02-Unit 2 PDC

Process Dynamics and Control
By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU)

Unit Two
Theoretical Models of Chemical Processes
October 25, 2023
By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

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2.1. Development of Mathematical Models
Mathematical model is the mathematical representation of an
existing system which represents knowledge of that system in a usable
form.
A mathematical model of a dynamic system:
is a set of differential equations that represents the dynamics of the
system accurately, or at least fairly well.
is the first and foremost task that a control engineer has to accomplish
for design and analysis of any control engineering problem.
is not unique to a given system.
may be represented in many different ways depending on one’s
perspective.
should be made as simple as possible, but no simpler
equations are at best an approximation to the real process.
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The main uses of mathematical modeling are:
to improve understanding of the process
to train plant operating personal
to develop a control strategy for a new process
to select controller settings
to design the controller law
to understand the interactions of the process
to optimize process operating conditions

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2.2. General Modeling Principles
There are three major modeling approaches.
a) Theoretical models: are developed using the principles of

mathematics, chemistry, physics, and biology involving material and
energy balances.
Theoretical models offer two very important advantages:
provide physical insight into process behavior
applicable over wide ranges of conditions
However, there are disadvantages associated with theoretical models:

tend to be expensive and time-consuming to develop
complex processes typically include some model parameters that are
not readily available, such as reaction rate coefficients, physical
properties, or heat transfer coefficients.
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b) Empirical models: are obtained by fitting experimental data
easier to develop and to use in controller design
typically do not extrapolate well.
should be used with caution for operating conditions that were not
included in the experimental data used to fit the model.
the range of the data is typically quite small compared to the full range
of process operating conditions.
c) Semi-empirical models: are a combination of the models in
categories (a) and (b) data.
the numerical values of one or more of the parameters in a theoretical
model are calculated from experimental data
incorporate theoretical knowledge
can be extrapolated over a wider range of operating conditions
require less development effort
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Six-step modeling procedure
Define goals
Prepare information
Formulate the model
Determine the solution
Analyze results
Validate the model

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State variables vs State equations
State variables are a set of fundamental quantities whose values
describe the natural state of a given process.
The state variables are primarily the fundamental quantities of a
process: mass, component and energy.
State equations are set of differential equations which describe the

progression of the states with time.
The state equations are generated out of conservation principle
involving fundamental quantities of state variables.

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Modeling objectives is to describe process dynamics based on the
laws of conservation of mass, energy and momentum.
Mass Balance (Stirred tank)
Energy Balance (Stirred tank heater)
Component Balance (Compositions change in the reactor)
Variable selection for modeling

liquid level → total mass in liquid
concentration → component mass
temperature → energy balance
pressure → total moles in vapor

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2.3. Degree of freedom Analysis
The degree of freedom is the total number of independent variables

that must be specified in order to define the system completely so
that the model equations can be solved.
The desired control of the process will be achieved when and only
when all the degrees of freedom have been specified.
The degree of freedom equation: F = V − E
F = Degrees of freedom
V = Number of variables
E = Number of Equations

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2.4. Dynamic Models of Representative Processes
Properly modeled process will be specified when the disturbances and

manipulated variables are specified by the surrounding and the
controller respectively.
Principle of Conservation: Let S be the fundamental quantity.
The state equation can be written as:

RS = Rsi − Rso + Rsg − Rsc
RS - Rate of accumulation of S within the system
Rsi - Flow rate of S coming to the system
Rso - Flow rate of S going of the system
Rsg - Rate of S generated within the system
Rsc - Rate of S consumed within the system

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General balances taken in mathematical modeling
General assumptions
In homogeneous systems, perfect mixing is assumed, therefore the
composition and temperature inside the system is the same as the
composition and temperature at the outlet
Density of liquid is assumed constant (average value is used)
Specific heat (Cp) is assumed constant (average value is used)
Kinetic and potential energies are considered negligible for most
chemical processes
For liquid systems internal energies can be assumed equal to enthalpies

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a) Total Mass Balance [ω, F are mass and volume flow rate res.]
If there are i number of streams going into a process and j number of

streams coming out of a process, the mass balance equations for the
process can be written as:
dm P P
= i ωi − j ωj
dt
d(ρV ) P P
⇒ = i ρi Fi − j ρj Fj
dt
dV P P
⇒ρ = i ρi Fi − j ρj Fj , assume ρ = ρi = ρj
dt
d[Ah] P P
⇒ρ = ρ[ i Fi − j Fj ]
dt
dh P P
⇒A = i Fi − j Fj
dt
dh 1 P P
⇒ = [ i Fi − j Fj ]
dt A

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b) Component Balance on A [rA = −kCA ]
The component balance equations can be written as:

dnA P P
= i nAi − j nAj + rA V
dt
d(CA V ) P P
⇒ = i CAi Fi − j CAj Fj + rA V
dt
dV dCA P P
⇒ CA +V = i CAi Fi − j CAj Fj − kCA V
dt dt
P P dCA P P
⇒ CA [ i Fi − j Fj ] + V = i CAi Fi − j CAj Fj − kCA V
dt
dCA P P P P
⇒V = i CAi Fi − j CAj Fj − kCA V + CA [ i Fi − j Fj ]
dt
dCA P P
⇒V = i Fi [CAi − CA ] − j Fj [CAj − CA ] − kCA V
dt
dCA 1 P P
⇒ = [ i Fi [CAi − CA ] − j Fj [CAj − CA ]] − kCA
dt V
dCA Fi
⇒ = [CAi − CA ] − kCA
dt V

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c) Energy Balance [h = enthalpy, Q = heat supplied or removed]
The energy (E) balance equation for system is written as:

dE P P
= i ωi hi − j ωhj + Q
dt
d(ρVCp T ) P P
⇒ = i [ρi Fi ][Cpi Ti ] − j [ρj Fj ][Cpj Tj ] + Q
dt
d(VT ) P P
⇒ ρCp = ρCp [ i Fi Ti − j Fj Tj ] + Q
dt
dT dV P P Q
⇒V +T = i Fi Ti − j Fj Tj +
dt dt ρCp
dT P P P P Q
⇒V + T [ i Fi − j Fj ] = i Fi Ti − j Fj Tj +
dt ρCp
dT P P Q
⇒V = i Fi [Ti − T ] − j Fj [Tj − T ] +
dt ρCp
dT 1 P P Q
⇒ = [ i Fi [Ti − T ] − j Fj [Tj − T ]] +
dt V ρVCp
dT Fi Q
⇒ = [Ti − T ] +
dt V ρVCp
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Modeling Difficulties:
Poorly understood processes
Imprecisely known parameters
Size and complexity of a model

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Developing Mathematical for different Systems
1) Develop the dynamic model of the system and determine the degree
of freedom for surge tank (Liquid)
Modeling objective: Control of tank level
Fundamental quantity: height
Assumptions: Incompressible flow

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Total Mass Balance
dm d(ρV ) P P
= = i ρi Fi − j ρj F
dt dt
d(ρAh)
⇒ = ρi Fi − ρj F
dt
dh
⇒ Aρ = ρ(Fi − F )
dt
d(h) √
⇒A = F i − F = F i − Cv h
dt
dh √
⇒ A + Cv h = Fi - - - - - - - - (1)
dt
This is the dynamic model of surge tank in liquid.

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To calculate the degree of freedom
NV = 4 (A, h, Fi , Cv )
Parameters = 2 (A, Cv ); Input = 1 (Fi )
Equation = 1 (eq 1)
DF = NV - NE = 4 - (2 + 1 + 1) = 4 - 4 = 0
It has unique solution.
⇒ The dynamic model is solvable.

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of freedom for a Stirred Tank Heater.

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Modeling objective: Control of tank level and temperature
Fundamental quantity: height and temperature
Assumptions: Incompressible flow, specific heat is constant
a) Total Mass Balance
Rate of accumulation = rate of inlet - rate of outlet

dm d(ρV ) P P
dt dt
d(ρV )
dt
d(Ah)
⇒ρ = ρ(Fi − F )
dt
dh
⇒A = Fi − F - - - - - - - - – - - - - (1)
dt

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b) Total Energy Balance
dE P P
= i Ei − j Ej + Q = mi hi − mh + Q
dt
d(ρVCp T )
⇒ = ρFi Cpi Ti − ρFCp T + Q
dt
d(VT )
⇒ ρCp = ρCp [Fi Ti − FT ] + Q
dt
dT dV Q
⇒V +T = Fi Ti − FT +
dt dt ρCp
dT Q
⇒V + T (Fi − F )] = Fi Ti − FT +
dt ρCp
dT Q
⇒V = Fi [Ti − T ] +
dt ρCp
dT Fi Q
⇒ = [Ti − T ] + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
dt V ρVCp

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Equations (1)and (2) are the dynamic models of a STH.
To calculate the degree of freedom (Model consistency)
NV = 10(A, ρ, Cp , Fi , F , Q, h, Ti , T , V )
Parameters = 4 (A, ρ, Cp , V )
Input = 4 (Fi , Ti , Q, F )
Equation = 2
DF = NV - NE = 10 - (4 + 4 + 2) = 10 - 10 = 0

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of freedom for a Stirred Tank Heater in jacketed
A → B where rA = kCA , 4Hr = −λ
kJ/kmol and the state variables are V , CA , T , Tc .

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The balance performed are
Total mass balance
Component balance on A
Energy balance inside the reactor
Energy balance around the reactor
The assumption taken are
First degree
reference temperature is zero
constant density and specific heat capacity
exothermic reaction

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The dynamic behavior of the process
a) Total Mass Balance, V

dm d(ρV ) P P
= = i ωi − j ωj
dt dt
dm d(ρV ) P P
dt dt
d(ρV )
dt
dV
⇒ρ = ρ(Fi − F )
dt
dV
⇒ = Fi − F - - - - - - - - (1)
dt

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b) Component Balance, CA
d(nA ) P P
= i nAi − j nA − V (−rA )
dt
d(VCA )
⇒ = Fi CAi − FCA − VkCA
dt
d(CA ) d(V )
⇒V + CA = Fi CAi − FCA − VkCA
dt dt
d(CA )
⇒V + CA (Fi − F ) = Fi CAi − FCA − VkCA
dt
d(CA ) Fi
⇒ = (CAi − CA ) − kCA - - - - - - - - (2)
dt V

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c) Total Energy Balance inside the reactor, T
dE P P
= i Ei − j Ej + λV (−rA ) + Q
dt
dE P P
⇒ = i mi hi − j mh + λVkCA + Q
dt
d(ρVCp T )
⇒ = ρFi Cpi Ti − ρFCp T + λVkCA + Q
dt
dT dV
⇒ ρCp [V +T ] = ρCp [Fi Ti − FT ] + λVkCA + Q
dt dt
dT
⇒ ρCp [V + T (Fi − F )] = ρCp [Fi Ti − FT ] + λVkCA + Q
dt
dT Fi λkCA Q
⇒ = (Ti − T ) + + - - - - - - - - (3)
dt V ρCp ρVCp

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d) Total Energy Balance around the reactor (jacketed), Tc
dE P P
= i Ei − j Ej + Q
dt
dE P P
⇒ = i mi hi − j mh + Q
dt
d(mCp Tc ) P P
⇒ = i mi Cpi Tci − j mCp Tc + Q
dt
d(ρVc Cp Tc )
⇒ = ρCp Fc Tci − ρCp Fc Tc + Q
dt
dTc
⇒ ρVc Cp = ρCp Fc (Tci − Tc ) + Q
dt
dTc Fc Q
⇒ = (Tci − Tc ) + - - - - - - - - (4)
dt Vc ρVc Cp

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e) Degree of freedom analysis
Equations = 4 [equations 1,2,3,4 ]
State variables = h, CA , T , Tc
Variables = 16[V , Fi , F , CA , CAi , k, T , Ti , λ, ρ, Cp , Q, Fc , Tci , Tc , Vc ]
Constants = 6[Fc , λ, k, ρ, Cp , Vc ]
Inputs = 6[Fi , F , CAi , Ti , Tci , Q]
Degree of freedom: DF = 16 − [4 + 6 + 6] ⇒ DF = 0

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of freedom for a Blending Process stirred-tank system

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a) From Total mass balance, V

dm P P
= wi − w
dt
d(ρV )
⇒ = w1 + w2 − w
dt
dV 1
⇒ = [w1 + w2 − w ] - - - - - - - (1)
dt ρ

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b) From Component Balance, CA
d(nA ) P P
= i nAi − j nA
dt
d(ρVx)
⇒ = w1 x1 + w2 x2 − wx
dt
dx dV
⇒ ρV + ρx = w1 x1 + w2 x2 − wx
dt dt
dx 1
⇒ ρV + ρx[ [w1 + w2 − w ] = w1 x1 + w2 x2 − wx
dt ρ
dx
⇒ ρV + x[w1 + w2 − w ] = w1 x1 + w2 x2 − wx
dt
dx
⇒ ρV = w1 [x1 − x] + w2 [x2 − x]
dt
dx 1
⇒ = w1 [[x1 − x] + w2 [x2 − x]] - - - - - - - - (2)
dt ρV

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c) Degree of freedom analysis
Equations = 2 [equations 1,2]
State variables = V , x
Variables = 8[V , ρ, w1 , w2 , w , x1 , x2 , x]
Constants = 1[ρ]
Inputs = 5[w1 , w2 , w , x1 , x2 ]

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5) A perfectly stirred, constant-volume tank has two input streams, both
consisting of the same liquid. The temperature and flow rate of each
of the streams can vary with time. Derive a dynamic model that will
describe transient operation. Make a degrees of freedom analysis
assuming that both Streams 1 and 2 come from upstream units.

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a) From Total mass balance, V

dm P P
= wi − w
dt
d(ρV )
⇒ = w1 + w2 − w3
dt
⇒ w1 + w2 − w3 = 0
⇒ w3 = w1 + w2 - - - - - - - (1)

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b) From Energy Balance, T3
dE P P
= i Ei − j Ej
dt
d(mCp )(T3 )
⇒ = w1 Cp1 [T1 ] + w2 Cp2 [T2 ] − w3 Cp3 [T3 ]
dt
d(ρVCp (T3 )
⇒ = w1 Cp1 T1 + w2 Cp2 T2 − w3 Cp3 T3
dt
d(T3 )
⇒ ρVCp = Cp [w1 T1 + w2 T2 − w3 T3 ]
dt
d(T3 ) 1
⇒ = [w1 T1 + w2 T2 − (w1 + w2 )T3 ]
dt ρV
d(T3 ) 1
⇒ = [w1 (T1 − T3 ) + w2 (T2 − T3 )] - - - - - - - - (2)
dt ρV

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c) Degree of freedom analysis
Equations = 1 [equations 2]
State variables = T3
Variables = 8[V , ρ, w1 , w2 , w3 , T1 , T2 , T3 ]
Constants = 2[ρ, V ]
Inputs = 5[w1 , w2 , w3 , T1 , T2 ]

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Problems on Unit Two
1) A stirred-tank blending process with a constant liquid holdup is used
to blend two streams whose densities (which does not change during
mixing) are both approximately 250kg /m3 . Assume that the process
has been operating for a long period of time with flow rates of
ω1 = 300kg /min and ω2 = 200kg /min.
(a) Develop the model that describes the dynamics behavior of the process.
(b) What is the steady-state value of output flow rate w?
(c) If the output flow rate is 400kg /min, then what is the volume of the
tank at a period of 20 min?
(d) If feed compositions (mass fractions) are x1 = 0.35 and x2 = 0.55, then
what is the steady-state value of composition, x?

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2) A stirred-tank blending process with a constant liquid holdup of 2m3
is used to blend two streams whose densities are both 900kg /m3 .
a) Assume that the process has been operating for a long period of time
with flow rates of ω1 = 500kg /min and ω2 = 200kg /min, and feed
compositions (mass fractions) of x1 = 0.4 and x2 = 0.75. What is the
steady-state value of x?
b) Suppose that ω1 changes suddenly from 500 to 400 kg/min and
remains at the new value. Determine an expression for x(t).
c) Repeat part (b) for the case where ω2 (instead of ω1 ) changes suddenly
from 200 to 100 kg/min and remains there.
d) Repeat part (c) for the case x1 suddenly changes from 0.4 to 0.6.

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3) A process tank has two input streams-Stream 1 at mass flow rate ω1
and Stream 2 at mass flow rate ω2 . The tank’s effluent stream, at
flow rate ω, discharges through a fixed valve to atmospheric pressure.
Pressure drop across the valve is proportional to the flow rate
squared. The cross-sectional area of the tank is 5m2 and the mass
density of all streams is 940kg /m3 .
a) Draw a schematic diagram of the process.
b) Write an appropriate dynamic model for the tank level.
c) What is the corresponding steady-state model?
d) At initial steady-state conditions, with ω1 = 2.0kg /s and
ω2 = 1.2kg /s, the tank level is 2.25 m. What is the value of the valve
constant (give units)?

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4) The liquid storage tank shown in figure below has two inlet streams
with the cylindrical tank of 3m2 area. Normal operating procedure is
to fill the tank until the liquid level reaches a nominal value using
constant flow rates: w1 = 180kg /min, w2 = 120kg /min and
w = 250kg /min and mass fractions: x1 = 0.4, x2 = 0.6. At the
nominal level, inlet flow rate w1 is adjusted so that the level remains
constant. However, on this particular day, corrosion of the tank has
opened up a hole in the wall at a height of 2m, producing a leak
whose volumetric flow rate q(m3 /min) can be approximated by:
√
q = 0.0625 h − 2, where h is height in meters. The tank has a liquid
with a density of 1g /cm3 .

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a) Develop the model that describes the dynamics behavior of the
process below the leak point.
b) Analysis the degree of freedom for the model.
c) If the tank was initially empty, how long did it take for the liquid level
to reach the corrosion point?
d) If mass flow rates are kept constant indefinitely, will the tank
eventually overflow? Determine the maximum value of liquid level
when no overflow occurs.

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Now assume the tank incorporates a valve on the outflow line that is used
√
to establish flow rate w = Cv h. The process has been operating for a
long time with constant flow rates and inlet concentrations. Under these
conditions, it has come to steady state at a level of h = 2.25m and there is
no leak (corrosion point) in the tank.
Then answer the following (e − g ) depending on this information.

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e) For what value of the valve constant Cv we keep the height at 2.25m?
f) If x1 is suddenly changed from 0.4 to 0.6 without changing the inlet

flow rates, then what is the final value of x?
How long does it take to come within 2% of this final value?
g) If w1 is changed from 180kg /min to 160kg /min without changing the

inlet concentrations, what will be the final value of the tank level as
there is no leak point? How long will it take to come within 2% of
this final value?

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5) Consider a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) in which a first
order reaction is taking place with rate rA = −kCA with
k = 0.04min−1 . The volume V of the reactor is constant, and the
reactor is operating under isothermal conditions. The input
volumetric flow rate is 0.08m3 /min; V = 2m3 and the input
concentration of species A CA0 = 1.5mol/m3 .
a) Write down the mathematical model for the isothermal CSTR.
b) Determine the steady state concentration at the output of the CSTR.
c) At time t = 10min, the inlet concentration CA0 undergoes a step
increase of magnitude 1.5mol/m3 . Determine how the concentration of
the output of the CSTR changes as a function of time.
d) What is the ultimate steady value of the output concentration after the
step jump ?

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6) Consider a Stirred Tank Heater in jacketed simple liquid phase first
order with reference temperature zero, constant density, constant
specific heat capacity, non-isothermal, irreversible, exothermic
reaction: A → B where rA = kCA ,
Data : ρ = 1g /cm3 = ρc , Cp = 2 ∗ 10−3 kJ/kg .o C = Cpc ,

λ = 24kJ/kmol, k = 0.5/hr , Fi = 100m3 /hr , Fci = 50m3 /hr ,
F = 80m3 /hr , CAi = 20kmol/m3 , Ti = 120o C , Tci = 200o C ,
A = 4m2 , Q = 8320kJ/hr

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a) Develop the model that describes the dynamics behavior of the
process.
b) What is the height of the tank at a period of 5 min?
c) What is the steady-state value of final concentration of A?
d) What is the steady-state value of the temperature in the reactor?
e) What is the steady-state value of the temperature in the coolant?

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7) A perfectly stirred with a volume tank 4m3 has inputs of flow rate
0.8m3 /min, concentration 15kmol/m3 and temperature 165o C . The
tank’s parameters are constant density of 1g /cm3 and constant
specific capacity of the process of 0.5kJ/kg .o C . Consider a simple
liquid phase, non-isothermal, irreversible, exothermic reaction:
A → B, where −rA = kCA , k = 3/hr , λ = 2kJ/kmol

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a) Develop the models that describes the dynamics behavior of the
process.
b) What is the steady-state value of final concentration of A?
c) How long will it take when the tank’s final concentration of A become
12.05kmol/m3 ?
d) What is the steady-state value of the final temperature of the reactor

when the outlet concentration of A is 10kmol/m3 and heat supplied
to the system is Q = 4kJ/min?

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02-Unit 2 PDC

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Process Dynamics and Control

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU)

October 25, 2023

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

to improve understanding of the process

to train plant operating personal

to develop a control strategy for a new process

to select controller settings

to design the controller law

to understand the interactions of the process

to optimize process operating conditions

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

a) Theoretical models: are developed using the principles of

However, there are disadvantages associated with theoretical models:

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

State equations are set of differential equations which describe the

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

Variable selection for modeling

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

The degree of freedom is the total number of independent variables

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

Properly modeled process will be specified when the disturbances and

The state equation can be written as:

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

If there are i number of streams going into a process and j number of

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

The component balance equations can be written as:

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

The energy (E) balance equation for system is written as:

Poorly understood processes

Imprecisely known parameters

Size and complexity of a model

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

Modeling objective: Control of tank level

Fundamental quantity: height

Assumptions: Incompressible flow

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

⇒ The dynamic model is solvable.

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

Fundamental quantity: height and temperature

Assumptions: Incompressible flow, specific heat is constant

a) Total Mass Balance

Rate of accumulation = rate of inlet - rate of outlet

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

⇒ The dynamic model is solvable.

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

Total mass balance

Energy balance inside the reactor

Energy balance around the reactor

The assumption taken are

reference temperature is zero

constant density and specific heat capacity

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

a) Total Mass Balance, V

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process

By: Gemechu B. (SCBE, AAiT, AAU) Process