5.

Development – changes an organism undergoes

T H E HUMAN through time

ORGANISM 6. Reproduction
cells/organisms
– formation of new
Anatomy
▪▪ Study of the structures of the body Homeostasis
▪▪ Anatomy; to dissect, or cut apart, or separate ▪▪ Ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions
▪▪ Homeo: same; stasis: standing still
Approaches to the Study of Anatomy
▪▪ Balance / Equilibirum
1. Systemic Anatomy – study of the body by
organ system
Homeostatic mechanisms – normally maintain body temp
near an ideal normal value; sweating, shivering
2. Regional Anatomy – study of the body by areas

Gen. Ways to Examine the Internal Structures Variables – conditions that can change
1. Surface Anatomy – study of external features;
superficial structures to locate deeper structures Set point – ideal value

2. Anatomical Imaging – non-invasive method for Normal range – acceptable range of values on which HM can
examining deep structures; x-ray, CT scan, PET scan, still be met
MRI
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Physiology 1. Negative-feedback Mechanism
▪▪ Study of the processes and functions of the body ▪▪ Regulates most systems of the body to maintain
homeostasis
▪▪ Main goals; to understand and predict; to understand
▪▪ Negative; any deviation from the set point is resisted
how the body maintains conditions
2. Positive-feedback Mechanism
Structural and Functional Organization
1. Chemical Level ▪▪ Not homeostatic and is rare in a healthy individ
▪▪ How atoms interact and combine into molecules ▪▪ Positive; when a value deviates from normal, the
system’s response is to make it greater
2. Cell Level ▪▪ Massive blood loss, child birth
▪▪ Cell – basic structural and functional unit of organisms
Components to Maintain Homeostasis
3. Tissue Level a. Receptors
b. Control center – analyzes information and
▪▪ Tissue – group of similar cells
determines the appropriate response
c. Effector – provides the meant o control the value of
4. Organ Level
a variable
▪▪ Organ – composed of two or more tissue types that
perform common functions
Terminology and The Body Plan
Body Positions
5. Organ System Level
Anatomical Position – a person standing erect with the face
▪▪ Organ System – group of organs classified as a unit directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the
with a common set of functions palms of the hands facing forward
6. Organism Level Supine – lying face upward
▪▪ Organism – any living thing considered as a whole
Prone – lying face downward
Characteristics of Life
1. Organization – interrelationship among the parts of
an organism and how those parts interact to perform
specific functions

2. Metabolism – ability to use energy to perform vital

functions

3. Responsiveness – ability to sense changes in the

environment and make the adjustments

4. Growth – increase in size

M o r a n o , M . A.
Directional Terms LOWER LIMB
Hip Coxal
Inferior Lower Thigh Femoral
Superior Higher Kneecap Pat`ellar
Leg Crural
Anterior Front
Posterior Back Foot Pedal
Ankle Talus
Ventral Belly Top of foot Dorsum
Dorsal Back Toes Digital

Proximal Nearest Skull Cranial

Distal Distant Base of Skull Occipital
Back of Neck Nuchal
Away from the
Lateral TRUNK
midline
Medial Towards the midline Back Dorsal
Shoulder blade Scapular
Superficial Toward or on surface Spinal Column Vertebral
Deep Internal Lumbar Loin

Between hips Sacral

Body Parts and Regions Buttock Gluteal
Perineum Perineal
Head Cephalic
Forehead Frontal UPPER LIMB
Eye Orbital Point of shoulder Acromial
Nose Nasal Point of elbow Olecranon
Mouth Oral Back of hand Dorsum
Ear Otic
Cheek Buccal LOWER LIMB
Chin Mental Hollow behind knee Popliteal
Calf Sural
Neck Cervical Sole Plantar
Heel Calcaneal
TRUNK
Thoracic Thorax
Chest Pectoral Subdivisions of the Abdomen
Breastbone Sternal
Breast Mammary Right Left
Upper Upper
Abdomen Abdominal Quadrant Quadrant
Navel Umbilical Right Left
Pelvis Pelvic Lower Lower
Quadrant Quadrant
Groin Inguinal
Genital Pubic
Right Left
UPPER LIMBS Epigastric
Hypochondriac Hypochondriac
Right Left
Collarbone Clavicular Umbilical
Lumbar Lumbar
Armpit Axillary Right Left
Arm Brachial Hypogastric
Iliac Iliac
Front of elbow Antecubital
Forearm Antebrachial

Hand Manual
Wrist Carpal
Palm Palmar
Fingers Digital

M o r a n o , M . A.
M o r a n o , M . A.
Planes

Body Cavities
Thoracic cavity – bounded by ribs and the diaphragm
➢➢ Mediastinum – partition containing the heart, thymus,
trachea, esophagus

Abdominal cavity – bounded by the diaphragm and the

abdominal muscles

Pelvic Cavity – surrounded by the pelvic bones’

Pericardial cavity – surrounds the heart

Pleural cavity – surrounds the lungs

Peritoneal cavity – surrounds certain abdominal and pelvic

organs

Serous Membranes
▪▪ Membrane that lines a body cavity which secrete a

lubricating film or fluid

Serous Membrane – covers the internal organs

Parietal Serous Membrane – lines the wall of the cavity

Visceral Serous Membrane - Inner

Mesenteries – hold the abdominal organs in place and provide

a passageway for blood vessels and nerves to organs

Pericarditis – inflammation of the pericardium

Pleurisy – inflammation of the pleura

Peritonitis – inflammation of the peritoneum

M o r a n o , M . A.
 Proteins
BIOMOLECULES ▪ Building blocks is AMINO ACIDS
▪ Highly complex substance that is present in all living
organisms
• Substances that are produced by cells which are necessary ▪ “Proteios” Greek word means first importance
for living things to survive
One Amino Acid Peptide
Two Amino Acid Dipeptide
Major Elements Present in Biomolecules
Levels of Protein Organization
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen 1. Primary (Linear)
3. Oxygen - Unique sequence of amino acid in the polypeptide chain
2. Secondary (Folding)
- Alpha helix and beta pleaded sheet
Carbohydrates 3. Tertiary (3 dimensional)
4. Quaternary (two or more polypeptide)
▪ Made of CHO
▪ Carbon (Carbo) Water (Hydrate)
▪ Building blocks of carbohydrate is MONOSSACHARIDES Nucleic Acids (DNA and RNA)

3 Common Dissacharides DNA

- Building block are NUCLEOTIDES
1. Sucrose
2. Maltose Nucleotide Nucleoside
3. Lactose Have phosphate Do not have phosphate

Polysaccharides Nucleotide Pairs

▪ Long chain of monossacharide link by glycosidic bonds Cytosine Guanine

▪ Examples : Glycogen, Starch, Cellulose Thymine Adenine
Uracil Adenine
Lipids

▪ Building blocks are GLYCEROL AND FATTY ACID

▪ Insoluble in water
▪ Inorganic
▪ Non- Polar
▪ Hydrophobic
▪ Hydrocarbons

Classes of Lipids

1. Phospholipids
- Found in biological membrane
2. Waxes
- Protection for leaves
3. Steroids
- Hormones

Two types of Fatty Acid

1. Saturated
- No double bonds
2. Unsaturated
- Some are double bonds

M o r a n o , M . A.
 Lysis – when cells swell, then ruptures
C E L L STRUCTURES Crenation – cell shrinking
AND FUNCTIONS Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms
Cell Structure
Carrier-mediated transport – Need a conformational change
Cell – basic unit of life
Channel Protein – Open and Close
Organelles – specialized structures, enclosed in a membrane
Facilitated diffusion – moves substances from a higher to
lower concentration; does not require ATP
1. Nucleus – control center
Endocytosis and Exocytosis
2. Cytoplasm – living material
Endocytosis – movement of materials into cells by formation of
vesicles
3. Plasma membrane – encloses the cytoplasm and
➢➢ Phagocytosis – cell eating; solid particles are ingested
nucleus
➢➢ Pinocytosis – cell drinking; smaller vesicles are formed
Functions of the Cell (CSCR) and contains liquid
1. Cell metabolism and energy use.
2. Synthesis of molecules. Exocytosis – secretion of materials from cells
3. Communication.
4. Reproduction and inheritance. Organelles
Nucleus
Cell Membrane Nuclear envelope – two-layered membrane that bounds the
▪▪ Outer boundary of the cell nucleus
▪▪ Determines what enters and leaves the cell
Nuclear pores – where materials can can pass into or out the
nucleus
Extracellular – substances outside the cell Intracellular
Nucleolus – produce RNA
– substances inside the cell
Nucleoli – consists of ribosomal RNA and proteins
Fluid-Mosaic Model – arrangement of molecules in the cell
membrane
Ribosomes
Selectively permeable – allows some substances to pass into ▪▪ Site of protein synthesis
or out of the cells
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Movement Through the Cell Membrane ▪▪ Forms tubules/sacs throughout the cell
Passive Transport
▪▪ Does not use ATP, does not need energy Rough E.R. – protein synthesis and modification; contains
Diffusion ribosomes
▪▪ Movement of a solute from an area of higher to lower
Smooth E.R. – lipid synthesis, detoxification, and Ca storage
concentration gradient
▪ Solute size, Solute Polarity, Solute Charge Golgi Apparatus
▪ Small substances, non- polar, no charge ▪▪ Modifies, packages, and distributes lipids and proteins
Concentration gradient – difference in the concentration of a Secretory vesicles
solute in a solvent minus the concentration of the solute at
▪▪ Transports and stores materials within cells
another point

Osmosis Lysosomes
▪▪ Diffusion of water across a selectively ▪▪ Membrane bound sacs containing hydrolytic enzymes
permeable membrane

Osmotic pressure – force required to prevent movement of

water across a selectively permeable membrane

Hypotonic – lower concentration

Isotonic – same concentration

Hypertonic – higher concentration

M o r a n o , M . A.
 Peroxisomes Sister Chromatids
▪▪ Enzymes that digest fatty acids and amino acids - kinetochore is a part where microtubules or spindle fibers are
▪▪ Enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of hydrogen attached
peroxide
Mitosis (Diploid)
Proteasomes - Somatic or Body Cell
▪▪ Not bound by membranes - Produce 2 daughter Cells
▪▪ Digest selected proteins - Growth and Repair

Mitochondria Interphase
▪▪ Major site of ATP production, Powerhouse of the Cell - longer phase of cell division

Cytoskeleton Phase Event

▪▪ Holds organelles in place; enables the cell to G0 non-dividing cell, just performing the function,
change shape any type where the cell does not replicate
G1 organelle and cytosolic components duplication,
▪▪ Microtubules – support the cytoplasm; assist in cell
all of the organelles do replicate
division
S replication of DNA and centrosomes
Microfilaments – involved in cell movement G2 Cell growth and protein synthesis

Intermediate filaments – provide mechanical support *Histone- help in coiling of DNA

Cillia, Flagella, and Microvilli DNA >> Nucleosomes>> Chromatin>>Chromatin Loops>

Cilia – moves substances over the surface
Flagella – propel sperm cells
Microvilli – increase the surface area of cells; aids in
absorption
Cell Life Cycle
Two Phases of the Cell Life Cycle
1. Interphase – non-dividing phase
2. Cell Division – formation of daughter cells from a
single parent cell
46 Chromosomes – diploid no. of chromosomes
2 X Chromosome = Female
X + Y Chromosome = Male
Autosomes – 22 remaining pairs of chromosomes
>Condensed Chromatin Loops >> Chromosomes
Prophase (Begin)
- the chromatin is condensing forming in mitotic chromosomes
- nuclear envelopes are disappearing
- centrosomes are slowly migrating towards both ends of the
cell
Prometaphase
- the nuclear envelopes are completely disappeared
Metaphase (M-Middle)
- chromosomes are align in the middle
Anaphase (A-Away)
- the chromatids are separate to form two sets
- they are now daughter chromosomes

Microtubules Telophase (End)

- part of the cytoskeleton - slowly the nuclear envelope is coming back
- framework, support, transport - chromosomes resume into chromatin form
- protein called tubulin - mitotic spindle disappears
- tubulin either form of circular or dimer (means two)
Cytokinesis
Centrioles - division of the cytoplasm so that the both cells can be free
- 9 groups of microtubules from one another in which they will form two cells
- form in a barrel shape wheel

Centrosomes
- pair of centrioles
- organizing center of microtubules
- in which in mitosis it is called spindle fiber

Homologous Chromosomes and Sister Chromatids

- homologous have same size, same shape, same gene, same
specific loci
- sister chromatids are replicated homologous chromosomes
M o r a n o , M . A.
 ▪▪ Cilia – propel materials
TISSUES ▪▪ Goblet Cells – specialized mucus-­‐‑producing
▪▪ A group of cells with similar structure and function cells
that have similar extracellular substances located
between them.

Histology
The microscopic study of tissue structure

Epithelial Tissue
▪▪ Mostly composed of cells
▪▪ Cover body surface
▪▪ Cell and Matrix Connection
▪▪ Capable of regeneration

Functions of Epithelial Tissues (PAPSA)

1. Protecting underlying structures.
2. Acting as a barrier.
3. Permitting the passage of substances.
4. Secreting substances.
5. Absorbing substances.

Classification of Epithelium
Accdg. To Layers
1. Simple E. – single layered
2. Stratified E. – multi-­‐‑layered
3. Pseudostratified Columnar E – single layered
but appears to be stratified, one nucleus per cell
4. Transitional E – stratified x can be greatly
stretched

Accdg. To Shape
1. Squamous – scaly flat
2. Cuboidal – square or cube-­‐‑like
3. Columnar – tall and thin, have column

Functional Characteristics
Cell Layers and Cell Shapes
▪▪ Simple E. -­‐‑ diffusion, filtration, secretion, or
absorption; found in organs: to move materials
▪▪ Stratified E. -­‐‑ protection
▪▪ Squamous Cells -­‐‑ diffusion and filtration
▪▪ Cuboidal and Columnar Cells – secretion and
absorption

Free Surfaces
▪▪ Smooth free surface – reduces friction
▪▪ Microvilli – increase the free surface are

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