On numerical solution of the second-order

linear Fredholm–Stieltjes integral equation

Cite as: AIP Advances 11, 075120 (2021); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0050640
Submitted: 17 March 2021 • Accepted: 25 June 2021 • Published Online: 23 July 2021

Mukhammadmuso Abduzhabbarov, Ramzan Ali and Avyt Asanov

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AIP Advances 11, 075120 (2021); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0050640 11, 075120

© 2021 Author(s).
 AIP Advances ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/adv

On numerical solution of the second-order linear

Fredholm–Stieltjes integral equation
Cite as: AIP Advances 11, 075120 (2021); doi: 10.1063/5.0050640
Submitted: 17 March 2021 • Accepted: 25 June 2021 •
Published Online: 23 July 2021

Mukhammadmuso Abduzhabbarov,1 Ramzan Ali,1,a) and Avyt Asanov2

AFFILIATIONS
1
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Central Asia, 310 Lenin Street,
722918 Naryn, Kyrgyzstan
2
Department of Mathematics, Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University, Chyngyz Aitmatov Campus, 720038 Djal, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

a)
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: ramzan.ali@ucentralasia.org and alian.qau@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
In this framework, the necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence and uniqueness of the second-order linear Fredholm–Stieltjes-
b
integral equations, u(x) = λ ∫ K(x, y) u(y) dg(y) + f (x), x ∈ [a, b], are thoroughly derived. Moreover, instead of approximating the integral
a
equation by different numbers of partition n, the optimal number n for the given error tolerance is established. The system of equations is
implemented in MAPLE for the Runge method. An efficient scheme is proposed for second-order integral equations. The solution has been
compared with an exact and closed-form solution for limited cases.
© 2021 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0050640

I. INTRODUCTION AND FORMULATION Differentio-integral equations are frequently applied in quan-

Mathematical modeling many physical models are transformed
into differential and integral equations in a real-life application due
to many scientific and applied sciences problems. A large class of
initial and boundary value problems (IBVPs) is usually transformed
into second-order Fredholm integral equations in mathematical
modeling. The complexity of the kernel in Fredholm integral equa-
tions requires efficient, accurate, and stable approaches to depict
the propagation of the light in scattering material. The differentio-
integral equation has quite exciting applications with the emer-
gence of quantum mechanics, quantum computing, and nanofluidic
models.
Realistic biological, ecological, and many physical models,
such as scattering in quantum mechanics, conformal mapping,
diffraction, gravitational problems, models in fisheries, to men-
tion a few, contain integral equations of different kinds. The
numerical solution of the Fredholm integral equations is inten-
sively used for the simulating behavior of light beams, par-
ticularly in the random media. The complex kernels of linear
and nonlinear integral equations occurred widely in physics and
applied sciences—image construction, tomography, and inverse
problems.
tum mechanics. The well-known Schrödinger equations are a classic
example of differentio-integral equations in quantum mechanics. In
the Schrödinger equation model, when a particle undergoes many-
body interaction through a medium, results in the particle expe-
riencing an effective potential that depends on the wave function.
Such an interaction is nonlocal and leads to integral equations,16
which provides a better modeling approach to find the bound-state
energy and wave function using integral equations models. We refer
to Refs. 16 and 17 for more state-of-the-art applications of inte-
gral equations in biochemistry, space science, and from classical to
quantum mechanics.
In the literature, limited attempts are available to find exact
and approximate integral equation solutions compared to differen-
tial equations. The integral equations are complicated in finding a
straightforward closed-form solution.
The complexity of the linear/nonlinear integral equations leads
the researcher to explore the area of numerical methods. In devel-
oping an efficient and accurate numerical scheme, the real focus still
underlies the solution’s existence and uniqueness. The big mathe-
matical questions of the existence and uniqueness of the solution
will be essential for developing a suitable framework and numerical
scheme.

AIP Advances 11, 075120 (2021); doi: 10.1063/5.0050640 11, 075120-1

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b
There are many numerical methods to solve the second-order
linear Fredholm integral equations. Some of the well-known tech- u(x) = λ ∫ K(x, s) u(s) dg(s) + f (x)
a
niques include, but are not confined to, trapezoid, projection, Nys-
b b
trom, Simpson, Gaussian, midpoint, etc.1–7 However, there are very
few of them to solve the Fredholm–Stieltjes integral equation.8–12 = λ ∫ K(x, s) u(s) dφ(s) − λ∫ K(x, s) u(s) dψ(s) + f (x).
Only trapezoid and midpoint methods are available to solve the a a
second-order linear Fredholm–Stieltjes integral equation.13–15 ´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶
I
´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¸¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶
II
In both trapezoid and midpoint methods, the condition for
(2)
the existence and uniqueness of the solutions are not thoroughly
studied. Notably, in Ref. 15, the consistency of the system of lin- In Eq. (2), both integrals are evaluated using the generalized mid-
ear equations obtained by applying the generalized midpoint rule point rule1 as follows:
was not supported by valid arguments. One could not calculate
the determinant of the system. This paper endorses the condi- b

tion for the existence and uniqueness of the second-order linear I = λ∫ K(x, s) u(s) dφ(s)
Fredholm–Stieltjes integral equation solution. Moreover, in these a
numerical methods, the interval was equally divided into many n
∗ ∗
parts. The numerical scheme calculating different values for the ≈ λ∑ K(x, x2i−1 ) u(x2i−1 ) [φ(x2i ) − φ(x2i−2 )]
i=1
model was under discussion. Afterward, the conditions on the
performance of the schemes were evaluated for different values = λK(x, x1∗ ) u(x1∗ ) [φ(x2 ) − φ(x0 )] + λK(x, x3∗ ) u(x3∗ )
of n. ∗ ∗
× [φ(x4 ) − φ(x2 )] + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + λK(x, x2n−1 ) u(x2n−1 )
In this paper, we provided an alternative approach known as
× [φ(x2n ) − φ(x2n−2 )], (3)
the Runge method. We developed and implemented the second-
order linear Fredholm–Stieltjes integral equation. We found the where x2i = a + 2ih for every i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n and a is represented
optimal value that satisfies the error tolerance. The existing research as initial values in the closed interval, h is the step size, and the
was not suitable enough to choose a value of n and evaluate the midpoints for every i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n are defined as follows:
accuracy and efficiency of the numerical methods. We have cal-
culated the optimal value of n that satisfies the error tolerance ∗
= φ−1 [
φ(x2i ) + φ(x2i−2 )
in a reasonably acceptable threshold. In addition, Theorem 1 is x2i−1 ].
2
employed to show the existence of the solution for the system of
linear equations. The necessary and sufficient condition for the exis- In other words, for different values of i, we could rewrite the above
tence and uniqueness of the system is derived in Lemma 1. The equation as
derived scheme is successfully applied in a couple of realistic physical
x1∗ = φ−1 [
φ(x2 ) + φ(x0 )
problems. ],
Most importantly, we approximate solutions using two meth- 2
x3∗ = φ−1 [
ods, namely, trapezoid and midpoint, compared with analyti- φ(x4 ) + φ(x2 )
],
cal solutions. We have shown that the convergence of the mid- 2
point method is better than the trapezoid method. The results ⋮
are in excellent significant agreement with the existing literature.
∗
= φ−1 [
φ(x2n ) + φ(x2n−2 )
Let us consider the following Fredholm–Stieltjes Integral Equation x2n−1 ].
(SOLFSIE): 2
Similarly, the second integral from Eq. (2) is evaluated using the
b
generalized midpoint rule,1
u(x) = λ ∫ K(x, s) u(s) dg(s) + f (x), x ∈ [a, b], (1)
a b
II = λ∫ K(x, s) u(s) dψ(s)
where K(x, s) ∈ C([a, b] × [a, b]) in the kernel, the function g(s) is
a
the finite difference function on the closed interval [a, b], f (x) is n
the given function, and u(x) is the unknown function. In Sec. II, ∗∗ ∗∗
≈ λ∑ K(x, x2i−1 ) u(x2i−1 ) [ψ(x2i ) − ψ(x2i−2 )]
we thoroughly develop a numerical solution for the SOLFSIE using i=1
generalized midpoint rule. = λK(x, x1∗∗ ) u(x1∗∗ ) [ψ(x2 ) − ψ(x0 )] + λK(x, x3∗∗ ) u(x3∗∗ )
∗∗ ∗∗
× [ψ(x4 ) − ψ(x2 )] + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + λK(x, x2n−1 ) u(x2n−1 )
II. SOLUTION OF THE SOLFSIE BY THE GENERALIZED × [ψ(x2n ) − ψ(x2n−2 )], (4)
MIDPOINT RULE
where the midpoints for every i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n for this equation are
In Eq. (1), the function g(s) can be written as a difference of
defined as follows:
two increasing continuous functions φ(s), ψ(s) on the closed inter-
∗∗
= ψ −1 [
val [a, b]. If the difference φ(s) − ψ(s) is substituted in place of g(s), ψ(x2i ) + ψ(x2i−2 )
x2i−1 ].
the following equation is obtained: 2

AIP Advances 11, 075120 (2021); doi: 10.1063/5.0050640 11, 075120-2

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In other words, u(x1∗ ) = λA1 (x1∗ ) u(x1∗ ) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + λAn (x1∗ ) u(x2n−1

∗
)+
+ λB1 (x1∗ )u(x1∗∗ ) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + λBn (x1∗ ) u(x2n−1
∗∗
) + f (x1∗ ),
x1∗∗ −1
ψ(x2 ) + ψ(x0 )
=ψ [ ], ⋮
2 ∗ ∗
u(x2n−1 ) = λA1 (x2n−1 ) u(x1∗ ) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + λAn (x2n−1
∗ ∗
) u(x2n−1
x3∗∗ = ψ −1 [
ψ(x4 ) + ψ(x2 ) )+
∗
)u(x1∗∗ ) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + λBn (x2n−1
∗ ∗∗
]
2 + λB1 (x2n−1 ) u(x2n−1 )
∗
⋮ + f (x2n−1 ),
∗∗
x2n−1 = ψ −1 [
ψ(x2n ) + ψ(x2n−2 )
]. u(x1∗∗ ) = λA1 (x1∗∗ ) u(x1∗ ) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + λAn (x1∗∗ ) u(x2n−1
∗
)+
2
+ λB1 (x1∗∗ )u(x1∗∗ ) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + λBn (x1∗∗ ) u(x2n−1
∗∗
) + f (x1∗∗ ),
If Eqs. (3) and (4) are substituted back into Eq. (2), the approximate ⋮
∗∗ ∗∗
solution u(x) is obtained as follows: u(x2n−1 ) = λA1 (x2n−1 ) u(x1∗ ) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + λAn (x2n−1
∗∗ ∗
) u(x2n−1 )+
∗∗
n + λB1 (x2n−1 )u(x1∗∗ ) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + λBn (x2n−1
∗∗ ∗∗
) u(x2n−1 )
∗ ∗
u(x) = λ ∑ K(x, x2i−1 ) u(x2i−1 ) [φ(x2i ) − φ(x2i−2 )] ∗∗
+ f (x2n−1 ).
i=1
n
∗∗ ∗∗ To show that there exists a solution for the system above, the
− λ ∑ K(x, x2i−1 ) u(x2i−1 ) [ψ(x2i ) − ψ(x2i−2 )] + f (x)
i=1 following theorem is used:
= λK(x, x1∗ ) u(x1∗ ) [φ(x2 ) − φ(x0 )] + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
Theorem 1. For a given n × n matrix (aij ), for every i, if
∗ ∗
+ λK(x, x2n−1 ) u(x2n−1 ) [φ(x2n ) − φ(x2n−2 )]
n
− λK(x, x1∗∗ ) u(x1∗∗ ) [ψ(x2 ) − ψ(x0 )] − ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ∑ ∣aij ∣ < 1
∗∗ ∗∗ j=1
− λK(x, x2n−1 ) u(x2n−1 ) [ψ(x2n ) − ψ(x2n−2 )] + f (x). (5)
holds, then the system of linear equations
Now, using the following substitutions for every i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n in
n
Eq. (5):
ξi − ∑ aij ξj = bi , i = 1, 2, . . . , n,
j=1
∗
Ai (x) = K(x, x2i−1 ) [φ(x2i ) − φ(x2i−2 )],
∗∗ has a unique solution.2
Bi (x) = −K(x, x2i−1 ) [ψ(x2i ) − ψ(x2i−2 )],
After writing the above system in the following way:
one can obtain the following equation:
n n
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗∗
n n u(x2j−1 ) − ∑ λAi (x2j−1 ) u(x2i−1 ) − ∑ λBi (x2j−1 ) u(x2i−1 )
∗ ∗∗ i=1 i=1
u(x) = λ ∑ Ai (x) u(x2i−1 ) + λ ∑ Bi (x) u(x2i−1 ) + f (x)
∗
i=1 i=1 = f (x2j−1 ),
= λA1 (x) u(x1∗ ) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + λAn (x) u(x2n−1
∗
n n
(8)
∗∗ ∗∗ ∗ ∗∗ ∗∗
)
u(x2j−1 ) − ∑ λAi (x2j−1 ) u(x2i−1 ) − ∑ λBi (x2j−1 ) u(x2i−1
+ λB1 (x)u(x1∗∗ ) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + λBn (x) u(x2n−1
∗∗ )
) + f (x). (6) i=1 i=1
∗∗
∗ ∗∗
= f (x2j−1 )
Now, after Eq. (6) is evaluated at the midpoints x2j−1 and x2j−1 , the
following system of linear equations is obtained: for j = 1, 2, . . . , n, by Theorem 1, once the condition

n n
∗ ∗ ∗
u(x2j−1 ) = λ ∑ Ai (x2j−1 ) u(x2i−1 ) ∑ ∣λAi (x) + λBi (x)∣ < 1 (9)
i=1 i=1
n
∗ ∗∗ ∗ holds, then system (8) has a unique solution.
+ λ ∑ Bi (x2j−1 ) u(x2i−1 ) + f (x2j−1 ),
i=1
n
(7) Lemma 1. The necessary and sufficient condition for the exis-
∗∗ ∗∗ ∗ tence and uniqueness of system (8) is
u(x2j−1 ) = λ ∑ Ai (x2j−1 ) u(x2i−1 )
i=1
n 1
∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∣λ∣ < . (10)
+ λ ∑ Bi (x2j−1 ) u(x2i−1 ) + f (x2j−1 ). sup ∣K(x, s)∣ ⋅ [φ(b) − φ(a) + ψ(b) − ψ(a)]
i=1 x,s∈[a,b]

For the values of j = 1, 2, . . . , n, one can obtain the following system Since φ(x) and ψ(x) are increasing and continuous functions, the
of linear equations: inequality [φ(b) − φ(a) + ψ(b) − ψ(a)] > 0 holds.

AIP Advances 11, 075120 (2021); doi: 10.1063/5.0050640 11, 075120-3

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Proof. Condition (9) can be modified in the following form:

n n
∗ ∗∗
∑ ∣λAi (x) + λBi (x)∣ = ∑ ∣λK(x, x2i−1 ) [φ(x2i ) − φ(x2i−2 )] − λK(x, x2i−1 )[ψ(x2i ) − ψ(x2i−2 )]∣
i=1 i=1
n
≤ ∣λ∣ ⋅ sup ∣K(x, s)∣ ⋅ ∑ ∣[φ(x2i ) − φ(x2i−2 )] − [ψ(x2i ) − ψ(x2i−2 )]∣
x,s∈[a,b] i=1
n
= ∣λ∣ ⋅ sup ∣K(x, s)∣ ⋅ ∑ ∣[φ(x2i ) − φ(x2i−2 )] + [ψ(x2i−2 ) − ψ(x2i )]∣
x,s∈[a,b] i=1
n n
≤ ∣λ∣ ⋅ sup ∣K(x, s)∣ ⋅ (∑ ∣φ(x2i ) − φ(x2i−2 )∣ + ∑ ∣ψ(x2i−2 ) − ψ(x2i )∣)
x,s∈[a,b] i=1 i=1
n n
= ∣λ∣ ⋅ sup ∣K(x, s)∣ ⋅ (∑ ∣φ(x2i ) − φ(x2i−2 )∣ + ∑ ∣ψ(x2i ) − ψ(x2i−2 )∣).
x,s∈[a,b] i=1 i=1

Since the functions φ(x) and ψ(x) are increasing and continuous on the closed interval [a, b], then φ(x2i ) − φ(x2i−2 ) > 0 and ψ(x2i )
− ψ(x2i−2 ) > 0 for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Therefore,

n n n
∑ ∣λAi (x) + λBi (x)∣ ≤ ∣λ∣ ⋅ sup ∣K(x, s)∣ ⋅ (∑ [φ(x2i ) − φ(x2i−2 )] + ∑ [ψ(x2i ) − ψ(x2i−2 )])
i=1 x,s∈[a,b] i=1 i=1
n
= ∣λ∣ ⋅ sup ∣K(x, s)∣ ⋅ ∑ ([φ(x2i ) − φ(x2i−2 )] + [ψ(x2i ) − ψ(x2i−2 )])
x,s∈[a,b] i=1

= ∣λ∣ ⋅ sup ∣K(x, s)∣ ⋅ [φ(b) − φ(a) + ψ(b) − ψ(a)] < 1.

x,s∈[a,b]

Thus, the following inequality holds: For more clarity, an elaborated form of the matrix is included in
the Appendix. The system of linear equations (I − λA) ⋅ U = F has
1 a unique solution once condition (10) holds, and the solution of the
∣λ∣ <
sup ∣K(x, s)∣ ⋅ [φ(b) − φ(a) + ψ(b) − ψ(a)]
. system of equations will be U = (I − λA)−1 ⋅ F.
x,s∈[a,b] Using backward substitution for the solution into Eq. (6), the
◻ approximate solution is obtained as follows:

System (8) can be rewritten in the matrix form as follows: n n

u(x) = λ∑ Ui ⋅ Ai (x) + λ∑ Un+i ⋅ Bi (x) + f (x). (11)
i=1 i=1
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ∗ ∗ ∗
⎛ A (x ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Bi (x2j−1 ) ⎟ ⎞ ⎟ ⎛u(x )⎞ Example 1. Consider the integral equation defined in Eq. (12)
⎜ i 2j−1
⎜
⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ 2j−1 ⎟
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜ ..
⎟⎟ ⎜
⎟⎟ ⎜
⎟
⎟ from Ref. 3. This is not suitable for the approximate solution of
⎜I − λ ⋅ ⎜ ⋮ . ⋮ ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⋮ ⎟ the given Fredholm–Stieltjes integral equation for different values
⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ of n.
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ∗∗ ⎟
⎜ ∗∗ ∗∗ ⎟
⎜ ⎝Ai (x2j−1 ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Bi (x2j−1 )⎠ ⎟ ⎝u(x2j−1 )⎠
We define the error tolerance of ε = 10−4 to find the
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¸¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶ ⎠ ´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¸¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶
A U
optimal n,
⎛ f (x∗ )⎞
2j−1 1
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ 1 √ x2 x √
⎜
=⎜
⎟
⎟, for i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n. u(x) = ∫ (1 + x2 s) u(s) d(ln(1 + s)) − − + x x. (12)
⎜ ⋮ ⎟ 10 4 6
⎜ ⎟ 0
⎜ ∗∗
⎟
⎝ f (x2j−1 )⎠
´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¸¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶ Using the Runge method, the condition for the midpoint rule is as
F follows:

AIP Advances 11, 075120 (2021); doi: 10.1063/5.0050640 11, 075120-4

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TABLE I. Comparison of trapezoid and midpoint methods.

n=4 n = 64
√2 √
Trapezoid −0.14116x − 0.21577x + x x −0.1444x − 0.21999x2 + x x
2 √ 2 √
Midpoint −0.14585x − 0.22162x + x x −0.14444x − 0.2199998x + x x
2 √ 2 √
u(x) −0.14443x − 0.219994x + x x −0.14443x − 0.219994x + x x

RRR R Example 2. Considering the SOLFSIE solved by using the

RRRsup u − sup u RRRRR
R n 2n RR generalized trapezoid method from Ref. 4, we obtain
∣uh − uh/2 ∣ RRRR x∈[a,b] x∈[a,b] RRR
R(x) = = < ε. (13)
22 − 1 22 − 1
1
2 √ 1 1 √
u(x) = ∫ (xs2 + x2 s) u(s) d 3 s − x2 − x + x x, (14)
If the condition above is satisfied, then according to the Runge 5 4 6
0
method, u2n satisfies the given error estimate.
Test 1: Start with n = 4: √ 2
The software Maple is used to calculate the following approxi- where K(x, s) = xs2 + x2 s, φ(x) = 3
x, ψ(x) = 0, f (x) = − x4 − x
6
√
mations: + x x, and λ = 25 .

sup u4 = 0.596 690 977 381 333 and sup u8 = 0.597 314 600 882 333. In this example, condition (10) is satisfied for ∣λ∣ < 0 ⋅ 5.
x∈[a,b] x∈[a,b] In Eq. (14), λ = 25 is taken, which means that the integral
equation has a unique solution.
If this example is solved analytically, one can obtain the follow-
After finding the sup at n = 4 and n = 8 and testing the convergence
ing exact solution:
criteria,
√
u(x) = −0.144 430 320 1x − 0.219 994 101 7x2 + x x.
∣0.596 690 977 381 333 − 0.597 314 600 882 333∣
R(x) =
3
We approximated the solution using two methods, namely,
= 0.000 207 874 500 0.
trapezoid and midpoint, compared with the analytic solution.
From Table I, it can be observed that the midpoint method is
Since the result is greater than the given error tolerance ε = 10−4 , the approximating the solution better than the trapezoid method.
value of n is doubled.
Test 2: Start with n = 8 and n = 16:
III. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we derive the condition for the existence and
sup u8 = 0.597 314 600 882 333 and sup u16 = 0.597 481 837 280 333. uniqueness of the second-order linear Fredholm–Stieltjes integral
x∈[a,b] x∈[a,b]
equation. This paper addresses and thoroughly discusses the exis-
tence and uniqueness of the system of equations. The convergent
We check condition (13) that satisfies this time, numerical scheme is employed using the generalized midpoint rule.
Moreover, the optimal value for n and the number of partitions for
the given error tolerance is calculated using the Runge method. The
∣0.597 314 600 882 333 − 0.597 481 837 280 333∣ solution of the mid-point method is in excellent agreement with the
R(x) =
3 exact solution. The derived scheme is applied in a couple of exam-
= 0.000 055 745 466 67. ples where we have shown that the mid-point method’s convergence
is much better than the trapezoid method. In the outlook, there is
a great potential to explore non-linear models, error estimations of
Since 0.000 055 745 466 67 < 0.0001 = ε, the approximate solu- various methods, nonlocal interactions, and singular kernels of the
tion Stieltjes integral equations of different kinds.

1 √
u16 = 0.008 679 326 147 − 0.244 530 822 2 ⋅ x2 − ⋅x+x x
6 APPENDIX: THE MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF Eq. (8)
The sophisticated system in Eq. (8) can be rewritten in a more
satisfies the given error tolerance ε = 10−4 . lucid and elaborated matrix form as

AIP Advances 11, 075120 (2021); doi: 10.1063/5.0050640 11, 075120-5

© Author(s) 2021
 AIP Advances ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/adv

⎛ ⎞
⎜ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ⎟ ∗ ∗
⎜
⎜ ⎛ A1 (x1 ) A2 (x1 ) ⋅⋅⋅ An (x1 ) B1 (x1 ) B2 (x1 ) ⋅⋅⋅ Bn (x1 ) ⎞ ⎟ ⎟ ⎛ u(x1 ) ⎞ ⎛ f (x1 ) ⎞
⎜ A1 (x3∗ ) A2 (x3∗ ) An (x3∗ ) B1 (x3∗ ) B2 (x3∗ ) Bn (x3∗ ) ⎟ ⎜ u(x3∗ ) ⎟ ⎜ f (x3∗ ) ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟
⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅
⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜
⎟ ⎜
⎟ ⎜
⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⎟
⎟⎟ ⎜ ⋮ ⎟ ⎜ ⋮ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ∗ ⎟ ⎜ ∗ ⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎜ A 1 (x 2n−1 ) A 2 (x 2n−1 ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ A n (x 2n−1 ) B 1 (x 2n−1 ) B 2 (x 2n−1 ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ B n (x 2n−1 ) ⎟ ⎜u(x
⎟ ⎜ 2n−1 ⎟ ⎜ ) ⎟ ⎜ f (x 2n−1 ⎟ )
⎜I − λ ⋅ ⎜
⎜ ⎟ ⎟.
⎜ A1 (x1∗∗ ) ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ⎜ u(x1∗∗ ) ⎟ ⎜ f (x1∗∗ ) ⎟
⎟ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ A (x ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ A (x ) B (x ) B (x ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ B (x ) ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎜ 2 1 n 1 1 1 2 1 n 1 ⎟
⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜
⎜ A1 (x∗∗ ) ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ u(x∗∗ ) ⎟ ⎜ f (x∗∗ ) ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎜ 3 A 2 (x 3 ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ A n (x 3 ) B 1 (x 3 ) B 2 (x 3 ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ B n (x 3 ) ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⋮ ⎟ ⎜ ⋮ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ⎟ ∗∗ ∗∗
⎜ ⎝ A1 (x2n−1 ) A2 (x2n−1 ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ An (x2n−1 ) B1 (x2n−1 ) B2 (x2n−1 ) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Bn (x2n−1 ) ⎟ u(x2n−1 ) ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ f (x2n−1 )⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¸¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¶ ⎠ ´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶ ´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¸¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶
A2n x 2n U2n x 1 F2n x 1

DATA AVAILABILITY 7
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AIP Advances 11, 075120 (2021); doi: 10.1063/5.0050640 11, 075120-6

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