Internal Combustion Engine

Introduction

The oil engines and gas engines are called Internal Combustion Engines. In IC engines fuels
burn inside the engine and the products of combustion form the working fluid that generates
mechanical power. Whereas, in Gas Turbines the combustion occurs in another chamber and hot
working fluid containing thermal energy is admitted in turbine.

Reciprocating oil engines and gas engines are of the same family and have a strong
resemblance in principle of operation and construction.

The engines convert chemical energy in fuel in to mechanical energy.

A typical oil engine has:

1. Cylinder in which fuel and air are admitted and combustion occurs.
2. Piston, which receives high pressure of expanding hot products of combustion and the
piston, is forced to linear motion.
3. Connecting rod, crankshaft linkage to convert reciprocating motion into rotary motion of
shaft.
4. Connected Load, mechanical drive or electrical generator.
5. Suitable valves (ports) for control of flow of fuel, air, exhaust gases, fuel injection, and
ignition systems.
6. Lubricating system, cooling system

In an engine-generator set, the generator shaft is coupled to the Engine shaft.

The main differences between the gasoline engine and the diesel engine are:
• A gasoline engine intakes a mixture of gas and air, compresses it and ignites the mixture with
a spark. A diesel engine takes in just air, compresses it and then injects fuel into the
compressed air. The heat of the compressed air lights the fuel spontaneously.
• A gasoline engine compresses at a ratio of 8:1 to 12:1, while a diesel engine compresses at a
ratio of 14:1 to as high as 25:1. The higher compression ratio of the diesel engine leads to
better efficiency.
• Gasoline engines generally use either carburetion, in which the air and fuel is mixed long
before the air enters the cylinder, or port fuel injection, in which the fuel is injected just prior
to the intake stroke (outside the cylinder). Diesel engines use direct fuel injection to the diesel
fuel is injected directly into the cylinder.

The diesel engine has no spark plug, that it intakes air and compresses it, and that it then injects
the fuel directly into the combustion chamber (direct injection). It is the heat of the compressed air that
lights the fuel in a diesel engine.

The injector on a diesel engine is its most complex component and has been the subject of a
great deal of experimentation in any particular engine it may be located in a variety of places. The
injector has to be able to withstand the temperature and pressure inside the cylinder and still deliver the
fuel in a fine mist. Getting the mist circulated in the cylinder so that it is evenly distributed is also a
problem, so some diesel engines employ special induction valves, pre-combustion chambers or other
devices to swirl the air in the combustion chamber or otherwise improve the ignition and combustion
process.
 One big difference between a diesel engine and a gas engine is in the injection process. Most
cars engines use port injection or a carburetor rather than direct injection. In a car engine, therefore, all
of the fuel is loaded into the cylinder during the intake stroke and then compressed. The compression
of the fuel/air mixture limits the compression ratio of the engine, if it compresses the air too much; the
fuel/air mixture spontaneously ignites and causes knocking. A diesel compresses only air, so the
compression ratio can be much higher. The higher the compression ratio, the more power is generated.
Some diesel engines contain a glow plug of some sort. When a diesel engine is cold, the
compression process may not raise the air to a high enough temperature to ignite the fuel. The glow
plug is an electrically heated wire (think of the hot wires you see in a toaster) that helps ignite the fuel
when the engine is cold so that the engine can start.
Smaller engines and engines that do not have such advanced computer controls, use glow plugs
to solve the cold-starting problem.
We recommend diesels due to their:
(a) Longevity-think of an 18 wheeler capable of 1,000,000 miles of operation before major
service)
(b) Lower fuel costs (lower fuel consumption per kilowatt (kW) produced)
(c) Lower maintenance costs-no spark system, more rugged and more reliable engine,
Today’s modern diesels are quiet and normally require less maintenance than comparably sized
gas (natural gas or propane) units. Fuel costs per kW produced with diesels is normally thirty to fifty
percent less than gas units.
1800 rpm water-cooled diesel units operate on average 12–30,000 hours before major
maintenance is required. 1800 rpm water-cooled gas units normally operate 6–10,000 hours because
they are built on a lighter duty gasoline engine block.
3600 rpm air-cooled gas units are normally replaced not overhauled at 500 to 1500 hours.
Because the gas units burn hotter (higher btu of the fuel) you will see significantly shorter lives
than the diesel units.
Diesel engine power plants are installed where
1. Supply of coal and water is not available in desired quantity.
2. Where power is to be generated in small quantity for emergency services.
3. Standby sets are required for continuity of supply such as in hospital, telephone exchange.
It is an excellent prime mover for electric generator capacities of from 100 hp to 5000 hp. The
Diesel units used for electric generation are more reliable and long - lived piece of equipment
compared with other types of plants.

Basic Classification of Common Internal Combustion

Enginer
Types of Engine Fuel Used Method of Ignition Operating Cycle

Gasoline Engine Gasoline Spark Otto

Kerosene Engine Kerosene Spark Otto
Gas Engine Gaseous Fuel Spark Otto
Diesel Engine Diesel Heat of Compression Diesel
Oil-Diesel Engine Fuel oils Heat of Compression Diesel
Other Methods of Classification

Number of stroke Method of Starting

Two-stroke Manual: Crank, rope, kick
Four-stroke Electric (battery)
Compressed air
Number of Cylinders
Application
Single-Cylinder
Two-Cylinder Automotive
Three-Cylinder, etc. Marine
Industrial
Position of Cylinders Stationary power
Locomotive
Vertical
Aircraft
Horizontal
Incline
Number of piston sides working
Arrangement of Cylinders Single - acting
Double – acting
In-line
V
Intake Pressure
Radial
Opposed cylinder Naturally aspirated
Supercharged
Methods of Cooling
Air Cooled
Water Cooled

Operating Principle

All the gas engines and oil engines operate in the same general way. The working fluid
undergoes repeated cycles. A thermodynamic cycle is composed of a series of sequential events in a
closed loop on P-V or T-S diagram. A typical cycle has following distinct operations
1. Cylinder is charged
2. Cylinder contents are compressed
3. Combustion (Burning) of charge, creation of high pressure pushing the piston and expansion
of products of combustion.
4. Exhaust of spent products of combustion to atmosphere.

The route taken for these steps is illustrated conveniently on P-V diagram and T-S diagram for
the cycle.
Various types of Gas Engines and Oil Engines have been developed and are classified on the
basis of their operating cycles. Cycles are generally named after their Inventors e.g. Carnot Cycle;
Diesel Cycle; Otto Cycle; Sterling Cycle; Brayton Cycle; Dual Cycle, etc.

New cycles are being developed for fuel saving and reduction of pollution.
Two principal categories of IC Engines are:
• Four Stroke Engines
• Two Stroke Engines
In a Four Stroke Engine Cycle, the piston strokes are used to obtain the four steps (intake,
compression, expansion, exhaust) and one power stroke in two full revolutions of crankshaft. In a Two
Stroke Engine Cycle, one power stroke is obtained during each full revolution of the crankshaft.

Fig. 1. Diagrams Illustrating Operation of an I.C. Engine

This is achieved by using air pressure slightly above atmospheric to blow out exhaust gases out
of the cylinder and fill the fresh charge (scavenging). The methods of scavenging include: Crankcase
scavenging; blower scavenging. Other methods include Super Charging; Turbo Charging.

Cycle analysis of 4-stroke Otto Cycle Engine

P T
Spark plug 3
Carburetor
Combustion 3 Power
Air v = constant

2
Fuel
2 Compression
Heat 4
1 Suction Rejection
1 v = constant

4 Stroke
V S

Cycle analysis of 2-stroke Otto Cycle Engine

P

2 Power

2 Compression

V
 e = cycle efficiency
1
= 1 − 𝑘−1
𝑟𝑘

rk = compression ratio
1+𝑐
= 𝑐

c = clearance

Cycle analysis of 4-stroke Diesel Cycle Engine

Injector

P T
3
Air
Combustion

Fuel p = constant
3 Power
Expansion
2
2 Compression
Heat 4
Rejection
1 Suction
1 v = constant

4 Stroke
V S

Cycle analysis of 2-stroke Diesel Cycle Engine

Injector
P

2 Power

1 Compression

V
e = cycle efficiency
1 𝑟 𝑘 −1
=1− [ 𝑟𝑐 −1 ]
𝑘(𝑟𝑘𝑘−1 ) 𝑐

Where:
rk = compression ratio
rc = cut-off ratio
 Layout of Diesel Power plant

The essential components of diesel power plant are

• Diesel engine • Lubrication system
• Air filter and super charger • Cooling system
• Engine starting system • Governing system
• Fuel system • Exhaust system

Diesel engine:
This is the main component of a diesel power plant. The engines are classified as two stroke
engine and four stroke engines. Engines are generally directly coupled to the generator for developing
power. In diesel engines, air admitted into the cylinder is compressed. At the end of compression
stroke, fuel is injected. The fuel is burned and the burning gases expand and do work on the piston.
The shaft of the engine is directly coupled to the generator. After the combustion, the burned gases are
exhausted to the atmosphere.

Air filter and supercharger

The air filter is used to remove the dust from the air which is taken by the engine. Air filters
may be of dry type, which is made up of felt, wool or cloth. In oil bath type of filters, the air is swept
over a bath of oil so that dust particles get coated. The function of the supercharger is to increase the
pressure of the air supplied to the engine and thereby the power of the engine is increased.

Types of supercharger
Supercharging is done by means of compressor; there are two types of compressors that may be
used as super chargers. They are as follows:

1. Positive displacement type super chargers.

(a) Piston Cylinder type
(b) Roots blowers
(c) Vane blower
2. Centrifugal type super chargers or turbo type.
3. Turbo type super chargers.

Engine starting system

Diesel engine used in diesel power plants is not self-starting. Engine starting system includes
air compressor and starting air tank. This is used to start the engine in cold conditions by supplying the
air.
Fuel system
It includes the storage tank, fuel pump, fuel transfer pump, strainers and heaters. Pump draws diesel
from the storage tank and supplies it to the small day tank through the filter. Day tank supplies the
daily fuel need for the engine. The day tank is usually placed high so that diesel flows to engine under
gravity.

Diesel is again filtered before being injected into the engine by the fuel injection pump. The fuel
injection system performs the following functions.
• Filter the fuel
• Meter the correct quantity of the fuel to be injected
• Time the injection process
• Regulate the fuel supply
• Secure fine atomization of fuel oil
• Distribute the atomized fuel properly in the combustion; chamber.

The fuel is supplied to the engine according to the load on the plant.

Lubrication system
It includes oil pumps, oil tanks, coolers and pipes. It is used to reduce the friction of moving
parts and reduce wear and tear of the engine parts such as cylinder walls and piston. Lubrication oil
which gets heated due to the friction of the moving parts is cooled before recirculation.

In the lubrication system the oil is pumped from the lubricating oil tank through the oil cooler
where the oil is cooled by the cold water entering the engine. The hot oil after cooling the moving parts
return to the lubricating oil tank.

Fig. 2 Diesel Power plant

Cooling system
The temperature of the burning fuel inside the engine cylinder is in the order of 15000 C to
0
2000 C. In order to lower this temperature, water is circulated around the engine. The water envelopes
(water jacket) the engine, the heat from the cylinder, piston, combustion chamber etc, is carried by the
circulating water. The hot water leaving the jacket is passed through the heat exchanger. The heat from
the heat exchanger is carried away by the raw water circulated through the heat exchanger and is
cooled in the cooling tower.

Governing system
It is used to regulate the speed of the engine. This is done by varying the fuel supply according
to the engine load.

Exhaust system
The exhaust gases coming out of the engine is very noisy. In order to reduce the noise a
silencer (muffler) is used.

Performance of Diesel Generating Set

Indicated Power
Air
ma
kg/s Exhaust Generator output
Fuel
mf kg/s
Qh kJ/kg

Diesel Engine Gen

Cooling Water
Brake Power

1. Heat Generated (Fuel) = mfQh kW

Where: mf = fuel consumption, kg/sec
Qh = heating value ,kJ/kg
ma kg air P 𝑉𝑎̇
2. A/F =air-fuel ratio = ma = ( ) kg/sec
mf kg fuel RT 𝑎𝑖𝑟
3. VD = piston displacement , m3/sec
π
= D2 LNc (2- stroke)
4
π N
= D2 L c (4- stroke)
4 2

Where : D = bore, m
L = stroke, m
N = speed
c = number of cylinders
4. Piston Speed = 2LN m/sec
5. Indicated Power
Measuring instruments used Engine indicator traces actual P-V diagram. Planimeter measures area
of P-V diagram. Tachometer measures speed.
P

Pmi

Length V

Pmi = indicated mean effective pressure

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
= 𝑥 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 , kPa
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

Indicated Power = PmiVD, kW

6. Brake Power
Measuring instruments used: Dynamometer measures the torque: Tachometer measures the speed.

T = torque = WL where: W = weight in dynamometer

L = length of arm
Brake Power = 2TN, kW where: T= torque, kN-m
N = speed, rev/sec
Pmb = brake mean effective pressure
Brake Power
=
VD

7. Frictional Power
The difference of I.H.P. and B.H.P. is called F.H.P. It is utilized in overcoming frictional
resistance of rotating and sliding parts of the engine.
Friction Power = Indicated Power – Brake Power

Brake Power
8. m = mechanical efficiency =
Indicated Power

Generator Output
9. e = electrical or generator efficiency =
Brake Power
10. Thermal efficiency
Indicated Power
a. ti = indicated thermal efficiency =
m𝑓 Q ℎ
Brake Power
b. tb = brake thermal efficiency =
m𝑓 Q ℎ
Generator Output
c. tc = combined or overall thermal efficiency =
m𝑓 Q ℎ

11. Volumetric Efficiency (air only)

Actual Volume of air entering ̇
𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟 mRT
= = 𝑉𝑎̇ = ( P ) m3/sec
Piston Displacement V𝐷 𝑎𝑖𝑟

12. Specific Fuel Consumption (Fuel Rate)

m𝑓 𝑥 3600 kg
a. mi = indicated specific fuel consumption =
Indicated Power kW − hr

m𝑓 𝑥 3600 kg
b. mb = brake specific fuel consumption =
Brake Power kW − hr

m𝑓 𝑥 3600 kg
c. mc = combined or overall specific fuel consumption =
Generator output kW − hr
13. Heat Rate
m𝑓 𝑥 3600 Qℎ kJ
a. Indicated heat rate =
Indicated Power kW − hr

m𝑓 𝑥 3600 Qℎ kJ
b. Engine heat rate =
Brake Power kW − hr

m𝑓 𝑥 3600 Qℎ kJ
c. Engine - Generator heat rate =
Generator Output kW − hr

14. Generator Speed

120𝑓
N= where: N = speed, rpm
P
f = frequency (usually 60 hertz)
p = no. of poles (even)

A typical heat balance sheet at full load for Diesel cycle (compression ignition) is as
follows:
Useful output (Brake Power) ……………… 34%
Cooling loss ……………… 30%
Exhaust loss ……………… 26%
Friction, Radiation, Etc. ……………… 10%
_____
Heat Input (Fuel) ……………… 100%
 Waste Heat Recovery Boiler Utilizing Diesel Engine Exhaust
Indicated Power Exhaust Gases
Air
ma
kg/s Generator output
Fuel mg
mf kg/s t1
Qh kJ/kg
Steam

Diesel Engine Gen ms

hg

Feedwater
Cooling hf
Water
Brake Power
By heat balance in boiler
mg cp (t1 – t2) = ms ( hs – hf ) t2
Where: cp = specific heat of exhaust gas

Advantages and disadvantages of diesel power plant

Following are the advantages of diesel electric stations.
1. It is easy to design and install these electric stations.
2. They are easily available in standard capacities.
3. They can respond to load changes without much difficulty.
4. There are less standby losses.
5. They occupy less space.
6. They can be started and stopped quickly.
7. They require less cooling water.
8. Capital cost is less.
9. Less operating and supervising staff required.
10. High efficiency of energy conversion from fuel to electricity.
11. Efficiency at part loads is also higher.
12. Less of civil engineering work is required.
13. They can be located near the load center.
14. There is no ash handling problem.
15. Easier lubrication system.

Disadvantages in installing diesel units for power generation.

1. High operating cost.

2. High maintenance and lubrication cost.
3. Capacity is restricted. Cannot be of very big size.
4. Noise problem.
5. Cannot supply overload.
6. Unhygienic emissions.
7. The life of the diesel power plant is less (7 to 10 years) as compared to that of a steam
power plant which has a life span of 25 to 45 years. The efficiency of the diesel plant
decreases to less than 10% after its life period.
 Effect of Altitude on Output Power

Step 1 Let 1 and 2 be the lower and higher altitudes, respectively

Step 2 Calculate the Indicated power

BP1
IP1 =
𝑚1
Step 3 Calculate the friction power, which is assumed to be constant at constant speed.

FP = IP1 – BP1

Step 4 Calculate the air densities a1 and a2.

Step 5 Calculate the new Indicated Power.

IP  a
or
𝜌𝑎2
IP2 = IP1
𝜌𝑎1

Step 6 Calculate the new Brake Power

BP2= IP2 – FP

Step 7 Calculate the new mechanical efficiency

BP
𝑚2 = IP 2
2

Step 8 The volumetric air flow rates are the same

𝑉̇𝑎2 = 𝑉̇𝑎1
Step 9 The original air and fuel rates are
kg
mf1 = fuel consumption at condition 1 = 𝑚𝑏1 𝑥 BP1
sec

ma1 = mass flow rate of air at condition 1 = 𝑚𝑓1 𝑥 (A: F)1

m
𝑉̇𝑎1 = ( ρ )
1,𝑎𝑖𝑟

Step 10 The new air mass flow rate is

ma2 = 𝑉̇𝑎2 𝜌𝑎2
Step 11 For engines with metered injection, mf2 = mf1. For engines with carburetors,
𝑚𝑎2
𝑚𝑓2 = (
A:F)2

Step 12 The new fuel consumption is

𝑚𝑓2
𝑚𝑏2 =
BP2
 Power Plant Engineering
Solution to the Sample Problems
Topic 5: Internal Combustion Engine Power Plant

1. What is the ideal thermal efficiency possible from the diesel having rk = 15, A:F = 40:1, QL = 42,800
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑘𝑔
? Take Cp = 1.05 𝑘𝑔−℃, t1 = 15.6 ℃.

SOLUTION:
𝑉1 𝑉3
Compression ratio, rk = 15 = cut – off ratio, rc =
𝑉2 𝑉2

1 to 2 process:
𝑇2 𝑉 𝑘−1
𝑇1
= (𝑉1 ) T2 = (15.6 + 273.15)(15)1.4−1 = 853.02 K
2

Heat input cycle = heat from fuel

Mass of flue gas, mg ;𝑚𝑔 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) = 𝑚𝑓 𝑄𝐿

where:
mg = ma + mf
(𝑚𝑎 + 𝑚𝑓 )𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) = 𝑚𝑓 𝑄𝐿
𝑚𝑎
( + 1) 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) = 𝑄𝐿 = (40 + 1)(1.05)(𝑇3 − 853.02) = 42,800
𝑚𝑓
𝑇3 = 1847.1 𝐾

2 to 3 process:
𝑉3 𝑇3 1847.1
𝑉2
= 𝑇2
= 𝑟𝑐 = 853.02 = 2.17

1 𝑟 𝑘− 1 1 2.171.4 − 1
Thermal efficiency, 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − (𝑐 ) = 1− ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗𝟓
𝑘𝑟𝑘 𝑘−1 𝑟𝑐 − 1 1.4(15)1.4−1 2.17− 1

2. An engine-type generator with 30 poles generates 3-phase, 60-cycle current at 600V. Its rated output is
400kW. Engine specifications: 40.64 cm × 50.8 cm. Find the brake mean effective pressure existing
when line current is 360 amp; power factor, 0.80.

SOLUTION:

𝐾𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = √3 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 = √3 (600)(360)(. 80)

= 299.3 𝐾𝑤
Since rated output is 400 kw, the generator operates,
299.3 𝐾𝑤 3
= 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
400𝑘𝑤 4
120𝑓
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑃
120(60)
= = 240 𝑟𝑝𝑚
30
3
From figure A-16 P. 675 standard generator efficiency at 4 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 92.2% (for 400 kw, 240rpm).
From table: 6.3 p. 185
3
Std. deduction for generator efficiency = 2.8 % @ 4 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
 Thus, actual generator efficiency,
= 92.2% − 2.8 % = 89.4%
𝐺𝑒𝑛. 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 299.3
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = = 334.79 𝑘𝑤
𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛 . 894
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 334.79
𝑃𝑚𝑏 = = = 𝟒𝟐𝟑. 𝟐𝟖 𝒌𝒑𝒂
𝑉𝐷 𝜋 240
(. 4064)2 (. 508) ( ) 6
4 2

Assume:
6 Cylinders
4 - Stroke

3. The shop test of an engine whose record is here reported was made for heat balance. Calculate a four-
item balance. Dynamometer torque, 651 kg-m at 450 rpm. A:F ratio, 27:1, speed 450 rpm.
Temperatures: Atmosphere, 26.7 ℃, exhaust gas, 454.4 ℃; fuel temperature,23.9 ℃; coolant in, 55 ℃;
𝑘𝑔
out, 66.7 ℃. Fuel flow, 86 ℎ𝑟 ; coolant flow (c=1), 98 gpm. Hydrometer test of fuel oil, 0.945 S.G.

SOLUTION:

Brake power, Qbp

2𝜋𝑇𝑁 2𝜋(651)(0.00981)(450)
𝑄𝑏𝑝 = 60
= 60
= 𝟑𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟓 𝒌𝑾

Cooling loss, Qcl

𝑄𝑐𝑙 = 𝑚𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 ∆𝑇𝑤 ; Tave = average temperature for water
55+66.7
Tave = 2
= 60.85 ℃
vw = vf @ 60.85 ℃
𝑚3 1 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
vw = 0.00102 𝑘𝑔
; 𝜌𝑤 = 𝑣𝑤
= 0.00102 = 980.39 𝑚3 = 0.98039 𝑙𝑖
𝑔𝑎𝑙 3.7854 𝑙𝑖 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇𝑤 = 𝑣𝑤 𝜌𝑤 = (98 𝑚𝑖𝑛 × 𝑔𝑎𝑙
× 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
) (0.98039 𝑙𝑖 ) = 6.06 𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
Qcl = (6.06 𝑠
) (4.187 𝑘𝑔 𝐾) (66.7 − 55)℃ = 𝟐𝟗𝟔. 𝟖𝟕 𝒌𝑾

Exhaust loss, Qel

𝑄𝑒𝑙 = 𝑄𝑠 + 𝑄𝑙 = 𝑚𝑔𝐶𝑝𝑔∆𝑇𝑔 + 𝑚𝑣 (9𝐻2)(2442)
mass of product of combustion, mg
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
mg= [𝑚𝑎 + 1]mf = (27+1)(87) = 2,436 ℎ𝑟 = 0.68 𝑠
; 𝐻2 = 0.26 − 0.15(𝑆𝐺)
𝑓

correction of specific gravity:

𝑆𝐺𝑡 = 𝑆𝐺15.6 − 0.0007(𝑡 − 15.6)
0.945 = 𝑆𝐺15.6 − 0.0007(23.9 − 15.6) ; 𝑆𝐺15.6 = 0.951
𝐻2 = 26 − 15(0.951) = 0.12
87
𝑄𝑒𝑙 = (0.68)(1.07)(454 − 26.7) + 3600 (9)(0.12)(2442) = 𝟑𝟕𝟒. 𝟗𝟑 𝒌𝑾

Total heat generated,𝑄ℎ

87
𝑄ℎ = 𝑚𝑓 𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 𝑚𝑓 [51,716 − 8793.8(𝑆𝐺)2 ] = [51,716 − 8,793.8(0.951)2 ]
3600
𝑄ℎ = 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟕. 𝟔 𝒌𝑾
𝑄𝒉 = 𝑄𝑏𝑝 + 𝑄𝑐𝑙 + 𝑄𝑒𝑙 + 𝑄𝑓 ; friction, unwanted loss, etc, Qf
𝑄𝑓 = 𝑄𝒉 − (𝑄𝑏𝑝 + 𝑄𝑐𝑙 + 𝑄𝑒𝑙 ) = 1057.6 − (300.95 ∓ 296.97 + 394.93)
𝑄𝑓 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟖𝟓𝟐 𝒌𝑾
 Engine heat balance Distribution of heat energy
Useful loss 28.96 %
Cooling loss 28.67 %
Exhaust loss 35.45 %
Friction, unwanted loss, etc. 8. 42 %
100 %

4. A waste heat recovery boiler is being considered to recover 50 % of heat from the exhaust gas of a 1800
kW (brake) diesel engine. Other data are as follows:
𝑘𝑔
Brake specific fuel consumption : 0.22
𝑘𝑊−ℎ𝑟
Fuel : C12H26
Excess air : 30 %
Air temperature : 30 ℃
Temperature of exhaust gas : 400 ℃
𝑘𝐶𝑎𝑙
Specific heat of gases : 0.255
𝑘𝑔− ℃
Temperature of jacket water used as boiler feed : 65 ℃
Steam generated at 0.20 MPa, dry and saturated
Boiler efficiency : 65 %
Find:
Air – fuel ratio
Heat of the exhaust gas in kW
𝑘𝑔
Weight of steam produced in ℎ𝑟

SOLUTION:

Complete combustion equation w/ excess air:

𝐶𝑛 𝐻𝑚 + (1 + 𝑒)(𝑛 + 0.25𝑚)𝑂2 + (1 + 𝑒)(𝑛 + 0.25𝑚)(3.76)𝑁2 → 𝑛𝐶𝑂2 + .50𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 +
(1 + 𝑒)(𝑛 + 0.25𝑚)(3.76)𝑁2 + 𝑒(𝑛 + 0.25𝑚)𝑂2
𝐶12 𝐻26 + (1 + .30)(12 + 6.5)𝑂2 + (1 + .30)(12 + 6.5)(3.76)𝑁2 → 12𝐶𝑂2 + 13𝐻2 𝑂 +
(1 + .30)(12 + 6.5)(3.76)𝑁2 + .30(12 + 6.5)𝑂2
𝐶12 𝐻26 + 24.05𝑂2 + 90.45𝑁2 → 12𝐶𝑂2 + 13𝐻2 𝑂 + 90.45𝑁2 + 5.55𝑂2
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐴 (24.05)(32) + (90.45)(28)
= =
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑓 (12)12 + 26
𝒌𝒈. 𝒂𝒊𝒓
= 𝟏𝟗. 𝟒𝟐
𝒌𝒈. 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍
 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
b. 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.22 𝑘𝑊−ℎ𝑟 (1800𝑘𝑤) = 396 ℎ𝑟
Mass balance:
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑚𝑓
𝑚𝑎
𝑚𝑔 = ( + 1) 𝑚𝑓
𝑚𝑓
𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑔 = (19.42 + 1) 396 = 8086.96
ℎ𝑟
𝑄𝑒𝑙 = 𝑄𝑠 + 𝑄𝑙 = 𝑚𝑔𝐶𝑝𝑔∆𝑇𝑔 + 𝑚𝑣 (2442)
Mass of Vapor:
𝑚𝑣 13(2 + 16) 𝑘𝑔𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= = 1.376
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (12)(12) + 26) 𝑘𝑔𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑣 = 1.376(396) = 545.08
ℎ𝑟
8086.96 545.08
𝑄𝑒𝑙 = 𝑄𝑠 + 𝑄𝑙 = (4.187𝑥. 255)(400 − 30) + (2442)
3600 3600
𝑄𝑒𝑙 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟕. 𝟎𝟗 𝒌𝒘

c. From Steam Tables:

𝐾𝑗
ℎ𝑔 @ 0.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 2706.65 𝐾𝑔
𝐾𝑗
ℎ𝑓 @ 65˚ 𝐶 = 272.03
𝐾𝑔
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 = .50 𝑄𝑒 = .50(1257.9) = 628.543 𝑘𝑤
𝑚𝑠 (ℎ𝑔 − ℎ𝑓 )
𝜂𝑏 = 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑚𝑠 (2706.65 − 272.03 )
0.65 =
628.543
𝐾𝑔 𝑲𝒈
𝑚𝑠 = 0.167 = 𝟔𝟎𝟒. 𝟏𝟐
𝑠 𝒉𝒓

5. When the pressure is 101.3 kPa and the temperature is 27 ℃, a diesel engine has the full-throttle
characteristics listed:

Brake power : 275 kW

𝑘𝑔
Brake specific fuel consumption : 0.25 𝑘𝑊−ℎ𝑟
Air-fuel ratio : 22
Mechanical efficiency : 88 %

If the engine is operated at 84.5 kPa and the temperature of 15.5 ℃, find
Brake power
Mechanical efficiency
Brake specific fuel consumption
Air-fuel ratio

Solution:

𝒂. 𝐴𝑡 101.3 𝐾𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 27˚ 𝐶

𝑃1 101.3 𝐾𝑔
𝜌1 = = = 1.176 3
𝑅𝑇1 0.287(27 + 273.15) 𝑚
275
𝐼𝑃1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = .88 = 312.5 𝑘𝑤
𝐹𝑃 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 312.5 − 275 = 37.5 𝑘𝑤 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (0.25)(275) = 68.75 ℎ𝑟
(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)

𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑎1 = (𝐴. 𝐹1 )𝑚𝑓1 = 22(68.75) = 1512.5
ℎ𝑟

𝑚 1512.5 𝑚 3
𝑉̇𝑎1̇ = 𝜌𝑎1 = 1.176 = 1286.14 ℎ𝑟 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
1

@ 84.5 𝐾𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 15.5˚ 𝐶

𝑃2 84.5 𝐾𝑔
𝜌2 = 𝑅𝑇2
= .287(15.5+273.15)
= 1.02 𝑚3

𝐼𝑃 ⍺ 𝜌
𝐼𝑃2 𝜌2
=
𝐼𝑃1 𝜌1
1.02
𝐼𝑃2 = (312.5) (1.176) = 271.05 𝑘𝑤

𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐵𝑃2 = 𝐼𝑃2 − 𝐹𝑃 = 271.05 − 37.5 = 233.55 𝑘𝑤

233.55
𝒃. 𝜂𝑚 = 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 271.05 𝑥 100%
𝜂𝑚 = 86.16%

𝒄. 𝑚𝑏2 = 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

68.75 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑏2 = 233.65 = 0.294 𝑘𝑤−ℎ𝑟

𝒅. 𝑚𝑎2 = 𝑉̇𝑎2̇ 𝜌2 = 1286.14(1.02)

𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑎2 = 1311.86 ℎ𝑟
𝐴 1311.86 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟
(𝑓 ) = 68.75
= 19.08 𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
2

6. Performance values of a 3 MW Diesel generating unit are as follows:

Fuel rate : 1.5 barrels for 900 kWh of 25°API fuel
Generator efficiency : 92 %
Mechanical efficiency : 82 %
440
Voltage, 220, three-phase, 60 hertz
Determine:
Engine-fuel rate
Engine generator fuel rate
Indicated thermal efficiency
Overall thermal efficiency
Brake thermal efficiency

SOLUTION:
𝑄 = 41130 + 139.6˚ 𝐴𝑃𝐼
𝑄 = 41130 + 139.6(25)
𝑘𝑗
𝑄 = 44920 𝑘𝑔

141.5 141.5
𝑆. 𝐺. = ˚𝐴𝑃𝐼+131.5 = 25+131.5
˚
𝑆. 𝐺. = 0.904
 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑘𝑔
𝑆. 𝐺. = 𝜌𝐻2𝑂
= 0.904 = 𝑘𝑔 ; 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 0.904 𝑙𝑖
1 3
𝑚

42 𝑔𝑎𝑙 3.7854𝑙𝑖
𝑄𝑓 = 1.5 𝑏𝑎𝑟. ( 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟. ) ( 𝑔𝑎𝑙
) = 238.5 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑚𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑓 = 0.904(238.5) = 215.16𝑘𝑔

900𝑘𝑤ℎ
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 0.92
= 978.26 𝑘𝑤 − ℎ𝑟
978.26
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 0.82 = 1193 𝑘𝑤 − ℎ𝑟

a. Engine Fuel Rate:

215.16 𝒌𝒈
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 978.26
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒘−𝒉𝒓

a. Engine Generator Fuel rate

215.16 𝒌𝒈
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 𝑔𝑒𝑛. 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 900 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝒘−𝒉𝒓

b. Indicated Thermal Efficiency:

1193(𝑘𝑤−ℎ𝑟)(3600)
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 215.6(44920)
= 𝟒𝟒. 𝟑𝟒%

c. Over-all Thermal Efficiency:

900(3600)
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 215.6(44920)
= 𝟑𝟒. 𝟒𝟓%

d. Brake Thermal Efficiency:

978.26(3600)
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 215.6(44920)
= 𝟑𝟔. 𝟑𝟔%