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Biology Notes Created by

Waqar Ahmed Mirani

Chapter 01

Biological Molecules

The molecules of life is called bio molecules .

Or
Those molecules which are present in living organisms is called Bio molecules

Elements :
=>118 ----- Total
=>92 ----- Naturally
=>16 ----- Bio element
=> 6 are major bio element which are Carbon , Hydrogen , Oxygen , Nitrogen ,
Phosphorus , Sulphur . 99% by weight of molecules .

Biochemistry :-
The branch of biology in which we study the chemical which
is related or present in life like Carbohydrates , Lipids , Protein and conjugated
molecule of nucleic acid .

( Chemical Composition of Cell )

Biomolecules Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Water 70% 70%
Protein 15% 18%
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Carbohydrate 3% 4%
Lipids 2% 3%
DNA 1% 0.25%
RNA 6% 1.1%
Other organic 2% 2%
compounds
Inorganic ions 1% 1%

( Inorganic and Organic Biomolecule )

Those molecules which donot contain C,H,O are called

inorganic biomolecules .
Ex :- Water ( H2O ) .
Those which contain C , H , O are called organic biomolecules
Ex:- Carbohydrate , Protein , Lipids , Nucleic acids , Conjugated molecules .

How These molecules form or destroy ?

Ans :- These molecules can form or destroy by two process : 1) Condensation
2) Hydrolysis .

1)Condensation / Dehydration Process :-

The process in which small
molecules convert into large molecules under the action of enzyme with the
removal of water .
Ex:- Ligase , DNA – polymerase , RNA polymerase etc .
H H OH H
---- -----O--------
H OH H OH
H + OH = H2O - Removal of water

2)Hydrolysis :-
( Hydro = water + Lysis = Breakdown ) . The large molecules
breakdown into small molecules with the presence of water and also presence
of enzyme .
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=>All digestion process held by hydrolysis under hydrolytic enzymes .
Ex:- Lipase ---- Digest lipid
Propease ---- digest protein
( Water )

=>Most abundant 70% in eukaryotic and prokaryotic both .

=>Helps in hydrolysis .
=>Helps in transport and blood circulation .
=>Make cells turgid .
=>Photosynthesis (Glucose ) .
=>Polar molecule due –ve and +ve charge .
=>Separation of electrical charges is called as dipole . This nature of water
gives more properties .
=>High Polarity .
=>High heat of vaporization .
=>Hydrophobic exclusion .
=>Ionization .
=>Low density of ice .
=>Best solvent .
=>Brain cell contain 80% of water .
=>Bone and seeds contain 20% of water .

( Hydrogen Bond )

It is the intermolecular force of attraction or electrostatic

force of attraction between two molecules which contain partially +ve or –ve
charges or electrostatic force of attraction present between partially +ve
hydrogen atom and highly electronegative atom ( F.O.N ) is called Hydrogen
bond .
Conditions :
=>+ve hydrogen ions / atoms must present .
=>Highly electronegative atom ( F.O.N ) .
=>Must contain lone pair .
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=>Water molecule consist of 2H atoms and one oxygen which contain two lone
pairs .

( Characters of Hydrogen bond )

1)Cohesion or Cohesive force of attraction :-

Attraction between two
similar molecules is known as cohesion or Cohesive force of attrction .
Ex:- C – C , H – H , O – O etc .

2)Adhesive Force of attraction :-

Force of Attraction between two
dissimilar molecules is known as adhesive force of attraction .
=>Force of attraction of water molecules with walls of container is called
adhesive force .

( High Specific Heat )

Amount of heat energy required to raise the temp: of 1gram

o
water into 1 C is called high specific heat .
Ex:- A substance has temperature is about 10oC when we heat up it increase
at 11oC ( by 1oC ) it take 1cal or 4.18 joules .

( High Heat of Vaporization )

The amount of heat required to change liquid state of water to

vapour state is called high heat of vaporization .
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=>Water has high heat of vaporization i—e , 574 kcal / kg . Therefore water
requires to absorb high heat to change its state from liquid to vapours .
=>It gives stability to water molecules and its states in cell .
=>It plays an important role in thermoregulation .
=>It also provide cooling effects when evaporates during transportation or
purspiration .

( Hydrogen Exclusion )

It is tendency to water to colesce the oil drop into large

droplets .
=>The water molecule have hydrogen bond between them which are destroyed
by the presence of hydrophobic oil and form new bond .
=>The water molecules form more hydrogen bonds with themselves and non –
polar molecules dump together .
=>Non – polar molecules donont mix with polar because polar have high
interaction between them .

( Ionization of Water )

The water molecules ionize into H+ and OH-- . This reaction is

reversible and also maintain equilibrium . Due to ionization property water may
behave as acid or base i—e , Amphoteric in nature . It also behaves as buffer
due to this nature , it maintains PH for enzymatic activities in cells and organs

( Anomolous behaviour of Water )

Water showes different behaviour below 4oC , usually matter

contract at low temp: but due to hydrogen bond below 4oC , water expands
which decrease its density . So at 0oC water expads maximumly in ice
condition . The low density of water in ice become lighter , comes above the
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surface of high density water of liquid . It makes life possible under frozen
water .

( Carbohydrate )

Carbo = Carbon + Hydrate = water .

=>Instant source of energy .
=>Carbon is associated with water .
Or
=>Water containing Carbon .
=>The meaning of word carbohydrate is hydrate of carbon .
=>Contain C , H and O wher hydrogen and oxygen present in simple ration (2:1)
=>Main source for carbohydrate are plants (photosynthesis ) .
=>The General Formula ( CnH2nOn ) .
=>They are sweet in taste therefore called sacharum or saccharide . They are
also called sugar .
=>Carbohydrate found in all living organisms .
=>It play structural and funtional role .
Definition :- It is polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone .
Or
It is polyhydroxy carbonyl compound .

( Classification of Carbohydrate )

Carbohydrate are of three type : 1) Monosaccharide 2) Oligosaccharide

3) Polysccharide .

1)Monosaccharide : ( Mono = Single + Saccharide = sugar ) .

=>It is sweet in taste .
=>It is simplest sugar .
=> They donot upon hydrolysis .
=>Consist of 3 – 7 Carbon .
=>It is basic unit of carbohydrate .
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=>All the last in word it contain “ose” . The ose shows the number of carbon .
=>The General formula is ( CnH2nOn ) .
=>Soluble in water .
=>Monosaccharide may aldehyde or ketone .
=>If monosaccharide contain aldehyde is known as aldose sugar .
=>If Monosaccharide cobntain ketone is known as ketose sugar .

( Classification of Monosaccharide )
Class Formula Example
Triose C3H6O3 Glycerose
(Glaceraldehde)
Dihydroxy acetone etc .
Tetrose C4H8O4 Erythrose , Erythrulose
Pentose C5H10O5 Ribose , Ribulose
Hexose C6H12O6 Glucose , Fructose ,
Lactose etc .
Heptose C7H14O7 Glucoheptose .

( Oligosaccharide )

=>2 – 10 monosaccharide contain .

=>They are less sweet in taste and less soluble in water .
=>They can hydrolyze .
=>The covalent bond between these two monosaccharide is glycosidic bond or
linkage .
=>It is also called disaccharide .
=>They may be reducing or non reducing sugar .
Reducing Sugars :-
The reducing sugar is only carbohydrate capable of being
oxidized and causes the reduction of other substances without hydrolysis . It is
due to the presence of free aldehyde or free ketone group .
Non – Reducing Sugar :-
The non – reducing sugar are carbohydrate which
are unable to be oxidized and donot reduce other substnce . It is due to the
absence of free aldehyde or ketone group .
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1)Lactose :-
It is commonly known as milk sugar . The lactose is formed by
condensation of β -- glucose and β -- galactose .

2)Sucrose :-
It is most common disaccharide .
=>It is known as Beet sugar .
=>It is known as transport sugar .
=>It is known as table sugar .
=.It is known as cane sugar .
=>It is known as invert sugar .
=>It is widely used at home for making sweet .
=>It is soluble in water .
=>It is non – reducing sugar .
=>The sucrose is formed by condensation of α -- glucose and β – glucose .

( Polysaccharide )
( Poly = many + saccharide = units ) .
=>Those carbohydrate which is upon hydrolysis yield more than ten
monosaccharides units are called polysacchaide .
=>This is the largest group of carbohydrate .
=>The polysaccharide which is composed of only one kind of monosaccharide
are called as homopolysaccharide .
Ex:- Starch , Glycogen , Cellulose , Chitin etc .
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=>The polysaccharide which is composed of different kind of monosaccharides
are called heteropolysaccharide .
Ex:- agar , pectin , peptidoglycan .
=>Polysaccharide function chiefly as food and energy store .
Ex:- Glycogen and starch .

(Types of Polysaccharide)
1)Starch :- It is homopolysacchaide which is formed by condensation of
hundreds of α -- glucose .
=>It is storage carbohydrate of plants .
=>It is mainly used in root , stem and seed . Cereal grain and potato tuber are
rich source of starch in human diet .
=>Starch is digest by amylase upon hydrolysis it yields Maltose first then
Maltose is further digested by Maltase enzyme and yield glucose .

2)Glycogen :- It is also polymer of glucose . Its molecular structure is similar

to starch but found in animal therefore it is commonly called animal starch .
=>It is reserved food material for animals .

3)Cellulose :- It is also polymer of glucose . It is highly insoluble in water .

=>It is most abundant carbohydrate in nature .
=>It is not digested in human body .
=>There is no branch chain , they are joined in straight chain .

4)Chitin :- It is long chain polymer of N – acetyl glucosamine an amide

derivative of glucose .
=>The structure of chiting is similar to cellulose , forming crystalline nano
fibrils .
=>Functionally , it is comparable to keratin protein .

( Protein )
=>Protein means “First ranking” .
=>Protein was first discovered by G.J mulder in 1878 .
=>Protein was derived by “Proteios” .
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=>It is most abundant molecule . 50% of the dry weighyt . It is polymer of
amino acid molecules .
=>It contain nitrogen because of this we called it nitrogenous compound .
=>It is present in hair , nails , feathers are also present .
=>Where as Milk , Fish , these are the source of protein .
=>We eat meat and vegetable for essential amino acid .

( Amino acid )
=>Amino acid are building blocks of protein . There are hundreds of amino acid
present in human . But only 20 are commonly found in protein .
=>Amino acid consist of Amine group (NH2) a carbonyl group (COOH) .
=>Consist of one amino acid group –NH2 which work as base and one
carbocylic acid both are chemically bonded to an carbon .
H
H
N αC COOH
H carbocylic acid
R

( Formation and breakdown of peptide linkage )

The protein or polypeptide chain is formed by peptide bond
The peptide bond are formed by linking amino acid of one amino acid wioth
carboxylic acid of another amino acid by releasing one water molecule .
H H O H H O

H N C C OH + H N C C OH

H CH3
Glycine Alaxine
H H O H H O

H N C C N C C OH

H H 2O CH3
The resultant dipeptid is glycaline has two amino acid subunit called dipeptide
=>It is condensation process .
=>Protein is made up by ribosome - Enzyme --- RNA --- TRNA - rRNA.
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=>The polypeptide chain is breakdown by hydrolysis process with the help of
hydrolytic enzyme .

( Classification of Protein )
Protein can be classified in two types :
1)Fibrous Protein :-
These are long fibers of protein . The secondary protein
(spiral) chains interwine with each other’s they are consist of more polypeptide
in the form of fibrils these proteins are insoluble in water , non – crystalline and
elastic in nature . They perform structure role in cells .
2)Globular Protein :-
These are spherical or ellipsoidal due to three
dimensional fold of secondary protein . These are either tertiary or quaternary
in structure . They are soluble in salt . They work as enzyme , antibodies etc .

( Lipids )
The term lipid is proposed by Bloor in 1943 .
=>The biomolecules which are insoluble in water and soluble in organic
solvents like alcohol .
=>Molecular Formula (C57H110O6) .
=>Due to high quantity of carbon and hydrogen , they contai almost double
mount of energy than carbohydrate .

( Groups of Lipids )
1)Acyglycerol (fats and oils):-
These are the condensation product of
glycerol and three fatty acid , commonly called fats and oils . They can be
defined as : the ester of fatty acids and glycerol .

=>Glycerol :-
It is a trihydroxy alcohol , made of three carbon atom each
contain on OH—group , while a fatty acid is a type of organic acid containing
one xylic group with long hydrocarbon chains .
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=>Acylglycerol provide energy for different metabolic activities and are very
rich in chemical energy . It is estimated that a person of average size contains
approx: 16kg of fats which contain 144kcal of energy .

=>Phospholipids :-
Type of lipids which is condensation product of glycerol ,
two fatty acids one choline and one phosphate ,.
=>Phospholipid is most important group of lipids from biological point of view .
Phospholipid are persent in all living cells and form membrane .

=>Waxes :-
They are esters of long chain mono – alcohol and long chain fatty
acid .
=>They are simple lipid and found as protective coating on stem , petals , fruits
, fur anmd feathers etc .
=>They are water repellant and non – reactive due to this it is non – polar .

Terpenoids :-
Terpenoids is a large and important class of lipids made up of
isoprenoid units (C5H8) . Terpenes , Steroids , Caretenoids are all ttype of
terpenoids .

=>Terpenes :-
Terpenes are the type of terpenoids which contain few
isoprenoid unit like triterpens . These small size terpenes are volatile in nature
and produce special fragrance . Some of these are used in perfume . \

=>Carotenoids :-
It is polyterpenes , consist of long chain of isoprenoid unit
which contain isoprenoid rings both or at one terminal . They are used to
produce colour in plants .

=>Steroids :-
Steroids is a type of terpenoid which form steroid nucleus made
up isoprenoid units contaain 17 carbon atoms arranged in four hattached
rings , Three of them are hexagonal and one is pentagonal in shape . The
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redical attach with them as side chains distinguish them from one another
cholesterol is one of the type of steroid .

( Nucleic Acid )
Friedrich Miescher a Swiss physician isolated a
new compound from the nucleus of pus cells , which was quite different from
other biomolecule therefore named Nuclein , it was found that nuclein had
acidic properties and hence it was renamed nucleic acid .
The nuclic acid are polymers of five sugar based compound called
nucleotide . There are two kinds of nucleic acid i.e. DNA (Deoxyribo nucleic
acid ) and RNA (Ribo nucleic acid ) .

( Structure of (DNA) )
Structure of DNA was explained by James Watson
and Francis Crick in 1953 by making model . Thy proposed that :
=>The DNA is double helical structure . Each helix is made up of four types of
nucleotides .
=>Both helix is complementary of each other i.e. if one helix contain Adenine
the opposite will contain thyamine whereas cytosine contain Guanine .
=>Both helix are held together by H – bonds due to high zipping and unzipping
by both helix occur by making and breaking of there H – bonds .
=>Both helix are opposite in direction i.e. one chain run from 5 ’ to 3’ end
(downward) whereas the other chain runs from 3’ to 5’ end (upward) direction .
=>Each turn of duplex xonsist of 10 base pairs .

Genes :-
DNA is a herdity material it carries genetic information from parent to
offspring in the form of genes . Gene is a functional unit of heredity material .
The gene gives instructions for developing characters like eye and hair color
by producing enzymes .
Genetic information flow in a cell from DNA to mRNA than to cytoplasm
in two steps for protein synthesis .
1)Transcrriptions :-
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In this step the information of gene is copied into the
form of RNA i.e. mRNA , which carries information from nucleus to ribosome in
the form of genetic code .
2)Translation :-
In this step mRNA attach to ribosome . Two other type of
RNAs i.e. tRNA (transfer) and rRNA (ribosomal) translate the information of
mRNA into specific sequence of amino acids which help to synthesize the
protein .

( Ribo nucleic acid (RNA) )

RNA is also a polymer of nucleotides . It is polymer of
ribonucleotide i.e. the nucleotide contain ribose sugar and one of the
nitrogenous bases i.e. A , G , C and U . It means instead of Thyamine it
contains the nucleotide of uracil .
DNA is a heredity material while RNA helps in protein synthesis . There
are three types of RNA .

1)Messenger (RNA) :-
It consists of single strand . Its lengths depends on the
size of gene . It contains information in the form of Genetic codes , CODON .
These codons are basically triplets of Nucleotideesof mRNA which encode one
amino acid . It is about 3 to 4% of total RNA in the cell .

2)Transfer (RNA) :-
The smallest sized RNA consists of only 70 to 90
nucleotides . Basically it is single stranded RNA but it shows duplex at some
regions where complementary bases are present . It has anticodons of genetic
codes s its complementary form . It transfers related amino acid from cytosol
to ribosome , they are sixty in numbers , while human cell contains only 45
different types of tRNA . It is about 10 to 20% of total RNA .

3)Ribosomal (RNA) :-
Ribosomal RNA is present in ribosome . It has largest
size among all three RNA I.e. 80% of total of RNA in a cell is rRNA . It is
involved in peptide linkages during protein synthesis .