Heat and Flow 4PB00

Part 7

Introduction

In this part, the flow in a boundary layer is discussed. Hence, the chapter 12.3 will
be shortly addressed. For example, the theory that is discussed here can be used to
model flow around an airfoil. From which the drag and lift coefficient can be deter-
mined.

Boundary layer flow

In this part, the behaviour of the flow close to the wall is examined. As an example,
the boundary layer flow is considered. This is the flow over a semi-infinite flat plate.
It is an example of a two-dimensional flow. The x-coordinate is used as the coordinate
in streamwise direction and y for the coordinate perpendicular to the plate. Further-
more, it is assumed that the approaching flow is parallel to the flat plate. When this
approaching flow is uniform, it will develop a boundary layer, as the flow needs to
satisfy the no-slip boundary condition. This boundary layer will grow in streamwise
direction and will grow indefinitely, in contrast with flow in a pipe or in between two
plates. In Fig. 1, a boundary layer over a flat plate is visualized. As the problem is
different, the Reynolds number as stated before is futile. This is due to the fact that
there is no well defined length scale. Hence, the following definition for the Reynolds
number,

ρv∞ x
Rex = , (1)
µ

where v∞ is the velocity of the approaching flow. The only possible length scale for
this case is the distance from the leading edge of the plate. This implies that the
Reynolds number depends on the streamwise position, x.
For small values of the Reynolds number, Rex < 2 · 105 , the flow is laminar. At some
value of Rex > 2 · 105 transition to turbulence occurs and after that the flow is turbu-
lent.
For more information about the boundary layers, see the following weblecture:
Web lecture: Boundary layers

Boundary equations

In the following, the governing equations in a stationary, two-dimensional, thin bound-

ary layer are studied. Furthermore, the thickness of the boundary layer is denoted by
δ and it is assumed that the boundary layer is thin, such that δ << x. From this as-
sumption, multiple statements can be derived. As a final result this gives the relevant

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Heat and Flow 4PB00

Figure 1: Boundary layer on a flat plate, where the thickness is exaggerated for clarity.

boundary equations as

∂v x ∂v x ∂v∞ ∂2 v x
vx + vy = v∞ +ν 2 (2)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

where the pressure gradient is in the first term on the right hand side, dP ∂v∞
dx = − ρv∞ ∂x .
Note that the ν in the latter term is the kinematic viscosity, which can be written as
µ
ν = ρ . Furthermore, the continuity equation can be written as

∂v x ∂vy
+ =0 (3)
∂x ∂y

For the entire derivation, see the hand-out of Chapter 12.

A simplification of Eq. 2 is called the Blasius solution and is discussed in the next
chapter.
For more information about the derivation of the equation for the boundary layers,
see the following weblecture:
Weblecture: Derivation of the boundary layer equations
For more information about the separation of boundary layers, see the following we-
blecture:
Weblecture: Separation of the boundary layer

Blasius solution

The derivation of the Blasius solution perhaps seems far-fetched and is difficult to
comprehend. However, the results shown in item 1 to 4 are proven to be quite power-
ful.
The name is already mentioned, but there is one special case where the solution to the
boundary layer equations can be calculated almost analytically. This is the case of a

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Heat and Flow 4PB00

dP
steady( ∂t∂ = 0), parallel flow without a pressure gradient, such that dx = −ρv∞ ∂v∂x∞ = 0.
Now, Eq. 2 can be simplified to

∂v x ∂v x ∂2 v x
vx + vy =ν 2 . (4)
∂x ∂y ∂y
Together with the boundary conditions, which are that v x = vy = 0 on y = 0 and v x =
v∞ on y = ∞. To solve this, two steps need to be taken. The first step is that the non-
linear terms and the viscous term should have the same order of magnitude in the
boundary layer. If this would not be the case, it would not be possible to satisfy all
the boundary conditions. If these terms indeed have the same order of magnitude the
following equation can be obtained
δ −1
= O( Rex 2 ) (5)
x
−1
This shows that the boundary layer is thin when Rex 2 is large. It also shows that
1
the boundary layer grows as x 2 . The second step is that similarity of the solution
y
is assumed. Here, it is assumed that the velocity profile is only dependent on δ(x) .
Hence, a new coordinate is introduced as
 v  12
∞
η ( x, y) = y. (6)
νx
Furthermore, the continuity equation allows the use of so-called stream function,
which is discussed in Chapter 10 of the book. This can be denoted as
(
v x = ∂Ψ
∂y (7)
vy = − ∂Ψ∂x

Subsequently, because the dimensions of the stream function is the same as that of the
kinematic viscosity, ν, the stream function can be denoted as

Ψ( x, y) = νg( Rex ) f (η ( x, y)). (8)

Here, a variable f (η ) is introduced, which is only dependent on η. Next to that, a

function g is introduced as well, which is only dependent on Rex and is thus dimen-
sionless. Furthermore, substituting Eq. 8 in Eq. 7 the velocity in x-direction gives
d f dη v∞ ν 1 0
v x = g( Rex ) = g( Rex )( ) 2 f (η ) (9)
dη dx x
1
It is known that v x should be proportional to v∞ , so g( Rex ) = Rex2 . This gives the final
equation for the streamline as
1
Ψ( x, y) = νRex2 f (η ( x, y)). (10)

And from that the velocity in the x- and y-direction can be derived as

v x = v∞ f 0 (η ) (11)

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Heat and Flow 4PB00

and
1 v∞ ν 1
vy = ( ) 2 (η f 0 (η ) − f (η )) (12)
2 x
Now, these velocities are substituted in Eq. 4. This gives the following ordinary
differential equation (ODE) for f as

1 00
f f + f 000 = 0 (13)
2
with boundary conditions f = f 0 = 0 and f 0 = 1 at η → ∞ This equation cannot be
solved analytically, but it can be done numerically. The results of this are shown in
Table 12.1 of the hand-out of chapter 12. This Blasius solution enables to calculate
several important quantities for flow over a flat plate:
1. The boundary layer thickness is defined as the thickness of the region where
the solution differs from the velocity far away from the plate. Since the velocity
profile reaches the free-stream velocity asymptotically, usually δ0.99 is used as
boundary layer thickness, which represents the value of y where v x = 0.99v∞ .
δ0.99 can be given by

δ0.99 −1
= 5Rex 2 (14)
x

2. The displacement thickness, δ∗ (verdringingsdikte) is defined as the distance

over which the plate should be shifted in the wall-normal direction in order to
have the same volume flow with a uniform velocity v∞ as in the boundary layer
flow. A equation for the displacement thickness can be obtained:
Z ∞ 
∗ v x (y)
δ = 1− dy (15)
0 v∞

For large values of η this can be written as

− 12
δ∗ = 1.72Rex (16)

3. A way to calculate the drag force coefficient. For this, the viscous force per unit
area on the plate, shear stress, is required. This is given by

∂v x
τ0 = µ | y =0 (17)
∂y

Using the Blasius solution, it is found that

v∞ 1 −1
τ0 = µv∞ f 00 (0)( ) 2 = 0.332ρv2∞ Rex 2 (18)
νx

To make this non-dimensional, the equation is divide by 21 ρv2∞ , which gives

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Heat and Flow 4PB00

τ0 − 12
Cf x = 1
= 0.0664Rex (19)
2
2 ρv∞

where the subscript x indicates that this is the local quantity at streamwise co-
ordinate x. If one want to know the total amount of viscous force over the plate,
one should integrate the shear stress over the entire area of the plate
Z
FD = τ0 dA (20)
A

If W is the width of the plate and L the length, it holds that

Z L
ν 1 1 ν 1
FD = 0.332ρv2∞ W ( )2 x − 2 dx = 0.664ρv2∞ W L( )2 (21)
v∞ 0 Lv∞
Again, this is made dimensionless. This time it is divided by the surface area of
the plate LW and 21 ρv2∞ . This results in:

−1
C f L = 1.328Re L 2 (22)

Lv∞
where Re L is the Reynolds number based on the length of the plate, Re L = ν .

4. Finally, the last quantity that is considered is the momentum thickness θ. This
can be denoted by
Z h
vx vx
θ= (1 − )dy (23)
0 v ∞ v ∞
where h is a height above the plate such that h > δ0.99 . Since the integrand in
this last integral equals approximately zero if y > h, it can be written as
Z ∞
vx vx
θ= (1 − )dy (24)
0 v∞ v∞
Using the Blasius solution for the velocity in x-direction a final result is obtained
that looks as follows:

θ −1
= 0.664Rex 2 . (25)
x

For an example about the use of the Blasius solution, see the following weblecture:
Weblecture: Blasius solution

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Heat and Flow 4PB00

Von Kármán integral momentum equation

In this chapter, a relation between the relevant quantities in the boundary layer flow
will be derived. This enables the calculation of the boundary layer growth if the
velocity profile is known in good approximation.
For the entire derivation, see the hand-out of Chapter 12.5. The results of this are
given here. First of all, the velocity profile looks as:

vx 3 y 1 y
= ( ) − ( )3 . (26)
v∞ 2 δ 2 δ

which is an approximation of the Blasius solution. With this velocity profile, it is also
possible to derive the shear stress as

dv x 3 µv∞
τ0 = µ | y =0 = (27)
dx 2 δ
and
Z ∞
vx vx vx vx 39
Z δ
θ= (1 − )dy = (1 − )dy = δ. (28)
0 v∞ v∞ 0 v∞ v∞ 280

Finally, it can be derived that

δ −1
= 4.64Rex 2 , (29)
x

θ −1
= 0.646Rex 2 (30)
x

and

−1
C f x = 0.646Rex 2 . (31)

Exercises

The exercises that are part of this lecture are

Exercises: 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.5, 12.7, 12.10, 12.11.
Exercises (optional): 12.4, 12.6, 12.8, 12.9

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Heat and Flow 4PB00

Check list

 Read the lecture information that is provided.

 Watch the corresponding web lectures.
 Make the mandatory exercises.
 Make the quiz, evaluate on this test. Make sure you comprehend every subject
before you proceed.