Lesson 1: Statistics and Probability  How many are males and how many

are females in our class?

Statistics
- is the science of conducting studies to
collect, organize, summarize, analyze,
and draw conclusions from data.
Variable
- is a characteristic or attribute that can
assume different values.
- Specific characteristics or property of a
unit of the population
Data
- are the values (measurements or
observations) that the variables can
assume. Variables whose values are
determined by chance are called
random variables.
- Consist of information obtained from
observations, counts, measurements,
or responses.
 What is the average family income of a
typical Filipino family?
Inferential statistics
- consists of generalizing from samples
to populations, performing
estimations and hypothesis tests,
determining relationships among
variables, and making predictions
- A statistical method with the analysis
of a sample data leading to prediction,
inferences, interpretation, or
conclusion about the entire
population.
Example
• Is there a significant difference
between the average and
performance in mathematics of
female students and male students

A collection of data values forms a data Population

set. Each value in the data set is called a
- consists of all subjects (human or
data value or a datum.
otherwise) that are being studied.
Data can be used in different ways. The
Sample
body of knowledge called statistics is
some- times divided into two main areas, - is a group of subjects selected from a
depending on how data are used. population.
2 types of Statistics Parameter
Descriptive statistics - is a number describing a whole
population (e.g., population mean),
- consists of the collection, organization,
while a statistic is a number describing
summarization, and presentation of
a sample (e.g., sample mean).
data.
- A statistical method concerned with
describing the properties and
characteristics of a set of data
- Involves gathering, organizing,
describing, and presenting
information.

Example:
Classification of Data
Quantitative Data
- refers to the numerical information
obtained from counting or measuring
that can be manipulated by any
fundamental operation
- are specific values or numerals used to
describe magnitudes.
Qualitative Data
- refers to descriptive attributes that
cannot be subjected to mathematical
operation
- (non-numerical) are attributes of a
given sample data.
Discrete data
- are those gathered from counting,
thus with a finite number of values.
Continuous data
- are those gathered from measuring
over a specified period of time
Classification of Variables
Discrete variables
- assume values that can be counted.
Continuous variables
- can assume an infinite number of
values between any two specific
values. They are obtained by
measuring. They often include
fractions and decimals.
Levels Of Measurement
Nominal Level of Measurement
- classifies data into mutually exclusive
(nonover- lapping), exhausting
categories in which no order or
ranking can be imposed on the data.
Ordinal Level of Measurement
- classifies data into categories that can
be ranked; however, precise
differences between the ranks do not
exist.
Interval Level of Measurement
- ranks data, and precise differences
between units of measure do exist;
however, there is no meaningful zero.
Ratio Level of Measurement
- possesses all the characteristics of
interval measurement, and there
exists a true zero. In addition, true
ratios exist when the same variable is
measured on two different members
of the population.
Data Collection and Sampling Techniques
Random Sampling
- are selected by using chance methods
or random numbers. One such
method is to number each subject in
the population. Then place numbered
cards in a bowl, mix them thoroughly,
and select as many cards as needed.
 The subjects whose numbers are determines that the sample is
selected constitute the sample representative, then it can be used

Systematic Sampling 3 Ways to organize data

- Researchers obtain systematic samples Array

by numbering each subject of the
- A group of people or objects displayed
population and then selecting every
in a pattern or arrangement (e.g.
kth subject.
descending or ascending order;
Stratified Sampling alphabetical

- Researchers obtain stratified samples Stem-And-Leaf Plot

by dividing the population into groups
- Shows the distribution of the data and
(called strata) according to some
check the original values of the
characteristic that is important to the
individual items
study, then sampling from each group.
- Divided into two terms:
Samples within the strata should be
o Stem - leading digit/s
randomly selected.
o Leaf - the digit next to the leading
Cluster Sampling digit/s
- Researchers also use cluster samples.
Here the population is divided into
groups called clusters by some means
such as geographic area or schools in a
large school district, etc. Then the
researcher randomly selects some of
these clusters and uses all members of
the selected clusters as the subjects of
the samples.

Convenience Sampling

- Here a researcher uses subjects that

are convenient.
- For example, the researcher may
interview subjects entering a local mall
to determine the nature of their visit
or perhaps what stores they will be
patronizing.
- This sample is probably not
representative of the general
customers for several reasons.
- But convenience samples can be
representative of the population. If the
researcher investigates the
characteristics of the population and
Frequency Table
- shows classes or intervals of data
entries with a count of the number of
entries in each class usually done
through tallying
Frequency Distribution Table (FDT)
- Shows data arranged into different
classes and the number of cases which
fall into each class

Presentation Of Data
refers to the organization of data into
tables, graphs or charts, so that logical and
statistical conclusions can be derived from
the collected measurements.
Ways To Present Data
Textual presentation
- The data are presented in paragraph
form.
Example:
There are about 540,000 Filipinos who
joined the ranks of job seekers. Based on
gov- ernment data, the number of jobless
Filipinos last July reached 4.35 million, an
in- crease of more than half-a-million
Filipinos from the same period last year.
The unemployment rate last July was at
12.7% compared to 11.2% of July last year.
Graphical presentation
- The data are presented in visual form.
It is a picture that dis- plays numerical
information.
Tabular presentation
- The data are presented in tables to
show the relation between the column
and row quantities.
Types of Graphical Presentation
Bar Graph
- A graph that uses rectangles (bars) to
show numbers or measurements.
- The purpose of a bar graph is to
display and compare data.
- Bar graphs use bars to show the data.
A bar graph must include:
• a title
• labeled X and Y axes
• equal intervals are used on the Y axis
• the bars are evenly spaced apart from
each other
Note the following when constructing a
bar graph:
• Do not forget to write the title of
the graph.
• Do not forget to label the axes.
• Show the scale clearly.
• Use the same width for each bar.
• The bars should be equally
spaced
Line Graph
- Data that shows change over time is
best displayed in a line graph. A line
graph displays a set of data using line
segments.
How to Make a Line Graph
 Gather data. Line graphs will show
specific changes in data. The data
must have two comparable variables
to use a line graph.
 Label the horizontal or x-axis with the
independent variable.
 Label the vertical or y-axis with the
dependent variable
 Label each axis with a value and begin
plotting your data. Draw a connecting
line between each point.
Pie Chart
- sometimes called a circle chart, is a
way of summarizing a set of nominal
data or displaying the different values
of a given variable (e.g. percentage
distribution).
- This type of chart is a circle divided valuable measure of central tendency
into a series of segments. when such values occur.
- It can be found for ratio-level, interval-
Summarizing Data
level, ordinal-level and nominal-level
- Give you one score or measure that data
represents, or is typical of, an entire
Probability
group of scores
- Probability as a general concept can
Mean
be defined as the chance of an event
- the average value of the set of data occurring.
- Every set of interval-level and ratio-
Probability Experiment
level data has a mean.
- All the values are included in - is a chance process that leads to well-
computing the mean. defined results called outcomes.
- A set of data has a unique mean.
- The mean is affected by unusually
large or small data values.

Median Outcome
- The Median of a set of data is the - is the result of a single trial of a
middle value when the set of data is probability experiment.
arranged in order.
- The point where half of the Sample Space
observations fall below and half of the - is the set of all possible outcomes of a
observations fall above probability experiment.
- In any distribution there will always be
an equal number of cases above and
below the Median.
- There is a unique median for each
data set. Example 1: Find the sample space for
- It is not affected by extremely large or rolling two dice
small values and is therefore a
valuable measure of central tendency
when such values occur.
- Can be computed for:
• Ordinal-level data
• Interval-level data
• Ratio-level data

Mode
Example 2: Find the sample space for
- the number that appears most drawing one card from an ordinary deck of
frequently in the set of data cards
- It is not affected by extremely large or
small values and is therefore a

Example 3: Find the sample space for the
gender of the baby if a family has three
children. Use B for boy and G for girl.
Tree Diagram
- is a device consisting of line segments
emanating from a starting point and
also from the outcome point. It is used
to determine all possible outcomes of
a probability experiment.
Event
- consists of a set of outcomes of a
probability experiment.
Equally likely events
- are events that have the same
probability of occurring.
Probability Rule 1
- The probability of any event E is a
number (either a fraction or decimal)
between and including 0 and 1. This is
denoted by 0≤P(E) ≤ 1. Rule 1 states
that probabilities cannot be negative
or greater than 1.
Probability Rule 2
- If an event E cannot occur (i.e., the
event contains no members in the
sample space), its probability is 0.
Probability Rule 3
- If an event E is certain, then the
probability of E is 1.
Probability rule 4
- The sum of the probabilities of all the
outcomes in the sample space is 1.