically not needed for flight but
suddenly becomes needed, this could create a problem.
8. Pressure
9. Lack of Assertiveness
Assertiveness is the ability to express your feelings, opinions, beliefs, and needs
in a positive, productive manner and should not be confused with being aggressive.
[Figure 14-26] It is important for AMTs to be assertive when it pertains to aviation repair
rather than choosing or not being allowed to voice their concerns and opinions. The
direct result of not being assertive could ultimately cost people their lives. The following
are examples of how a lack of assertiveness can be offset:
10. Stress
• Physical Stressors
• Psychological Stressors
• Physiological Stressors
Norms is short for “normal,” or the way things are normally done. [Figure 14-29]
They are unwritten rules that are followed or tolerated by most organizations. Negative
norms can detract from the established safety standard and cause an accident to occur.
Norms are usually developed to solve problems that have ambiguous solutions. When
faced with an ambiguous situation, an individual may use another’s
PHILIPPINE CIVIL AVIATION REGULATIONS
1.1 RULES OF CONSTRUCTION
(3) May indicates that discretion can be used when performing an act
described in a regulation.
(4) Will indicates an action incumbent upon the Authority.
The following licenses are issued under this Part to an applicant who
satisfactorily accomplishes the requirements in this Part for the license sought:
2.2.2.2 RATINGS
(a) The following ratings are placed on a pilot license when an applicant
satisfactorily accomplishes the requirements in this Part for the rating sought:
sought:
(1) Airframe
(2) Powerplant
2.6.1 GENERAL
2.6.1.1 APPLICABILITY
(a) Subpart 2.6 prescribes the requirements for issuing the following licenses
and associated ratings and/or authorizations for:
(a) An applicant for an AMT license and any associated rating shall
(2) Demonstrate the ability to read, write, speak, and understand the English
language by reading and explaining appropriate maintenance publications
and by writing defect and repair statements;
(4) Pass all of the prescribed tests for the license and rating sought, within a
period of 24 months.
(b) A licensed AMT who applies for an additional rating must meet the requirements
of Subpart 2.6.2.6 and, within a period of 24 months, pass the tests prescribed by
Subparts 2.6.2.5 and 2.6.2.7 for the additional rating sought.
2.6.2.4 KNOWLEDGE REQUIREMENTS
(a) The applicant for an Aviation Maintenance Technician (AMT) license shall
have pass a knowledge test covering at least the following areas:
(a) An applicant for an AMT license and associated ratings may qualify by either
practical experience or through training in an ATO.
(b) Practical experience only. Each applicant for an AMT license and rating(s)
relying solely on practical experience shall provide documentary evidence,
acceptable to the Authority, of the following experience in the inspection, servicing
and maintenance of aircraft or its components:
(b) The holder of a license with an expiration date may not, after that date, exercise
the privileges of that license.
(c) The license shall remain valid as long as the holder thereof maintains his/her
competency.
(a) A holder of an aircraft mechanic license desiring to renew his license must
accomplish and submit the following within 30 days prior to the expiry of his
license:
(2) Certification or proof that the holder has rendered services in accordance with
the provisions this Part from an AMO, AOC or an ATO, or any other person
found acceptable in writing by the Authority, as applicable, in any case fully in
compliance with these regulations.
The tests cover the applicants’ skill in performing the practical projects on the
subjects covered by the written test for that rating. The applicant will be provided with
appropriate facilities, tools, materials and airworthiness data.
(a) The skill test for the AMT License shall test the applicant's knowledge and
performance in at least the following areas of operation:
(6) mathematics
(9) physics
(a) The skill test for the airframe rating shall test the applicant's knowledge and
performance in at least the following areas of operation:
(a) The skill test for the powerplant rating shall test the applicant's knowledge and
performance in at least the following areas of operation:
(9) propellers