January/February

January/February 2024
2024 •• Vol.65
Vol.65 •• No.1
No.1

ROUNDTABLE Q&A
COVER STORY COMPRESSORS
COMPRESSORS SHOWQ&A
REPORT VENDOR
TURBO
SPOTLIGHT
TIPS
Digital
The Twins
State of
in Hydrogen
the Real World:
in Hydrogen
Challenges
Compression
with Heavy- Turbo
HowExpo
Computational
2023: Gas Turbines’
Fluid RMKey
AnsaldoConsiderations
Energia Showcases
& Risks
its
the
Improving
Turbomachinery
Maintenance
Industry
and Hydrocarbon
Prospects & Challenges
Compressor Role in
Dynamics
a Sustainable
Benefit
Future Operating,
Steam Controlling
Turbine Portfolio
Compressors
Plant Efficiency Operations Turbomachinery

TurbomachineryMag.com

Digital
TWINS
 DIGITAL TWINS
in the Wild
ESTABLISHED IN 1959
FOUNDERS G. Renfrew Brighton and R. Tom Sawyer

EDITORIAL
VICE PRESIDENT, CONTENT EXECUTIVE CORRESPONDENTS
Colleen Hall Amin Almasi
CHall@mjhlifesciences.com Klaus Brun
Mark Axford
ASSISTANT MANAGING EDITOR

D
Alissa Marrapodi CUSTOM PROJECTS DIRECTOR
AMarrapodi@mjhlifesciences.com Robert Alaburda
igital twins have a long history of use yet a varied definition
ASSISTANT EDITOR CUSTOM PROJECTS
James Cook MANAGING EDITOR
depending on who you ask. Fortunately, our former editor Drew
JCook@mjhlifesciences.com Jeanne Linke Northrop Robb authored this month’s cover story and breaks down digital
HANDBOOK EDITOR CUSTOM PROJECTS twins and their role in plant operations, maintenance, and
Bob Maraczi, 203-513-1073 SENIOR EDITORS
RMaraczi@mmjhlifesciences.com Megan Manzano performance.
Shannon Stolz
Terri Somers The January/February cover story takes readers to a power plant on the
Ford campus in Dearborn, Michigan, which is operated by DTE Energy and
CREATIVE SERVICES & PRODUCTION
uses digital twins to run plant operations in real time and aid operators in
CREATIVE DIRECTOR— PRODUCTION SUPERVISOR
PUBLISHING Charlton Prince
monitoring, running, and maintaining two heat recovery steam generators.
Melissa Feinen
PRODUCTION COORDINATOR
It also features turbomachinery-related examples from GE Digital,
ART DIRECTOR Amber Immordino Siemens, Emerson, and Mitsubishi Power and how digital twins optimize
Wassana Techadilok
CIRCULATION & AUDIENCE performance and reliability and enable predictive and AI-driven mainte-
CIRCULATION DIRECTOR DEVELOPMENT DIRECTOR
Jon Severn Stacy Argondizzo nance strategies.
This issue also features a comprehensive article on the Challenges
SALES & MARKETING
Associated with Heavy Hydrocarbon Compressor Operations. Mark R.
U.S.A. AND CANADA JAPAN
Cybill Tascarella Yoshinori Ikeda
Sandberg’s feature offers readers several actions to take to address
485 F Suite 210, Rt. 1 South Pacific Business, Inc., Chuo-ku, aftercooler discharge temperature and avoid the negative operational
Iselin, NJ 08830 Tokyo, Japan
T: 732-853-6321 T: 81-3-3661-6138
impact of partial condensation.
CTascarella@mjhlifesciences.com F: 81-3-3661-6139 Ansaldo Energia also showcases its steam turbine portfolio in this
pbi2010@gol.com
GERMANY, AUSTRIA, issue’s Vendor Spotlight. The company’s history dates back to 1853 with
SWITZERLAND INDIA, MIDDLE EAST
Sven Anacker Faredoon Kuka
the founding of Giovanni Ansaldo & Co., and now operates several
InterMediaPartners GmbH RMA media, Andheri (E), subsidiaries out of its headquarters in Genova, Italy.
Beyeroehde 14 Mumbai-400059, India
Wuppertal, D-42389, Germany T: 91-22-6570-3081/82
Amin Almasi’s Turbo Tips column, How to Manage Bolt Connections &
T: 49-202-271-690 F: 91-22-2925-3735 Joints in Turbomachines, discusses proper care, sizing, tension, and
F: 49-202-271-6920 kuka@rmamedia.com
sanacker@intermediapartners.de
placement of bolt connections to avoid leaks and other operational
KOREA, SOUTHEAST ASIA
UK, BENELUX, SCANDINAVIA, Leithen Francis
problems. And the Myth Busters wrote a fun piece on the hot topic of
ITALY, FRANCE Francis and Low, Singapore green hydrogen: Green Hydrogen for Power Generation: Is it a Unicorn?
Ferruccio Silvera T: 65-6337-0818
Viale Monza 24 leithen@francisandlow.com
You’ll have to read their column to find out!
20127 Milano, Italy
SALES AND MARKETING
T: 39-022846716
F: 39-022893849
COORDINATOR Enjoy our winter issue.
Monica Flick
ferruccio@silvera.it

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ADMINISTRATION
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2 • www.turbomachinerymag.com
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table of contents
CONNECT WITH US:
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@turbomachinery-international
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January/February 2024 • VOLUME 65 • ISSUE 01
JCook@mjhlifesciences.com

10

Cover image: TU Braunschweig full-scale research engine to develop a digital twin; photo credit: Jan Göing/TU Braunschweig.
02 From the Editor 14 Q&A
The digital A Q&A with Cadence Design Systems:

twin helped us 05 Industry News How CFD Benefits Turbomachinery

Recent news from the industry
show that the
16 Compressors
HA gas turbine 06 New Products Challenges Associated with Heavy
should continue The latest turbomachinery Hydrocarbon Compressor Operations
to operate as industry innovations
planned, even 22 Vendor Spotlight
in the most 08 Turbo Tips Ansaldo Energia Showcases its Steam
challenging How to Manage Bolt Connections & Turbine Portfolio
Joints in Turbomachines
conditions.”
24 Myth Busters
— Khalid Salem 10 Cover Story Green Hydrogen for Power Generation:
Manager
Digital Twins in the Real World: Is it a Unicorn?
GE Digtial
Improving Maintenance and Plant
Efficiency

4 • www.turbomachinerymag.com

Vagner Rego, Hans Straberg, Mats
Rahmstrom. Credit: Atlas Copco
Vagner Rego Appointed
CEO of Atlas Copco
The board of directors for Atlas Copco
Group has appointed Vagner Rego as
the next president and CEO, effective
May 1, 2024. Rego has experience as
an engineer and leader of compressor
technique service divisions. He will
be taking over for former CEO,
Mats Rahmström.
MAN Energy Supplies
Dual-Fuel, Marine
Engines
MAN Energy Solutions will
provide 48 MAN 18V51/60DF
dual-fuel engines for
Karpowership’s fleet of power-
ships, adding 1,000 MW to its
current capacity of 6,000 MW.
MAN will install control systems
and electromechanical equip- Orhan Bey powership. Credit: MAN Energy Solutions
ment on the powerships.
MAN Energy Solutions will also supply three MAN 49/60 medium-speed marine
engines for installation on Royal Boskalis’ 31,000 m3 trailing suction hopper dredger.
GT36 gas turbine. Credit: Ansaldo Energia
GE Vernova Upgrades Turbines, Updates C-Suite Team
GE Vernova installed advanced gas path
upgrades on four 9F.03 gas turbines at the
Sabiya combined-cycle power plant in Al
Jahra, Kuwait. The plant will also receive
supply and maintenance services for a
seven-year term.
Ansaldo Energia Deploys
GT36 Turbines in China
A combined-cycle plant in China’s Minhang
Industrial Zone entered commercial operation
with Ansaldo Energia’s GT36 gas turbines. The
gas turbine installment assisted the plant in its
transition from coal-fired power to clean energy.
Turbomachinery International • January/February 2024 •
Industry News
Sabiya power plant. Credit: GE Vernova
GE Vernova also updated its leadership
team as the organization progresses
toward a planned spin-off from GE at the
start of Q2 2024: Jessica Uhl was appointed
as president, and Pablo Koziner as chief
commercial officer, effective Jan. 22.
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5
NEW
PRODUCTS
The latest turbomachinery industry innovations
Hitachi Energy: HyFlex Generator
The HyFlex is an integrated, scalable
unit for temporary or permanent
installation to supplement diesel-
Avnos: Hybrid Direct Air Capture System
The hybrid DAC system is a VERSATILE MODULAR APPROACH
water-positive solution that
produces 5 tons of liquid
distilled water per ton of CO2 Ambient
air intake
captured. Water captured from
the atmosphere is run through
a moisture-swing CO2
adsorbent material to eliminate
the need for heat input and
reducing energy consumption
by more than 50%.  3D rendering of the hybrid DAC system. Credit: Avnos
6 • www.turbomachinerymag.com
 HyFlex generator unit. Credit: Hitachi Energy
driven power grid connections. The delivers 1 MVA or more per unit. It is
medium-power variant delivers 400 emission-free and produce AC power,
– 600 kVA and the high-power variant serviceable heat, and water.
GE Vernova: Fleet
Orchestration
Fleet Orchestration enables the
maximum use of energy in power
utilities through AI, ML, and advanced
modeling. It includes performance
predictions and unit commitment opti-
mizer modules to provide energy
CO 2 capture predictions and probabilistic insights
section
for planning. GE Vernova’s GridOS
AEM system can be integrated for
Water capture section
grid orchestration applications.
 MAN Energy Solutions: 175DF-M Methanol-Ready
Engine and IMOKAT II Catalyst
The 175DF-M engine is a dual-fuel version of the MAN 175D high-speed engine with
methanol fuel capability. It will be available in both newbuild and retrofit variants,
optimized for
diesel-mechanical
and diesel-electric
 AxSTREAM rendering of a radial
propulsion with low
turbine. Credit: SoftInWay fuel consumption,
low lube-oil
SoftInWay: consumption, and
AxSTREAM System extended overhaul
times.
Simulation Update The IMOKAT II
AxSTREAM software features oxidation catalyst is
thermal and fluid component designed to reduce
analysis, component custo- methane slippage
mization, and capabilities for for four-stroke
parametric studies. It can engines. It is
customize components and sulfur-resistant and
perform calculations to provide lacks precious
insights on system behavior metals, so the material  MAN 175DF-M methanol-ready engine.

affected by various conditions. can be pre-heated in

SoftInWay also integrated an diesel mode before gas operation. The pre-turbo methane oxidation catalyst may
AI-based Wikibot. reduce methane emissions by up to 70% at full load.

 Demonstration test for the IMOKAT II catalyst. Credit: MAN Energy Solutions

Malta: Long-
Duration Energy
Storage System
Malta’s grid-scale,
long-duration ESS
enhances energy
security for utilities and
grid operators. It can
store electricity for
eight hours to eight
days or longer. A
thermoelectric design
offers a flexible,
low-cost, scalable
solution to store energy
over extended periods
of time.

Turbomachinery International • January/February 2024 • 7


How to Manage Bolt
Connections & Bolt Joints
in Turbomachines
Bolt connections can be the weakest link of a turbomachine, so proper care, sizing,
tension, and placement are key to avoiding leaks and other operational problems.
urbomachines feature several types
of joint connections. Bolt connec-
tions, flange connections, and bolt joints
are the most widely used; however, flange
and bolt connections are major points for
leakage and operational problems.
Many turbomachinery components,
such as casings and piping, need disman-
tled or disconnected. Bolt connections,
which make disconnection possible, may
seem simple, but they can be complex in
their mechanical behavior, performance,
and operation. Typically, the behavior of a
bolt connection is highly nonlinear and
complicated, so bolt connections should
only be used to disassemble or adjust for
operation or maintenance. In addition,
bolt connections are expensive compared
to welding and other types of connections,
and they are relatively heavy and need
special care and provisions, such as
inspection, maintenance, etc.
8 • www.turbomachinerymag.com
TURBO TIPS
BY AMIN ALMASI
CRITICALITY OF DIFFERENT
BOLT CONNECTIONS
Bolt connections only account for a small
amount of the overall budget of a tur-
bomachine. However, they are responsi-
ble for many leaks, operational problems,
shutdowns, and failures. Bolt-connection
requirements often determine the size
and design of attached items, modules,
and subsections. Specific nonstandard
bolt connections may require extra
thought in connection sizing, configura-
tion, and installation.
NONLINEARITIES, YIELDING &
COMPLICATIONS
Many components are involved in a bolt
connection. Bolt details (size, patterns,
etc.), the application/details of nuts/
washers, connecting plates/components,
and the main connected assemblies all
have a significant effect on the
performance and reliability of the bolt
connection. Any one of the involved parts
can fail or cause failure in the bolt
connection—bolt failure, cracks, and/or
damages at bolt holes, failures due to
bending stresses, buckling of parts, such
the compression flange, and others.
Despite widespread applications,
bolting connections are surprisingly
unfamiliar to engineers, operators, and
experts. Some sources of difficulties are:
„ Local yielding in different parts. This
involves localized loads and highly
localized stresses.
„ High nonlinearities. For example,
material nonlinearity due to stress-
strain relationships and the involvement
of complex contact and contact stresses.
As components yield and plastic zones
extend, the behavior of the bolt connec-
tion gets more complicated and becomes

highly nonlinear. After some yielding,
there are bolt load (plastic) redistribu-
tions that usually lead to an increased
moment capacity of the bolt connection
and reduced stiffness of the connection
and connected components. However, the
redistribution of plastic/inelastic bolt
loads/forces is a complex phenomenon. In
general, many theories and methods, even
modern ones, cannot predict the behavior
and performance of bolt connections
accurately. Some underestimate the
forces and stresses, and others overesti-
mate the forces/stresses.
BOLT TENSION
Bolts should be tensioned using proper
methods before a turbomachine assumes
loading. This is a necessary step for any
bolting joint to ensure that the load-bear-
ing and load-transmitting plies are brought
into effective contact. The final tensioning
of the bolt connection should proceed from
the stiffest part of the connection toward
the free edges. Previously tensioned bolts
could have been loosened by adjusting
adjacent bolts, so re-tightening and
-tensioning may be required.
OPTIMIZATION & KEY AREAS
OF CONCERN
Bolt connections should be sufficiently
strong, rigid, and stiff to prevent any
leakage or operational mishaps under
adverse scenarios. On the other hand,
connections in general, and bolt connec-
tions in particular, should be lightweight,
compact, and cost-effective. Given that
bolt-connection components are expen-
sive when compared to the connecting
module or section, selecting the appropri-
ate size and bolt optimizes installation
and cost.
If bolts, relative to the members or
parts they connect, are not strong enough,
they will break. If the reverse is true, the
TURBO TIPS
member or part might weaken due to
fatigue. If connecting plates or sections
are not strong enough, they may fail in the
bolt hole. Although the entire bolt
connection should be strong and ideally
designed for infinite life, it is easier to
periodically replace a few bolts rather
than break the entire bolted connection,
which can be troublesome and expensive.
Key areas of concern for bolt connec-
tions are:
1. losses in bolt tension after
installation (changes in bolt tension
over time);
2. slip resistance of the joint;
3. the ability to tighten the bolts using
standard installation techniques;
and
4. washer requirements for normal
bolt holes and oversized (slotted)
bolt holes.
RELAXATION & LOSS IN BOLT
PRELOADS
For typical high-strength bolts in normal
circumstances, the total loss of the
preload due to relaxation should be below
25% of the initial preload, and, in many
cases, it should be below 20%—so on
average, 10-18%. Preload is usually
unaffected by small temperature changes.
For bolts tightened to their yield point,
bolt relaxations between 6 - 12% can occur
after 5 - 10 years of operation. A large
portion of the loss in bolt load occurs
within days or weeks after tightening.
Washers and their details play a vital
role in this regard. The loss of preload is
about 6 - 8% for a typical bolt connection
with two washers and about 10 - 14% for a
bolt connection with one washer (10 - 15
years of operation).
BOLT JOINTS UNDER VIBRATION
In general, bolt connections on turboma-
chines and rotating equipment under
Turbomachinery International • January/February 2024 •
vibration or dynamic/shaking forces need
focused care. Nuts that are subject to
vibration should also be secured.
Some experts suggest not using slotted
(bolt) holes under fatigue-loading
conditions. However, others support the
use of slotted holes in certain conditions.
The risk of movement under dynamic/
cyclic load should be considered and
properly addressed.
BOLT CONNECTION DETAILS
Bolt connections and their counterparts
are often the weakest link in a turboma-
chine or connected piping. As such, the
load capacities of each component and
connection should be evaluated, including
connectors such as bolts, nuts, and
washers, and connection components
such as plates or flanges.
There should be sufficient distance
between bolt holes and between each bolt
hole and the edge of the connecting plate/
part to avoid failure. Similarly, to tighten
bolts, ensure there is access to each one
and sufficient distances between bolts and
the surrounding obstacles.
To prevent bolts from tearing,
center-to-center spacing should be at least
2.5 times the bolt-hole diameter and edge
distance, ranging from 1.5 to 1.75 times the
diameter, depending on how the edge is
cut. To be safe, it should be 1.75 times, or
even two times, the diameter. ■
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Amin Almasi is a
Chartered Professional
Engineer in Australia
and the U.K.
(M.Sc. and B.Sc. in
mechanical
engineering). He is a senior consultant
specializing in rotating equipment,
condition monitoring and reliability.
9
COVER STORY

Digital Twins IN THE

Real World
Digital twins can improve maintenance and plant efficiency.

BY DREW ROBB

10 • www.turbomachinerymag.com
D
igital twins have been
talked about for several
years, but the complexity of
turbine and compressor
operations has limited their real-world
applications. But that is changing. Most of
the large OEMs report implementations
or at least large-scale trials. And a variety
of software, IT, and industrial vendors
have leapt into the arena to add their
digitization expertise to digital-twin
initiatives. This includes Ansys, Nvidia,
Emerson, Vital Technology Services
(VTS), Expert Microsystems, Siemens,
and AnyLogic.
WHAT IS A DIGITAL TWIN?
There are various opinions of what a
digital twin is, but the basic definition is
relatively simple.
“A digital twin is a set of comput-
er-generated models that map a physical
object onto a virtual space with the most
Cover image: TU Braunschweig full-scale research engine to develop a digital twin; photo credit: Jan Göing/TU Braunschweig.
up-to-date data,” said Anastasiya
Malinovskaya, Content Manager at
simulation and digital twin software
provider AnyLogic.
A digital twin, then, is a digital
representation of an intended or actual
real-world physical product, system, or
process. It can be seen as a digital
counterpart of equipment or an entire
facility that can be used for simulation,
integration, testing, monitoring, and
maintenance that accurately reflects the
equipment or facility’s ongoing opera-
tions. They can be used to simulate
planned changes to see how the turbine
will perform prior to the physical work
being done. They can also be used to stay
on top of performance and maintenance
operations in real time. A multitude of
sensors provide data on all aspects of
operations, so the twin matches the
equipment it mirrors.
Rainer Kurz, Manager of Gas
Compression Engineering at Solar
Turbines, divided digital twins into two
categories: physics-based models that
focus on thermodynamic and aerody-
namic parameters; and digital twins that
attempt to monitor vibration, tempera-
tures, operating range, and other opera-
tional parameters. The former category is
used by OEMs to simulate new designs.
The latter category is directly related to
operational decisions and thus demands
that those running turbines trust the
conclusions of the digital twin.
“The idea is to increase the reliability
and the availability of machinery,” Kurz
said. “Physics-based models are a lot easier
to implement than big-data models.”
REAL-WORLD EXAMPLES
Probably the best example of a digital twin
in the wild is at a power plant on the Ford
campus in Dearborn, Michigan. A
decade-long modernization project
includes office complexes, research and
development facilities, and the Dearborn
Central Energy Plant (CEP). Operated by
DTE Energy, the CEP generates electricity
and distributes chilled water, hot water,
and steam to nearby buildings. The CEP
contains a combined-heat-and-power
(CHP) plant and a chilled/hot water plant
for power generation and steam produc-
tion. Digital twin and other technologies
make it possible for one person per shift
to manage both maintenance
and operations.
“A single person looks after the entire
34-MW 87,000-square-foot facility 76% of
the time,” said Kevin Siess, Regional
Operations Manager at DTE Energy. “Our
plant operators are also our maintenance
staff who can monitor the plant and its
control systems while they are doing
their rounds.”
Turbomachinery International • January/February 2024 •
Digital-twin technology is courtesy of
the VTS HardHAT system. As well as a
digital twin, it provides 3D modeling,
inventory, and computerized maintenance
monitoring systems (CMMS). It is supported
and integrated with SureSense asset
performance management (APM) software
by Expert Microsystems. In addition, Solar
Turbine’s Turbotronic control system is
used for sequencing, control, and protection
of the gas turbine package and monitoring
of associated auxiliary systems. A Rockwell
Automation historian and Allen Bradley
PlantPAx distributed control system
(DCS) are used to control the entire CEP.
Collectively, that adds up to about
12,000 datapoints that are sent to the
historian. All of it is available in VTS. Trip
alerts are automatically generated on key
equipment running in the CEP, such as
two 14.5-MW Solar Titan 130 gas turbines,
a 5-MW condensing steam turbine from
Siemens Energy, heat recovery steam
generators (HRSGs) from Rentech Boiler
Systems, and feedwater pumps.
Digital-twin technology aids operators
in monitoring all aspects of running and
maintaining two HRSGs. For example, the
high-fired waterwall, O-type HRSGs from
Rentech are designed to provide up to 225
kilo-pounds per hour (KPPH) of 200 psig
saturated steam.
“Pattern management and 3D
modeling enable operators to keep a close
eye on hot water and high-pressure steam
metrics,” said Siess.
Operators can view a digital twin of
the HRSGs and drill down into systems
and components as needed. The CMMS
pushes out upcoming maintenance
actions. Parts are flagged that need
maintained or replaced based on usage.
A recent incident involved power loss to
the HRSG. Alerts were generated immedi-
ately. Investigation detected a power
11
COVER STORY
Rentech HRSGs in the CHP plant are monitored by digital twins. Credit: DTE Energy
supply drop off to the programmable logic
controller (PLC) that tripped the HRSG. It
was resolved within 90 minutes.
The Rentech HRSGs include supplemen-
tal firing. By raising the gas turbine exhaust
temperature via supplemental firing, steam
production can be greatly increased.
Operators control supplemental firing from
the booth and monitor temperature,
pressure, and steam output numbers.
“This kind of automation is increasingly
needed as the power generation labor pool
is rapidly shrinking,” noted Siess.
After a recent scheduled outage, the
SureSense system generated an alert
about the oil temperature exiting the shaft
bearings rising from 219°F by 10°F. While
still 40°F below the alarm level, the
software flagged the condition as abnor-
mal. Solar Turbines has scheduled a seal
replacement during the next scheduled
outage unless the problem worsens.
“A sudden shift in oil temperature can
lead to more varnish potential and make
the unit and ancillary cooling equipment
work harder,” said Siess. “It is vital that we
catch issues at an early stage to prevent a
major failure.”
Another example of the value of a digital
twin concerned a problematic gas
12 • www.turbomachinerymag.com
compressor. Drilling into data within the
HardHat system, the operators discovered a
slide gate out of calibration that caused
unnecessary gas recirculation that had
increased parasitic load and system wear. It
was repaired before serious problems arose.
Siess reported only two trips in 2022,
leading to a total of four hours of
unplanned downtime for the year.
Scheduled maintenance takes place in
spring and fall. Each gas turbine and
HRSG is taken down for two to three days.
While one unit is being serviced, the other
continues to operate to ensure the flow of
steam to Ford is never interrupted.
Features built into the Rentech HRSG
provide further assurance of steam flow. A
fresh air firing capability utilizes a forced
draft fan so the HRSG can be operated
when the gas turbine is offline. The fan
draws in ambient air and the duct burner
provides heat to generate 80 KPPH of
steam. A louvre-type diverter valve
installed between the HRSG and the
turbine facilitates steam/electricity
switching. If there is no current steam
demand, flue gas from the turbine can be
diverted up a bypass stack instead of
through the HRSG, generating electricity
and not steam.
Siess added that automation enables
DTE to untether the operator from the
chair to go on maintenance rounds for 45
minutes or more without anyone in the
control room. Data on plant operation is
available via mobile device, which brings
the control room into the field. Alerts are
issued if anything needs attention.
“The right technology gives people
enough confidence in automation so they
can walk away,” said Siess. “Our opera-
tions staff is now comfortably performing
80% of all maintenance activities.”
DIGITAL TWIN IN
TURBO-RELATED FUNCTIONS
Few have gone as far as DTE in trusting
their digital twins to run plant operations
in real time, but there are other examples
of digital twins being used for various
turbomachinery-related functions:
Aluminium Bahrain (Alba) boasts the
world’s largest single-site aluminum
smelter. Powering these smelters
requires 800 MW to heat the metal to
nearly 1,000°C. During product evalua-
tion for this new facility, GE’s HA-turbine
lacked the operating hours to be
approved for the project. Alba voiced
concern about how the turbines might
impact the Bahrain grid if they suffered
an unscheduled outage.
GE Digital applied its Predix software
platform to run a digital twin of the HA
using data from the first HA running at a
power plant in Bouchain, France, as well
as numerous simulations to show how the
turbines would react to different situa-
tions. This demonstrated that if the
turbines shut down, the effect on
Bahrain’s national grid should be minimal.
Alba moved ahead with an order for three
9HA turbines as well as three GE steam
turbines and three HRSGs.
“The digital twin helped us show that
the HA should continue to operate as
planned, even in the most challenging
conditions,” said Khalid Salem, a manager
at GE Digital.
 Siemens Energy is active in digital-twin technology in
applications like transformers and gearing. There was also a
pilot project running a few years ago using the AnyLogic
Agent-based Turbine Operations & Maintenance
(ATOM) model. This digital-twin technology
was implemented to address operational
disparities between Siemens
aeroderivative units and a unit it
acquired from Rolls-Royce (now
known as the SGT-A65). The
ATOM digital-twin approach
proved more effective than the
Excel-based forecasting tools
previously used to monitor the
SGT-A65. ATOM simulated
turbine conditions, tempera-
ture, engine characteristics,
failure modes, and maintenance
operations across the fleet; identified
bottlenecks; and supplied the simula-
tions needed to determine better invest-
ment decisions related to upgrades and Digital rendition of the CHP showing
turbine replacements. the Rentech HRSG stacks and the Solar
Emerson and Mitsubishi Power are Titan turbines. Credit: DTE Energy
working together on digital-twin technolo-
gies to optimize performance and reliability and enable predictive
and AI-driven maintenance strategies. They are combining
Mitsubishi Power’s Tomoni digital platform with Emerson’s
Ovation automation solutions that incorporate an embedded
digital twin. The collaboration is aimed at enhancing the perfor-
mance and reliability of power plants operating with Mitsubishi
Power gas and steam turbines.
“The simulation solution will seamlessly receive data and
operate in parallel with the plant’s integrated control systems
and other enterprise platforms to support commissioning and
training,” said Marco Sanchez, Vice President of Intelligent
Solutions at Mitsubishi Power.
Beyond the big turbine and control OEMs, Ansys helps
organizations across many verticals to build their own digital
twins. Ansys Twin Builder software combines physics-based
data with analytics. The company reports that one utility used
its model to predict turbine stresses, saving more than $100,000 be tailored to a very specific application,” said Brun. “As each
in a year by avoiding unplanned downtime.
Siemens, too, (as distinct from Siemens Energy) offers
digital-twin software that has been implemented in aerospace,
drones, fusion energy, electronics, and semi-conductors. The
closest to a turbomachinery application is a project for SANY
Heavy Energy. This real-time digital twin is said to have increased
energy efficiency and lowered levelized cost of electricity by 10%,
improved wind turbine efficiency and wind farm design efficiency
by 50%, and reduced maintenance costs.
Solar Turbines also uses digital models extensively, both in the
development and improvement of existing products, as
well as in its Insight condition monitoring system.
“The former involves detail, component
and full engine simulations, supported and
augmented by test data, while the latter
provides a framework to interpret and
act upon operational data,” said Kurz.
Elliott Group currently uses
advanced multi-physics based digital
twins in its controls and fleet-moni-
toring systems. These digital twins for
compressor performance, steam
turbines, and vibrations rely on
accurate modeling of the function of the
turbomachine rather than big data and AI.
“They have been proven to be reliable
and accurate,” said Klaus Brun, Director of R&D
at Elliott Group. “Nonetheless, for applications
where significant test data is available either
from factory or field operations, such as for
bearings and seals, AI is being currently explored
for utilization of subsystem digital twins.”
DIGITAL TWINS AND COMPRESSORS
Digital twins, then, have many applications. Brun believes AI and
statistics-based digital twins add more value with gas and steam
turbines that have hundreds and sometimes thousands of
similar turbines operating around the globe. Those managing
large fleets and OEMs monitoring their own units in the field can
gather massive amounts of operational parameters and use the
data to improve performance, lower emissions, spot degrada-
tion, and avoid unplanned downtime.
But data-based digital twins don’t work well in every
situation. The compressor market, in particular, is so geared to
one-of-a-kind manufacturing that digital twins have
limited applicability.
“Even if you have 1,000 compressors out there, each one of
them is going to have different impellers and bearings inside and
one behaves differently, you can’t correlate data from one
machine to another no matter how big your data set is.”
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Drew Robb, former editor of Turbomachinery International, is a freelance writer specializing
in engineering and technology. Email Drew at drew@robbeditorial.com.
Turbomachinery International • January/February 2024 • 13
Q&A
How Computational
Fluid Dynamics Benefit
Turbomachinery
Jean-Charles Bonaccorsi and Carolyn Woeber, Joint Application Engineering
Directors at Cadence Design Systems, discuss the role of computational fluid
dynamics in the design lifecycle, turbomachinery emissions, decarbonization,
and more.
Jean-Charles Bonaccorsi
A
ccurately
capturing the
characteristics of
fluid flow through a compres-
sor or another turbomachine is
critical to understanding its
performance under different
operating conditions. Many
analysis tools are used by
engineers to predict the
behavior of gases and liquids to
find the best design for their
needs, including analytical
14 • www.turbomachinerymag.com
Carolyn Woeber
methods, empirical correla-
tions, physical experiment, and
computational fluid dynamics
(CFD). Most engineers are
familiar with and use analyti-
cal/empirical analyses and
experimental setups when
evaluating potential designs.
Increasingly, more organiza-
tions are moving to accelerate
their design processes by also
incorporating CFD
simulations.
Engineers use CFD in their
design process by starting
with mechanical comput-
er-aided design (MCAD)
models as a foundation. On
these models, they construct
2D meshes that adhere to and
resolve the model geometry to
the level of fidelity required
for the numerical simulation.
A mesh is then constructed in
the 3D volumetric space in
which the fluid flow analyses
need to be conducted. This 3D
space can be internal flow,
external flow, or a combina-
tion of both depending on the
configuration. The topology
used to define both the surface
and volume mesh regions can
vary depending on the type of
fluid flow phenomena being
studied. Different topologies
can provide flow alignment or
control over mesh resolution,
which can be beneficial for
increased accuracy in the
simulation. These meshes are
fed into CFD solver programs,
which solve complex sets of
partial differential equations
to compute velocity, tempera-
ture, pressure, entropy, etc.,
for the entire flow field as
defined by the mesh. With the
use of high-speed supercom-
puters, which are often
required for complex configu-
rations, these solutions can be
obtained quickly and with a
high level of accuracy for
challenging physical phenom-
ena. Initial computational
results are normally validated
against experimental data.
The final data sets from these
simulations are later com-
pared against existing
experimental data from full
configuration testing and
against any analytical/
empirical calculations that
were made.
Used in this way, CFD
accelerates existing design
processes as it enables the
exploration of design spaces in
ways and to an extent that
would be cost-prohibitive, if
not technically infeasible,
using experiment alone.

Q How does CFD software impact
the turbomachinery industry?
Bonaccorsi CFD is an efficient way to use
resources when doing fluid analysis because
an operator doesn’t have to rely on the
eight-hour workday to limit how much the
analysis can progress. With CFD software, a
simulation can run overnight. You press the
button, go home, and come back the next
morning with the job done. With scalable
tools such as CFD software, the investment
costs for enhancing workflow are the
number of machines running.
Woeber For turbomachinery design
workflows, there are a wide range of
computing platforms available that give
companies flexibility to approach these
challenges in a way that best suit the
scalability they need for their
design processes.
Q How can CFD be used in the
context of real-world design
scenarios?
Bonaccorsi Because of the scalability
factor of CFD, a team can quickly review
different designs and verify that its
conclusions are correct. Everyone has
access to a central processing unit,
graphics processing unit, and the cloud,
which means CFD is quite accessible
to designers.
Woeber CFD data can complement the
work that designers are doing from an
experimental point of view. For instance,
it can be challenging to capture factors
such as cavitation, fatigue, and other
stressors that can occur. In an experimen-
tal rig, data will only come from where
sensors are placed. With CFD, when you
run a simulation, you’re getting the entire
flow field. That allows you to rapidly
identify where you might have some
inefficiencies or where a failure could take
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place that you may not capture in an
experimental setup. Here, engineers will
get a more immediate idea of what the
final design should look like.
Q How can CFD help gas
turbines curtail emissions
and meet regulatory
requirements?
Woeber In the turbomachinery
industry, designers must be able to
explore large design spaces and revolu-
tionary new ideas to meet emissions
standards. For conventional designs, with
natural gas, for example, the objective is
to make the system as fuel efficient as
possible. However, alternative methods
are also being explored to find solutions.
We have seen designers looking at
alternative fuels, and as soon as you start
going down that pathway, that presents an
even larger design set that needs to be
evaluated. Rapid turnaround times and
artificial intelligence/machine learning
(AI/ML) are tools that can assist in this
process. One solution is how we use 3D
designs to provide a streamlined turboma-
chinery design experience using
ML methods.
Q When it comes to working
fluids in turbomachinery, how
can CFD help address the major
issues our industry is facing?
Woeber Sustainability and decarboniza-
tion are and will remain two of the most
abundantly discussed topics of interest in
the future of energy. As it relates to a gas
turbine power plant, improving opera-
tional efficiency is frequently underscored
as the way forward in these ambitions.
CFD simulations can be used to explore
and optimize operational efficiency for
multiple components in these systems and
is an ideal way to navigate these chal- JINYOUNG TBX Co., Ltd.
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lenges going forward. 
Turbomachinery International • January/February 2024 • 15
COMPRESSORS

Challenges Associated
with Heavy Hydrocarbon
Compressor Operations
Aftercooler discharge temperature was found to be a significant indicator of partial
condensing potential and a critical variable to control and prevent condensation.
BY MARK SANDBERG

C entrifugal compressor opera-

tions involving high molecular
weight hydrocarbons represent
some unique challenges. These operations
include vapor recovery compressors
gathering low pressure and storage tank
gases in upstream operations, condensate
and liquid stabilizer overhead flows in gas
treating and LNG plants, and wet gas
compressors in refinery applications. The
gas compositions of these compressor
streams contain higher fractions of
heavier components from ethane to
pentane as compared to typical natural
gas. These higher molecular weight flows
may be subject to partial condensation of
the heavier components under some
operating scenarios resulting in a
potential reduction in mass and volumet-
ric flow rates and a decrease in the
molecular weight of the gas stream. While
this may be anticipated during normal
operation, it may be problematic during
transient operation such as start-up and
periods of partial recycle during continu-
ous operation. It is also possible to
experience significant gas composition
variations during normal operations that
can impact stable compressor operation.
Additionally, these compression services
are often viewed as less critical during
design phases, so they are not evaluated as

16 • www.turbomachinerymag.com

FIGURE 1: Typical Compressor System Schematic (Case 1)
Suction
Scrubber
Compressor
thoroughly as possible and are frequently
supplied with constant speed drivers.
The basic configuration of a typical
compressor system is shown in FIGURE 1.
The inlet to a compressor section should
include an isolation (block) valve and a
suction scrubber that removes any
entrained liquids from entering the
compressor. Flow from the compressor
section discharge will generally have a
large portion of the heat of compression
removed with some type of aftercooler
with a check valve and discharge isolation
valve downstream. The check valve is
intended to prevent reverse flow during
process upsets while the isolation valve is
often held in the closed position during
compressor start-up. A recycle line is
provided downstream of the aftercooler to
upstream of the suction scrubber to
Starting centrifugal compressors is
typically accomplished with the anti-
surge/recycle valves fully or partially open
to avoid going into surge and control the
starting power required. These valves may
also be needed to recycle a portion or all
the flow for extended periods of time
when the inlet flow supplied is less than
the design minimum (when flow rate falls
below the minimum to avoid surge) or
FIGURE 2: Vapor Pressures for Various Hydrocarbons
600
550
500
450
400
Vapor Pressure: psia
when discharge process conditions will
not accept flow from the compressor. The
flow across the recycle valve(s) is
described as a Joule-Thomson (isenthal-
pic) throttling process with a normal
accompanying temperature drop that is
related to the pressure drop. In some
situations, the temperature drop is
sufficient to partially condense some of
the gas mixture components and result in
a gas-liquid two-phase flow on the
compressor suction side of the valve.
It is also possible that the tempera-
ture drop provided by the aftercooler
results in some partial condensation of
gas components at the higher pressure
existing at compressor discharge
conditions but reduced temperature. It is
possible to estimate the potential of a gas
mixture to produce some condensate
liquids by evaluating the vapor pressure
of the different gas components. A plot of
vapor pressures for a number of hydro-
carbon components is given in FIGURE 2.
Ethane
Propane
i-Butane
n-Butane
Pentane
Hexane

350
accommodate any required recycle flows
during normal operation or upsets such as 300
surge avoidance. The included valve 250
supplies the necessary pressure drop from
200
existing compressor discharge to suction
pressure conditions. A single valve for 150

both anti-surge and recycle services is 100

often provided, but this may also be
50
accommodated by separate anti-surge and
recycle valves since their response times 0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
and position accuracy requirements can
Temperature F
be different.

Turbomachinery International • January/February 2024 • 17

COMPRESSOR

TABLE 1: Example Simulation Process Parameters downstream of the aftercooler. If any In the third example, there is no
Process Parameter
Low Medium portion of the flow is condensed in the cooling of the recycle flow upstream of the
Pressure Pressure
aftercooler, it is assumed that it will flow recycle valve, but cooling is provided
Gas Molecular Weight 38.485 38.485
with the gas phase through the recycle downstream of the valve and upstream of
Suction Pressure (psia) 25 100
valve and back to the compressor suction. the compressor suction scrubber. In this
Suction Temperature (F) 130 130 All resulting liquid phase is then assumed case, compressor discharge gas is
Discharge Pressure (psia) 75 250 to be separated in the compressor suction throttled across the recycle valve first, and
Polytropic Efficiency 0.800 0.800 scrubber before the gas flow is re-intro- any remaining heat of compression is
Aftercooler Pressure
5 10 duced into the compressor. A second case removed in the downstream heat
Drop (psi)
is illustrated in FIGURE 3. exchanger prior to re-introduction into
Aftercooler Discharge
Temperature (F)
Variable Variable This case represents a configuration the compressor suction at the assumed
where any liquid condensed in the suction temperature. A major drawback
These values were derived with the aftercooler will be separated from the of this configuration is the need for an
National Institute of Standards and recycle flow. Any liquid that is condensed additional heat exchanger, shown in
Technology’s (NIST) REFPROP will result in both a reduction in gas FIGURE 4.
computer application. molecular weight and gas mass flow rate Selected results from the low-pressure
At pressures above the curve for a that enters the recycle line. If there is simulations are shown in TABLE 2. These
given component and temperature, additional condensation due to the are shown for a range of compressor
liquids may be present. While providing throttling of the gas in the recycle valve, it aftercooler discharge temperatures and
an approximate estimation of when is assumed that it will be separated in the assumed common with the recycle valve
liquids may form, the vapor pressures are compressor suction, further reducing the inlet conditions. The calculated results
only valid for ideal gas conditions due to gas mass flow rate and molecular weight. include the vapor flow molecular weight,
molecular interactions between the
various gas components and other real gas
FIGURE 3: Heat Exchanger Discharge Scrubber (Case 2)
effects in a gas mixture. Nevertheless,
reference to such a vapor pressure figure
can indicate the potential for gas compo-
nent condensation and suggest the need
for a more accurate process simulation. Suction Discharge
Generally, the potential for partial Scrubber Scrubber
condensation increases as the operating
pressure range of the compressor
increases.
Compressor
To further illustrate this issue and
compare alternative scenarios and system
configurations, two representative
compressor applications are presented.
Both applications are based on a common FIGURE 4: Downstream Cooled Recycle Flow (Case 3)
gas composition of 20% methane, 25%
ethane, 30% propane, 10% isobutane, and
15% normal butane. Relevant compressor Alternate heat exchanger location
operating parameters for the two
examples are outlined in TABLE 1. Suction
Three different operating scenarios Scrubber
are examined for each compressor
example. The first scenario is the basic
Compressor
compressor configuration as defined in
FIGURE 1, which is a common compressor
layout with the cooled recycle line located

18 • www.turbomachinerymag.com
TABLE 2: Low-Pressure Example Simulation Selected Results
Aftercooler Discharge
120 100
Temperature (F)
Recycle Stream Gas Molecular Weight
Case 1 38.485 38.485
Case 2 38.485 38.485
Case 3 38.485 38.485
Recycle-to-Inlet Mass Flow Ratio
Case 1 1.000 1.000
Case 2 1.000 1.000
Case 3 1.000 1.000
Recycle-to-Inlet Volumetric Flow Ratio
Case 1 0.970 0.933
Case 2 0.970 0.933
Case 3 1.000 1.000
the recycle flow to inlet flow mass flow
rate ratio, and the comparable recycle
flow to inlet flow volumetric flow rate.
Changes in molecular weight and
compressor inlet volumetric flow rate are
particularly important because they
correspond to impacts in the operating
point of a centrifugal compressor.
It is evident from the simulation
results that minimal compressor-opera-
tional impacts are associated with wide
variations in aftercooler discharge
temperatures in the low-pressure
example. Some impacts are related to the
recycle volumetric flow rates that tend to
decrease as the aftercooler discharge
temperatures drop. The cause of this
volumetric flow reduction is due to the
throttling effect of the gas flow across the
recycle valve, creating lower recycle valve
discharge temperatures and the associ-
ated increase in gas density.
A more pronounced sensitivity to
compressor-operating parameters with
aftercooler discharge temperature is
demonstrated in the medium-pressure
example. All the selected operating
parameters are impacted with more
substantial reduction in all parameters
with decreasing aftercooler temperature.
An exception is illustrated in Case 3,
where the aftercooler location is changed
80 60 40
38.485 38.485 38.293
38.485 38.485 37.364
38.485 38.485 38.485
1.000 1.000 0.983
1.000 1.000 0.898
1.000 1.000 1.000
0.896 0.858 0.736
0.896 0.858 0.759
1.000 1.000 1.000
to downstream of the recycle valve.
Reductions in both gas molecular weight
and mass flow ratio are more significant
for Case 2—the case that includes any
condensate removal downstream of the
aftercooler. This relative trend is switched
in the volumetric flow reduction and is
due to a combination of both gas molecu-
lar weight and recycle valve downstream
temperature impacts on gas density.
These reductions in gas molecular
weight and flows will negatively impact
compressor operation with the potential
to force the machine offline. The compres-
sor operating point will tend to move
toward the surge control line and possibly
unable to generate the required pressure
ratio. While variable operating speed and
the addition of some inlet make-up gas
may reduce these effects, it may not be
possible to avoid these issues. Of course,
constant speed compressor operation or
an isolated compressor loop will experi-
ence the full influence of these changes.
Additionally, variations in gas molecular
weight during normal operation may
produce similar operating difficulties.
Aftercooler discharge temperature is
obviously a critical control variable in the
prevention of partial condensation and its
impact on compressor operation which
becomes more influential as
Turbomachinery International • January/February 2024 •
compressor-operating pressure range
increases relative to component vapor
pressures. Methods to control this
temperature can be employed both during
design and operating phases to minimize
or eliminate the resulting operating
issues. The most direct solution involves
controlling the amount of cooling
provided either through the cooling media
or the process gas itself. Variation of
cooling media flow is dependent upon the
type of cooler provided. In the case of
water or other liquid media cooling in a
shell and tube exchanger, control of liquid
media flow is achieved by modulation or
bypass with a control valve positioned by a
recycle gas temperature controller.
Alternatively, fin fan air exchangers may
be controlled by either dampers, fan
speed, or operation control. Process gas
temperature control is limited to cooler
bypass control.
One such concept for process gas
control is shown in FIGURE 6 where
recycle flows upstream and downstream
of the aftercooler are mixed to maintain a
temperature setpoint downstream of the
recycle throttling valve. Although effective
in longer term operation, it does have
limitations in startup and other transient
operations. Temperature control loops
typically suffer from relatively slow
response times with significant amounts
of dead time when initiated. This is
particularly the case when the tempera-
ture sensing element is located in a
stagnant section of piping as is the case
downstream of the recycle valve before it
is brought into application. In such cases,
setting a preliminary stroke position on
the temperature mixing valve based upon
some initial conditions may be necessary
to prevent condensation when the recycle
valve is first opened.
While it is most desirable to address
these issues during the design phase of a
compressor application, in a number of
cases this problem is not realized until the
machine has been placed in operation.
19
COMPRESSOR

Table 3: Medium-Pressure Example Simulation Selected Results Summarizing, aftercooler discharge

Aftercooler Discharge
120 110 100 90 80 70 60 40 temperature is both a significant indicator
Temperature (F)
of partial condensing potential and a
Recycle Stream Gas Molecular Weight
critical variable to control and prevent
Case 1 38.485 37.876 36.381 34.930 33.524 32.164 30.852 28.371
condensation. A number of actions can be
Case 2 38.485 37.025 35.430 33.873 32.356 30.881 29.454 26.768
completed to address the issue and avoid
Case 3 38.485 38.485 38.485 38.485 38.485 38.485 38.485 38.485
the negative operational impact of
Recycle-to-Inlet Mass Flow Ratio
partial condensation:
Case 1 1.000 0.941 0.811 0.699 0.603 0.520 0.449 0.335

1
Case 2 1.000 0.850 0.708 0.589 0.489 0.405 0.335 0.227 Perform process simulations for the
Case 3 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 expected range of aftercooler
Recycle-to-Inlet Volumetric Flow Ratio temperatures and gas compositions to
Case 1 0.927 0.771 0.590 0.453 0.348 0.268 0.207 0.123 determine critical temperatures where
Case 2 0.927 0.806 0.691 0.592 0.507 0.433 0.370 0.267 condensation is initiated and the extent of
Case 3 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 the impact on compressor operation.

FIGURE 5: Medium-Pressure Example Operating Parameter Behavior

2 If in the design phase, select one or
more strategies to control aftercooler
discharge temperatures that could
40 1.1
Recycle MW - Case 1 include partial bypass of process gas (such
Recycle MW - Case 2 1.0
38
as in FIGURE 6), partial bypass or other
Recycle MW - Case 3
Recycle Mass Flow Ratio - Case 1 0.9 Recycle Mass and Volumn Flow Ratios
temperature control method for cooling
Recycle Mass Flow Ratio - Case 2 media, or movement of the aftercooler
Recycle Flow Molecular Weight

36 Recycle Mass Flow Ratio - Case 3 0.8

Recycle Volume Flow Ratio - Case 1 downstream from recycle take-off and the
Recycle Volume Flow Ratio - Case 2
0.7
addition of another recycle/
34 Recycle Volume Flow Ratio - Case 3
upstream cooler.
0.6

3 If in operation, the solution becomes

32
0.5
more of a challenge. Potential actions
30 0.4 to avoid the associated problems could
include manual throttling of coolant with
0.3
28
an isolation valve or installation of a new
0.2 control valve, addition or operation of
dampers with air exchangers, and manual
26 0.1
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 reduced operation of cooling fans (cycling
Aftercooler Discharge Temperature, F fans or shutting off some fans).

FIGURE 6: Recycle Gas Temperature Control Concept

TC
4 Field verification to ensure that
incorporated modifications result in
anticipated avoidance of partial condensa-
tion and its impact on compressor operation
or surge avoidance are recommended. 

Suction
Scrubber
Mark R. Sandberg, P.E. is the Principal of
Sandberg Turbomachinery Consulting. He has
more than 40 years of varied experience involving
Compressor turbomachinery. Additional information is
available at sandbergturbo.com.

20 • www.turbomachinerymag.com
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 VENDOR SPOTLIGHT

ANSALDO ENERGIA
Ansaldo Energia focuses on decarbonization, efficiency, and sustainability in
the design and manufacture of its steam turbine portfolio.
BY JAMES COOK

A nsaldo Energia, a power

engineering firm, specializes
in the design, production, and
maintenance of plants and power
generation systems, including gas
such as Ansaldo Green Tech, Ansaldo
Nucleare, and Ansaldo Nuclear Ltd.

STEAM TURBINE OFFERINGS

turbines, steam turbines, and generators.
Having roots dating back to 1853 with the
founding of Giovanni Ansaldo & Co.,
Ansaldo continues to leverage its 170-year
history in thermoelectric and hydroelec-
tric to a variety of power producers and
industrial clients. Its headquarters in
Genoa, Italy employs more than 3,000
employees across numerous subsidiaries
Steam turbines are the company’s original
offering, and it continues to update its
designs for modern power requirements.
The product range covers a wide berth of
applications: power storage, geothermal,
non-reheat, reheat, and nuclear. In terms
of steam turbine power outputs, these
models can range from 15 MW to 1,000
MW. Within the category of steam
turbines, which includes the MT10, MT20,

22 • www.turbomachinerymag.com
MT15, RT30, and RT70,
Ansaldo provides several
geothermal models based on
an impulse or reaction design.
“Geothermal impulse
steam turbines developed by
Ansaldo can cover a wide range
of applications, from 20 MW
up to 60+ MW,” said Gian
Marco Crespi, Head of Steam
Turbine Engineering. “In
geothermal applications,
specific issues, mainly coming
from the geothermal steam
and the corrosive environmen-
tal conditions, must be
addressed. Impulse technol-
ogy, characterized by a limited
number of stages and a
compact design, has been
demonstrated as a winning
solution in extreme geother-
mal conditions.”
Geothermal steam turbines
are subject to harsh conditions
during operation, yet not only
do they excel in such condi-
tions, but maintenance can
also be easily performed by
replacing singular parts as
soon as the damage occurs.
Ansaldo’s impulse design has a
limited number of stages and a
compact design to perform
optimally under the duress of
geothermal steam.
Non-reheat steam turbines
are manufactured as single- or
two-cylinder designs, while
reheat steam turbines are
usually designed with two or
three cylinders. Crespi offered
some distinctions between
these models to further clarify
the purpose of cylinders in
steam turbine operation. “The
number of cylinders is
determined according to the
unit size and steam
conditions,” he said. “The
overall arrangement of the
turbine is largely project-spe-
cific. A large condensing steam
flow rate would generally
require a split in one
high-pressure (HP) or interme-
diate-pressure (IP) section and
one or more low-pressure (LP)
sections, while a reduced
steam flow rate would allow
the unit to be contained within
a single cylinder.”
The split HP and IP sections
of reheat steam turbines allow a
degree of flexibility in the
manufacturing process, as
these sections can either be
established in two separate
cylinders or joined in a
combined module. When
choosing a reheat or non-reheat
turbine, a few aspects should be
taken into consideration: the
overall plant architecture,
costs, efficiency requirements,
and simplicity.
Ansaldo assembles the
majority of its equipment in its
workshop at the Campi
production plant in Genova,
but large LP sections are often
shipped unassembled due to
several limiting factors.
Shipping LP sections unassem-
bled allows for ease of installa-
tion and transport.
“Usually, HP and IP
sections are workshop
pre-assembled, shipped, and
installed onsite as pre-assem-
bled modules,” Crespi said.
“This is the most efficient
solution for shipping and
reducing site-assembly costs;
however, LP sections usually
ship disassembled due to their
weight and large dimensions.
Moreover, LP sections are
usually mechanically con-
nected to the condenser, which
is installed onsite and is
integral to the LP
exhaust casing.”
THE FUTURE OF
STEAM TURBINE DESIGN
Despite the steam turbine
being classified as a “mature”
component—one that retains
a consistent design with
relatively few technological
innovations over time—
Ansaldo continues to apply
and advance its steam turbine
portfolio for various pow-
er-generation industries,
including combined-cycle and
nuclear plants. Enhancements
in extreme condition opera-
tion and the integration of
renewable energy resources
will secure plant flexibility
and high efficiency during grid
fluctuations. In addition, the
company believes that steam
turbines’ share of the pow-
er-generation market will
increase as the technology is
used to support micro-distrib-
uted generation, “as well as
being the core of large and
high-efficiency heavy-duty
generation plants,” Crespi
said. “They will be even more
integrated within the indus-
trial and urban framework,
such as district heating and
co-generation, and will be the
basis for some energy
storage technologies.”
Not only will steam
turbines benefit from an
increase in market share, but
advanced control system
functionality—such as
cybersecurity, autonomous
operation, and self-predicted
Turbomachinery International • January/February 2024 •
Besides the
original steam
turbine mission,
which is to make
energy
transformations
more efficient,
decarbonization
will see the steam
turbine as a main
player.
maintenance—may help steam
turbines bridge the gap into a
digitally enhanced landscape.
The integration of steam
technology in various pow-
er-generation sectors—such as
concentrated solar, geother-
mal, hydrogen, and new
nuclear plant solutions—acts
as a driver for Ansaldo’s steam
turbine innovation.
Current policies require
the integration of decarboniza-
tion and sustainability
strategies, and Ansaldo is
committed to these standards.
“Besides the original steam
turbine mission, which is to
make energy transformations
more efficient, decarboniza-
tion will see the steam turbine
as a main player,” Crespi
forecasted. “Ansaldo, as a
steam turbine OEM, is strongly
focused on the decarboniza-
tion process and active in
designing, manufacturing, and
installing a new portfolio of
more flexible, efficient, and
sustainable steam turbines.” 
23
 MYTH BUSTERS
Green Hydrogen for
Power Generation: IS IT A UNICORN?
Green hydrogen is receiving a lot of hype in the news, but a closer look
reveals how impractical its future is for power generation.
BY KLAUS BRUN & RAINER KURZ
A pproximately 76% of the carbon
dioxide that is emitted in the United
States by stationary sources comes
from electricity-generating power plants. For many
other major industrial countries, the percentage is
even higher. Clearly, this is a significant motivating
factor to decarbonize the power-generation industry
using alternative energy sources, such as nuclear
energy, hydrogen-fueled thermal power plants, as
well as carbon capture with existing plants.
Blue hydrogen—produced from fossil fuel with
carbon capture—and green hydrogen—produced
from alternative energy sources—are often promi-
nently displayed in the technology mix needed for the
future of a decarbonized energy economy. However,
green hydrogen for power generation is a rare animal,
a unicorn, or some other mythological beast.
Everyone believes in it, but nobody seems to have
actually seen one credibly. I’ve been desperately
seeking this unicorn for the last 30 years, and I still
haven’t found it. There are images and talk about
24 • www.turbomachinerymag.com
large power-generation projects for green hydrogen
all over the news, but when you truly chase them,
they seem to disappear or fade into obscurity.
Obviously, we may be exaggerating a bit to make a
point, but green hydrogen is one of those topics that
is hyped in the press but very little is actually
produced. Over 99% of the world’s hydrogen that is
currently produced comes from fossil sources and
does not include carbon capture. Therefore, it
generates significant amounts of carbon dioxide in
the production process and is far from being green.
So, what is green hydrogen? As mentioned above,
it is hydrogen produced by electrolyzing water using
electricity solely from alternative energy sources
such as wind, solar, and hydropower. Electrolyzers
use an electrochemical reaction to split water
molecules into their molecular components: hydro-
gen and oxygen. There are various types of electrolyz-
ers commercially available to produce hydrogen.
They usually operate at relatively low pressures
(mostly below 20 bars), near ambient temperatures,
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and at efficiencies between 40% - 80%.
Higher-pressure electrolyzers are being
explored, but they seem to mostly operate
at lower efficiencies. Regardless, by using
electrolysis, green hydrogen is produced
without any greenhouse gas emissions.
Turbomachines, such as compressors, are
then required to transport and store this
hydrogen at elevated pressures so it can
be practically used in industrial and
power-generation applications.
Electrolysis requires large amounts of
electricity and thus only makes sense if
electricity is very cheap or freely available.
Since the conversion efficiency of
electrolysis is less than one on an electric
energy in (electric kW-hr) versus hydro-
gen chemical heat energy out (in Joules or
BTU) basis, it is self-evident that this
concept only works for energy-storage
applications where electricity is available
from intermittent, non-dispatchable
power plants, such as wind turbines or
photovoltaic solar panel farms. This is also
called “curtailed” energy since it is being
produced at times or in locations where
there is no demand for it and it does not
have an immediate or practical use.
Hydrogen from green electricity is
effectively nothing more than an ener-
gy-storage technology option and possibly
an energy transportation alternative if
one considers hydrogen transport by
pipeline, truck, rail, or ship.
It is important to emphasize that
green hydrogen is only truly green if it
comes from intermittently curtailed
electricity. It must come from zero-carbon
sources AND from electricity that
otherwise has no uptake. That means
wind turbines or photovoltaic plants
producing electricity that are unable to
sell it into the market due to a lack of
utilization requirements or transmission
capability. Otherwise, the production of
green hydrogen will only create an
opportunity for non-green (mostly fossil)
26 • www.turbomachinerymag.com
MYTH BUSTERS
power plants to sell into the
electric market.
Also, nuclear- and hydropower-pro-
duced hydrogen make no sense given that
all nuclear and hydropower plants are
baseload plants, which means that all
their electricity already has an assigned
market—which, by definition, is what
baseload power is. Again, taking any of
this electricity to make hydrogen will only
create opportunities for non-zero-carbon
power plants to fill the gap.
Similarly, green hydrogen produced
from dedicated zero-carbon power plants,
which are built and exist for the sole
purpose of exploiting government
subsidies for hydrogen, is basically taking
taxpayer money to produce electricity and
wasting most of it with an inefficient
conversion process. If this hydrogen is
purposed for electric usage, at least 55%
(and usually more than 60%) of the
originally produced electricity is lost
because of the low roundtrip efficiency of
this process.
BLUE HYDROGEN
Blue hydrogen, which is at times falsely
claimed as carbon neutral, is not necessar-
ily green. Blue hydrogen is produced from
natural gas using processes such as steam
reforming or gasification, where natural
gas and steam react to form hydrogen but
also carbon dioxide. To make hydrogen
“blue,” the carbon dioxide must be
captured and sequestered. For example, if
blue hydrogen is produced from natural
gas using steam reforming, about 10 kgs of
carbon dioxide are produced for every
kilogram of hydrogen when including all
process parasitic losses. For power-gener-
ation purposes, blue hydrogen also
competes with methods to remove carbon
dioxide from the exhaust stream of fossil
power plants. In either case, it is expen-
sive and energy-intensive to capture,
transport, and sequester this carbon
dioxide. Some of the proposed storage
methods have limited assurance that it
will not leak or escape over the long term.
Green hydrogen without subsidies,
even if electricity is free and continuously
supplied, is usually three to four times
more expensive than blue hydrogen—
including all costs of separation and
sequestration. This is primarily driven by
the electrolyzer’s first cost and overhaul/
maintenance costs. Unfortunately, there
does not seem to be a near- or mid-term
foreseeable technology path to drastically
reduce electrolyzer costs. Thus, blue
hydrogen will likely dominate over green
hydrogen production for basic economic
reasons unless it is replaced by highly
subsidized green hydrogen or other
government subsidies for green
energy producers.
DOES GREEN HYDROGEN REALLY
EXIST, AND IF IT DOES, SHOULD IT?
If excess power is produced by zero-car-
bon power plants, the emphasis should be
on developing the electrical grid and
distribution network to make sure this
electricity finds a home rather than
wasting most of it by converting it to
hydrogen and then back to electric-
ity. That is the key: Green hydrogen only
makes sense if electricity needs to be
stored or chemical hydrogen is actually
needed at the end of the supply chain, e.g.,
for fertilizer or petrochemical use. Most
power plants, especially wind farms, can
shut their equipment down when they
cannot find an off-taker for their electric-
ity to keep mechanical wear, degradation,
and operating costs to a minimum.
Running a plant when there is no market
for the product makes little economic
sense. It only makes sense if the produced
and stored hydrogen has a reasonable
monetary value equivalent to at least the
cost of producing it. Currently, in many
cases, the only reason these power plants

keep producing electricity is so that they
can collect a production credit, which is
basically just another artificial govern-
ment subsidy.
METHANE EMISSIONS MYTH
As a quick aside, the often-advertised
conversion of natural gas to blue hydrogen
does not directly help to reduce methane
emissions since in almost all cases the
blue hydrogen is produced at the back end
of the oil and gas value stream. Therefore,
all methane-leakage losses happen during
production and transport and are fully
incurred by the time of the natu-
ral-gas-to-hydrogen conversion. For a
power plant, blue hydrogen is local
pre-combustion carbon separation and
simply an alternative to exhaust gas
(post-combustion) carbon capture. Also,
hydrogen is hard to compress, store, and
transport and has significant safety and
leakage challenges associated with it (but
that is a good topic for another Myth
Busters article). Thus, the transport of
blue hydrogen over longer distances
makes little sense, as even the combined
transportation energy of natural gas to the
production site and the transport of the
resulting carbon dioxide to a sequestra-
tion site requires less energy than the
transport of hydrogen.
Consequently, an industry transition to
green hydrogen is neither realistic nor
necessarily desirable. If excess power is
produced by zero-carbon power plants, the
emphasis should be on developing the
distribution network to make sure this
electricity finds practical usage rather than
wasting most of it by converting it to
hydrogen and then later back to electricity.
We see the development of the
decarbonized energy economy as a
gradual evolution with the first steps
focusing on zero-carbon electric
sources—wind, solar, hydro, and
nuclear—in combination with carbon
MYTH BUSTERS
capture in fossil-fueled power and blue
hydrogen production plants. The onset of
the production of appreciable quantities
of green hydrogen is a much longer-term
but necessary development that will
require significant investment in the
development of new technologies and
infrastructure. In the near term, there is
an obvious need for additional natural gas
supply as a reliable and secure decarbon-
ization transition fuel which, from a
turbomachinery perspective, means more
conventional production, pipeline, and
LNG machinery. In the mid-term, we will
likely see more pre- and post-combustion
carbon capture from existing fossil-fueled
power plants. This will require new
compression machinery for the efficient
transport and geological storage of carbon
dioxide. The need to compress large
quantities of green hydrogen for pipeline
transport and storage is less likely to be an
immediate requirement. It will probably
remain a mythological beast for a little bit
longer. The hope is, in the not-too-distant
future, we will finally chase this uni-
Turbo Part Specialist
corn down. 
Gas Turbine / Steam Turbine
Turbo Compressor / Rotor
ABOUT THE AUTHORS Diaphragm / Blade / Vane
Bolt / Nut / Labyrinth Seal
Klaus Brun is the Director of
Packing Ring / Impeller
R&D at Elliott Group. He is also
Blisk / Diffuser
the past Chair of the Board of
Directors of the ASME
Reverse Engineering
International Gas Turbine
Retrofit
Institute and the IGTI Oil & Gas
Upgrade
applications committee.
Overhaul
Rainer Kurz is a recent retiree
from Manager of Gas
Compressor Engineering at
Solar Turbines Inc. in San
Diego, CA. He is an ASME
Fellow and has published
over 200 articles and papers
in the turbomachinery field.
Any views or opinions presented in this article are solely
those of the authors and do not necessarily represent
www.flowdy.co.kr
those of Solar Turbines Incorporated, Elliott Group, or flowdy7@gmail.com
any of their affiliates.
Turbomachinery International • January/February 2024 • 27
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