IMPORTANT TERMS

1. Republic: It’s a state where the supreme power is held by the people and their
elected
representatives. The president is either appointed through elections or nomination.
2. Democratic republic: It is a country that is both public and a democratic. It is the one
where ultimate authority and power is derived from the citizens.
3. Socialist Republic: This refers to any state that is constitutionally dedicated to the
establishment of socialism.
4. Socialism: It is an economic theory, system or movement, where the production and
distribution of goods is done, owned and shared by the citizens of a society.
5. Absolute monarchy: It is a type of a governmental form of monarchy in which all
governmental power and responsibilities arise from a monarch. Louis XIV of France is
the most famous example of absolute monarchy. (France is a good example of this. In
France, Louis XIV is exemplar of absolute monarchy, with his court central to French
political and cultural life during his reign.)
6. Utopia: an imagined place or state of things in which everything is per fect.
7. Nation-state: A sovereign state, resided by comparatively homogeneous group of
people
who share a feeling of common nationality.
8. Nationalism: Loyalty and devotion towards a nation.
9. Aristocracy: A class or group of people believed to be superior (as in rank, wealth, or
intellect).
10. Serf: a person in the past who belonged to a low social class and who lived and
worked
on a land owned by another person.
11. Universal Suffrage: The right of all adult citizens to vote in an election.
12. Conservatism: Commitment to traditional values and ideas with opposition to
change or
innovation.
13. Habsburg Empire: The Empire that ruled Austria, Hungary, including the Alpine
region of
Tyrol, Sudetenland, and Bohemia.
14. Ottoman Empire: Turkish empire ruled by the Caliph – the spiritual and temporal
head
of the Muslims.
15. Ideology: System of ideas reflecting a particular social and political vision.
16. Plebiscite: A direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or
reject
a proposal.
17. Ethnic: It relates to a common racial, tribal or cultural origin or background that a
community identifies with or claims.
18. Allegory: when an abstract idea is expressed through a person or a thing. An
allegorical
story has two meanings, one literal and one symbolic.
19. Romanticism: A cultural movement, which aimed at developing a particular form of
national sentiment and promote a feeling of collective heritage as the basis of a nation.
IMPORTANT EVENTS
1688 – Act of Union – Between England and Scotland- resulted in the formation of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain.
1789 – The French Revolution occurred.
1797 – Napoleon invades Italy, Napoleonic wars begin.
1801 – Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom.
1804 – Napoleonic Code or the Civil Code was introduced, abolishing privileges based
on birth. Upheld equality before law and secured right to property.
1815 – Defeat of Napoleon by European powers–Britain, Prussia, Russia and Austria.
1815 – The European powers met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe. The
treaty of Vienna was signed.
1815 – Conservative regimes were set up.
1821 – Greek struggle for independence begins.
1830 – The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels, which led to Belgium
breaking
away from the United Kingdom of Netherland.
1830s – Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a
Unitary Italian Republic. Economic hardship in Europe.
1848 – Revolutions in Europe
1832 – Treaty of Constantinople was signed and Greece was recognised as an
independent
nation.
1848 – Renunciation of the French Monarch.
1848 – 831 elected representatives marched towards the Frankfurt parliament and
drafted the constitution for a German nation.
1852-1860 – Chief Minister Cavour, became the Prime Minister of Piedmont of Italy.
1861 – Victor Emmanuel II became the King of United Italy.
1864 – Bismarck fought a war against Denmark and took control of Schleswig.
1867 – Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians.
1870 – Prussia defeated France and occupied Alsace and Lorraine.
1871 – Final unification of Italy was achieved.
1871 – Unification of Germany. An assembly comprising the princes of the German
states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers (including the
Chief Minister Bismarck) gathered in the Hall of mirrors at Versailles to proclaim
the new German Empire headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.
1905 – Slav nationalism gathers force in the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires.
1914 – Beginning of World War I.
NCERT Exercises
Q. 1. Write a note on:
(a) Giuseppe Mazzini (b) Count Camillo de Cavour
(c) The Greek war of Independence (d) Frankfurt Parliament
(e) The role of women in nationalist Struggles
Ans. (a) Giuseppe Mazzini: He was an Italian revolutionary, who played an important role in
promoting the idea of unication of Italian state. He was sent into an exile at the age of 24
in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He came to France in 1830 and founded two
secret underground societies, under the name of ‘Young Italy’ and ‘Young Europe’, which
aimed at infusing the spirit of fraternity among Italians. Their members were from Poland,
France, Italy and the German states. Mazzini roamed in England and France, but continued
writing articles, addressing and inspiring his countrymen. Mazzini laid the foundation
of Italy’s unication and inculcated the thoughts of patriotism among Italians duty and
sacrice. He was a poet, an idealistic thinker and a pioneer of revolution.
(b) Count Camillo de Cavour: In 1848, he was elected a member of the rst of Sardinia- Piedmont.
He was neither a revolutionary nor a democratic. He was convinced that economic progress
and powerful army were two vital forces for the unication of Italy. In 1852, he became the
Prime Minister and a new chapter opened in the history of Italy. He proved himself to be an
extraordinary diplomat and marvellous politician of his time. Like Mazzini and Garibaldi,
Cavour also was a true patriot and had determined to see Italy independent and uni ed.
(c) The Greek war of independence: An event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the
educated elite across Europe was the Greek war of Independence. The war of independence
took place from 1821-1829 among the Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire.
The Greek nationalists were inspired by the idea of Liberal nationalism. They got support from
the other Greeks living in exile and also from many Western European who had sympathies
for ancient Greek culture. There were poets and artists who hailed Greece as the cradle of
European civilisation. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an
Independent nation.
(d) Frankfurt parliament: A large number of middle class professionals-businessmen and
prosperous artisans belonging to different regions of Germany came together in a political
association and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly in the city of Frankfurt.
In 1848, 831 people were elected and decided to organise the Parliament at Frankfurt in the
Church of St. Paul. This Assembly drafted a Constitution for a German nation to be headed
by a monarch, subject to a parliament. When the deputies offered the crown on these terms
to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose
the elected assembly. The parliament was dominated by the middle classes, who resisted
the demands of workers and artisans and consequently lost their support. In the end, troops
were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.
(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles: Over the years, a signicant role was played
by women in the national struggle, all over the world. They were active participants, who
suffered the torture, stood in the protests, founded newspapers, taken part in political
meetings and demonstrations, spread the idea of Liberal nationalism and also formed few
revolutionary organisations. Though they were given either very little or no political rights;
an example being the Frankfurt parliament, where women were admitted only as observers
to stand in the visitor’s gallery.
Q. 2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity
among the French people?
Ans. 1 Ideas of La Patrie (the fatherland) and Le Citoyen (the citizen) popularised the notion of a
united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
2. A new French tricolour ag was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
3. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National
Assembly.
4. Poets composed new hymns, leaders took oath and martyrs were commemorated, all in the
name of the nation. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true
spirit of the nation was popularised. Collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was
essential to the project of nation building.
5. To formulate uniform laws for all its citizens, a new centralised administrative system was
established.
6. A uniform system of weights and measures was adopted and internal customs duties and
dues were abolished.
7. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, was
adopted as the common language of the nation.
Q. 3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they
were portrayed?
Ans. Marianne was mainly portrayed as a female gure, which was a given name for the French
nation.
Likewise, Germania was a given name for the German motherland. They stood as personi cations
of the ‘Republic’ and ‘Liberty’. They mainly represented the idea of a nation in a concrete form.
Their main purpose was to install a sense of nationality among the citizens of the country. Artists
in the 18th & 19th centuries found a way out by personifying a nation. In other words, they
represented a country as if it were a person. They used female allegory during French revolution
to portray ideas of liberty, justice and republic. These ideas were represented through speci c
objects or symbols like red cap representing liberty. In France, she was Christened Marianne, a
popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people’s nation. Statues of the Marianne
were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity. In visual
representation, Germania wears a crown of Oak leaves, as the German Oak stands for heroism.
Q. 4. Briey trace the process of German unication.
Or
Describe the process of unication of Germany. [CBSE Delhi 2016]
Ans. The middle class Germans united in 1848, to create a nation-state out of the numerous
German
states. But the initiative was repressed by the combined forces of the Monarchy and big landlords
of Prussia. From then onwards, Prussia took over the initiative to unite Germany. This was carried
out by the Chief Minister of Prussia, Otto Von Bismarck, and Prussian army and bureaucracy. His
main objective was to unify Germany and this was done by three wars, which they fought over
7 years; with Austria, Denmark and France. The win led to Bismarck becoming the chancellor of
North Confederation in 1867. After the win, in the Royal Palace of Versailles, the King of Prussia
was crowned as the German Emperor. It symbolised the birth of a united Germany.
Q. 5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more ef cient in
the territories ruled by him?
Ans. There were several changes introduced by Napoleon in the administrative system, to make it
more efcient, they are as follows:
1. He established the Civil Code also known as the ‘Napoleonic Code’ in 1804. Due to this,
privileges based on birth were abolished.
2. The civil code also established equality before law and secured right to property.
3. He also simplied the administrative division. There was abolishment of feudal system and
peasants were freed from serfdom and manorial dues.
4. In towns, the guild system was removed. Transport and communication systems were improved.
5. New found freedom was thoroughly enjoyed by workers, peasants and artisans and new
businessmen.
6. Small scale producer of goods began to realise that uniform laws, standardised weights and
measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of
goods–capitals from one region to another. Businessmen appreciated the bene ts of uniform
laws.
Q. 6. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political,
social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?
Ans. In 19th century Europe, the ideas of national unity were closely related to the ideology of
liberalism. The happenings of 1848 movements in France brought the renunciation of monarchy
and a republic, which was mainly based on the universal male franchise. While in countries like
France, food shortages and widespread unemployment during 1848 led to popular uprisings, in
other parts of Europe (such as Poland, Italy, Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire), men,
and women of the liberal middle classes came together to voice their demands for the creation of
nation-states based on parliamentary principles.
Frankfurt Parliament : In German regions, a large number of political associations of the
middle class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of
Frankfurt and decided to vote for the all German National Assembly. On 18th May, 1848, 831
elected representatives marched to take their places in the Frankfurt Parliament. They drafted a
constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy, subject to a parliament.
Issue of Women: In the liberal movement, a large number of women had participated actively.
Women had formed their own political associations, and taken part in political meetings and
demonstrations. Despite that, they were denied the right to vote.
Social, Political and economic ideas were supported by the liberals which were mainly based on
the democratic ideas. Their demand was mainly, constitution with national unication- a nation
state with a written constitution and parliamentary administration. They wanted to abolish class
based partialities and birth rights from the society. Their national goal was to abolish serfdom and
pursue equality. Another signicant concept of the Liberians were ‘the right to property’, which
was important to build a nation based on political, social and economic freedom.
Q. 7. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism
in Europe.
Ans. A European cultural movement that aimed at developing national unity was Romanticism. It
created a sense of shared heritage and a common history. Emotions, intuition and mystical feelings
were some of the expressions used by the Romantic artists by which they tried to emphasise on
national sentiments of the people.
Folk songs, dances and poetry contributed to the popularising spirit of nationalism and patriotic
fervour in Europe. As folk culture was a major part of the lives of people, it carried a message of
nationalism to a large and diverse population. The Polish composer Karol Kurpinski celebrated
and popularised the Polish nationalist struggle through his operas and music, by turning folk
dances into nationalist symbols.
Another important factor which played a signicant role was language. For example, during
Russian occupation, the use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian
dominance. In this period, Russian language was imposed everywhere and Polish was even taken
out of schools. After the 1831 rebel against the Russians, large number of the polish clergy started
using language as a weapon of national resistance. This was done by using Polish language in
Church gatherings and religious instructions and refused to preach Russian.
Q. 8. By focussing on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the 19th century.
Ans. We would be taking Germany and Italy as our two examples:
O Revolutionary uprising:

(i) the revolutions and uprisings of the masses in the 19th century was led by the educated,
liberal middle classes. An all-German National Assembly was formed in 1848, where
middle classes from various regions of Germany came together. However, on facing
opposition from the aristocracy and military, and on losing its mass support base, it was
forced to disband.
(ii) Unitary Italian Republic was established due the revolutions led by leaders like Giuseppe
Mazzini during the 1830s. Though the revolutionary uprisings of 1831 and 1848 failed
to unite Italy.
(iii) Political fragmentation: The present-day nations of Germany and Italy were divided
into separate regions and kingdoms, which were ruled by various princely houses till
the middle of the 19th century.
O Unication with the help of army:

(i) After the Failures of the revolutions, the aristocracy and the army continued the process
of unication of German and Italian. The Chief Minister of Prussia Otto Von Bismarck
united Germany with the help of the bureaucracy and Prussian army. The German
empire was formed in 1871.
(ii) And important role was played by the Italian state of Sardinia-Piedmont similar to
that played by Prussia. The Movement was led by Count Camillo de Cavour, the Chief
Minister, to unite the different states of 19th century Italy in which he had the alliance
of France and the support of the army. The regions conquered by Giuseppe Garibaldi
and his Red Shirts joined with the northern regions to form a united Italy. The Italian
nation recognised in 1861 and in 1870, the Papal states joined in.
Q. 9. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
Ans. O No British nation existed prior to the 18th century. The British Isles consisted of different
ethnic groups like the English, Welsh, Scot and Irish. Each group followed their own cultural
and political traditions. On the other side, due to the growth of wealth and importance of
power in the English state, could easily extend its inuence over the other states of islands.
National symbols like the English language, British Flag and National Anthem were promoted
to identify the nationality of the nation.
O No Revolution: While in France, nationalism was developed through revolutions, in Britain, it
was the result of a long drawn out process.
O English Parliament: While other European countries like Germany, Italy, Netherlands,

Sweden, etc., had to wage wars either to gain independence or to unify their countries, Britain
accomplished this objective through Parliamentary Acts.
O The British parliament played a major role in restraining the power of the monarchy in

1688, through various bloodless revolutions. England and Scotland formed an Act of Union
(1707) which laid the crux of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’. English culture mainly
dominated the British nation, whereas Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions
were slowly and systematically supressed. Thus, unlike the rest of the Europe, nationalism
came in Britain from the decisions of the people in power and not by people’s desire to unite
or countrywide movements.
Q. 10. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?
Ans. One of the main reasons for the tension to emerge in Balkans was because the people aspired
to
nationalism. During the 19th century, major portion of Balkans was under the Ottoman Empire.
They tried to adopt modern techniques to make changes in the internal backwardness of the state
but they did not succeed.
1. Ethnic Variation: The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variations comprising
modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina,
Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro. Their inhabitants were known as slaves.
2. Disintegration of Ottoman Empire: A large part of Balkans was under the control of
the Ottoman empire. The ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with
disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
3. Subjugation: Soon many foreign powers attempted to subjugate these newly independent
states. The Balkan people tried to claim independence by using history to prove that they
had once been independent. Hence, the rebellious nationalities struggled to win back their
long-lost independence.
4. Jealousy: There was a jealousy among the Balkan states and each hoped to expand their
boundaries at the expense of others. During this period, the ideology of Europe was changed,
the liberal feelings were narrowed down with limited ends. Intolerance followed among the
groups and they were ready to ght a war.
5. Power struggle: Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Britain, the European powers were
interested to expand their own imperialism. Trade, colonies, naval and military powers were
some of the major factors which all the European powers were struggling for. They were all
very keen on controlling the hold of the other powers and extending their own.
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (1 mark)
Q. 1. Who was Frederic Sorrieu?
Ans. Frederic Sorrieu was a French artist, who prepared a series of four prints, visualising his dream
of
a world made up of democratic and social republics.
Q. 2. To which country did the artist Frederic Sorrieu belong? [CBSE (Comptt.) 2017 ]
Ans. Artist Frederic Sorrieu belonged to France.
Q. 3. Why did French artist, Frederic Sorrieu prepare a series of print based on democratic and
socialist republics in 1848? [CBSE Sample Paper-2017 ]
Ans. To depict his Utopian vision where the people of the world are grouped as distinct nations,
identied through ag and national costumes offering homage to the Statue of Liberty.
Q. 4. What does ‘Absolutist’ mean?
Ans. Precisely, a government or system of rule that has no restraints on the power exercised. In
history, the term refers to a form of monarchical government that was centralised, militarised
and repressive.
Q. 5. What was the concept of a ‘modern state’?
Ans. A centralised power exercised sovereign control over a clearly de ned territory.
Q. 6. What does ‘Nation-state’ mean?
Ans. A nation state was the one in which the majority of its citizens and not only its rulers, came to
develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent.
Q. 7. What do the ideas of ‘la Patrie’ and ‘le Citoyen’ emphasize?
Ans. The ideas of ‘la Patrie’ and ‘le Citoyen’ emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying
equal rights under a constitution.
Q. 8. Which new name was given to ‘The Estates General’?
Ans. ‘National Assembly’.
Q. 9. When did industrialisation begin in England and other parts of Europe?
Ans. Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the 18th century, but in France and
parts
of German states, it occurred only during the 19th century.
Q. 10. Which new social groups emerged after industrial revolution?
Ans. A working class population, and middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen,
professionals.
Q. 11. What is the origin of the word ‘Liberalism’? What did it mean?
Ans. The term ‘Liberalism’ is derived from the latin root ‘liber’ , meaning free.
Q. 12. What was the meaning of the word ‘Liberalism’ for the new middle classes?
Ans. For the new middle classes, liberalism stood for freedom of the individual and equality of all
before the law. Politically, it emphasised the concept of government by consent.
Q. 13. What was the strong demand of the emerging middle classes in Europe during
nineteenth
century? [CBSE (F) 2016]
Ans. The strong demand of emerging middle class in Europe was freedom of markets and the
abolition
of state imposed restrictions on t he movement of goods and capital.
Q. 14. How did liberalism stand in the economic sphere?
Ans. In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of
state–
imposed restrictions on the movement of g oods and capital.
Q. 15. What was Zollverein?
Ans. In 1834, a customs union or Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and was joined by
most of the German states.
Q. 16. Why was Zollverein formed?
Ans. To harness economic interests which lead to national unication of Germany.
Q. 17. Which countries met at Treaty of Vienna?
Ans. In 1815, representatives of the European powers—Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria—who
had
collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.
Q. 18. Who hosted the Treaty of Vienna?
Ans. Austrian chancellor, Duke Metternich hosted this congress at Vienna in 1815.
Q. 19. What was the objective of Treaty of Vienna?
OR
What was the main aim of Treaty of Vienna 1815? [CBSE (F) 2016]
Ans. The aim was to reverse most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the
Napoleonic war.
The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution was restored to
power.
Q. 20. What was the main aim of revolutionaries of Europe during the years following 1815?
[CBSE Delhi 2016]
Ans. Aim of revolutionaries of Europe: To oppose monarchial forms of government.
Q. 21. Who was Giuseppe Mazzini?
Ans. Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary born in Genoa in 1807. He became a member of
the
secret society of Carbonari.
Q. 22. Which two underground societies were formed by Giuseppe Mazzini?
Ans. (i) Young Italy in Marseilles.
(ii) Young Europe in Berne.
Q. 23. How did Metternich describe Mazzini?
Ans. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.
Q. 24. Who were liberal nationalists?
Ans. The liberal nationalists belonged to the educated middle class elite, among whom were the
professors, school teachers, clerks and members of the commercial middle classes.
Q. 25. What happened in the rst upheaval of France in July 1830?
Ans. The Bourbon kings, who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after
1815,
were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries, who installed a constitutional monarchy with
Louis Philippe at its head.
Q. 26. Name the Treaty of 1832 that recognised Greece as an independent nation.
[CBSE Delhi 2016]
Ans. Treaty of 1832: Constantinople Treaty.
Q. 27. Name the event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across
Europe
in 1830–1848? [CBSE Delhi 2016]
Ans. Event that mobilized nationalist feelings: The Greek War of Independence.
Q. 28. Who supported Nationalists of Greeks in their Independence war?
Ans. Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many west
Europeans, who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
Q. 29. What was ‘Romanticism’ during the age of revolutions?
Ans. Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist
sentiment.
Q. 30. What were the ideas of Romantic artists and poets on nationalism?
Ans. Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorication of reason and science. Instead it
focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared
collective heritage, a common cultural past as the basis of a nation.
Q. 31. What led to widespread pauperism in Europe?
Ans. The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and
country.
Q. 32. Why did weavers in Silesia revolt in 1845?
Ans. Weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors who supplied them raw material and
gave
them orders for nished textiles but drastically reduced their payments.
Q. 33. What changes were brought in France after the events of February 1848?
Ans. Events of February 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch and a
republic
based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed.
Q. 34. Who was Otto von Bismarck?
Ans. Bismarck was the Chief Minister of Prussia and was the architect of the uni cation of Germany.
He carried out this process of unication with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy.
Q. 35. How was unication of Germany ultimately achieved?
Ans. Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France ended in Prussian victory and
completed the process of unication. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed
German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
Q. 36. How was Italy fragmented before unication? Explain the political situation of Italy before
its unication.
Ans. Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg
Empire.
During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one,
Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian Princely house.
Q. 37. Under whom, various states of Italy were ruled? Mention the lineages who ruled Italy.
Ans. The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope, and the southern
regions were under the domination of the Bourbon Kings of Spain.
Q. 38. Describe the role of Giuseppe Mazzini in Italy’s unication.
Ans. Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He
had
formed a secret society, called ‘Young Italy’ for achieving his goal.
Q. 39. Highlight the contribution of Garibaldi in unication of Italy.
Ans. Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of
Giuseppe
Garibaldi joined the ght. In 1860, Italy marched into south Italy and the Kingdom of two Sicilies
and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish
rulers.
Q. 40. Who was proclaimed the King of United Italy in 1861? [CBSE (AI) 2016]
Ans. Victor Emmanuel-II was proclaimed King of United Italy in 1861.
Q. 41. Was there any British nation existing before the 18th century?
Ans. There was no British nation prior to 18th century. The primary identities of the people who
inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these
ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions.
Q. 42. How did British combine the various ethnic nations?
Ans. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions. But as the English
nation
steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its in uence over the other
nations of the islands.
Q. 43. How was Scotland gradually taken over by the British nation?
Ans. After the Act of Union between England and Scotland, England was able to impose its in uence
on Scotland. The growth of British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political
institutions were systematically suppressed. The Catholics in Scotland suffered terrible repression
whenever they attempted to assert their independence.
Q. 44. How did Ireland become a part of United Kingdom?
Ans. Catholic revolts in Ireland against British dominance were suppressed. After a failed revolt led
by
Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom
in 1801.
Q. 45. How were the ideas of French Revolution propagated by the artists of that time?
Ans. French artists represented ideas of Liberty, Justice and Republic through symbols, female
allegory
and specic objects like Liberty as red cap or broken chains, while Justice is generally blindfolded
woman carrying a pair of weighing scales.
Q. 46. What is an Allegory? State any one example to clarify the same. [CBSE Sample Paper-2016]
Ans. Allegory: When an abstract idea for instance; greed, envy, freedom, liberty is expressed
through
a person or a thing. It is symbolic. Examples: Statue of Liberty, Marianne, Germania, etc.
Q. 47. Which female Allegory was invested by artists in France?
Ans. In France, the nation’s allegory was named ‘Marianne’, a popular Christian name, which
underlined
the idea of a people’s nation.
Q. 48. What was the Allegory of Germany?
Ans. Germania became the Allegory of the German Nation. In visual representations, Germania
wears a
crown of oak leaves, as the German Oak stands for heroism.
Q. 49. Name the Balkan countries.
Ans. The Balkan Nations comprise of Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia,
Bosnia-
Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro, which were inhabited mostly by Slavs.
Q. 50. Why were Balkan nations in trouble?
Ans. A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The spread of the
idea
of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made
this region very explosive.
Q. 51. How did the Anti-imperialist movements begin?
Ans. The anti-imperialist movements that developed everywhere were nationalist, in the sense that
they all struggled to form independent nation states and were inspired by a sense of collective
national unity, forged in confrontation with imperialism.
Q. 52. Who remarked “when France sneezes the rest of Europe catches cold”. [CBSE (AI) 2016]
Ans. Metternich remarked, “when France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.”
Q. 53. Who was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles in January 1871?
[CBSE (AI) 2016]
Ans. Kaiser William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles in
January 1871.
Q. 54. What was the meaning of liberalism in early nineteenth century in Europe?
[CBSE (F) 2016]
Ans. LIBERALISM-stood for freedom for individual and equality for all before the laws.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3 marks)
Q. 1. What changes were introduced after the French Revolution in France?
Ans. A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all
citizens
within its territory. Internal custom duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of
weights
and measures was adopted.
Q. 2. What was the main aim of the revolutionaries behind the French revolution?
Ans. The revolutionaries declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to
liberate the people of Europe from despotism and to help other people of Europe to become
nations.
Q. 3. After becoming the Monarch what changes were introduced by Napoleon?
Ans. Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative eld, he
had
incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and
efcient.
Q. 4. How did Napoleonic trade benetted the businessmen and small scale producers?
Ans. Businessmen and small scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform
laws,
standardised weights and measures and a common national currency would facilitate the
movement
and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.
Q. 5. How did the local population react to the French Rule?
Ans. Initially, at many places like Holland and Switzerland, the French armies were welcomed. But
the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility and opposition as it became clear that the new
administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with the political freedom.
Q. 6. What does ‘Liberalism’ stand for, since the french revolution?
Ans. Since the French Revolution, liberalism has stood for the end of autocracy and clerical
privileges.
A constitution and representative government through parliament.
Q. 7. How was liberalism adopted in revolutionary France?
Ans. Revolutionary France, marked the rst political experiment in liberal democracy. The right to
vote and to get elected was granted exclusively to property owning men. Men without property
and all women were excluded from the political rights.
Q. 8. What kind of conservative regimes were set up in 1815?
Ans. Conservative regimes did not tolerate criticism and dissent and sought to curb activities that
questioned the legitimacy of autocratic government. Most of them imposed censorship laws to
control what was said in newspapers, books, plays and songs and reected the ideas of liberty and
freedom. They were autocratic in nature.
Q. 9. What was Mazzini’s role in the unication of Italy?
Ans. Mazzini believed that god had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So, Italy
could
not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single
unied republic within a under alliance of nation.
Q. 10. How did Polish use their language as a weapon of national resistance against Russia?
Ans. Polish language was used for church gatherings and all religious instructions. As a result, a
large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by Russian authorities as
punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol
of the struggle against Russian dominance.
Q. 11. How did women retaliate for t heir rights in Germany?
Ans. Women formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and took part in political
meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were denied suffrage rights during the election
of the Assembly of Frankfurt Parliament.
Q. 12. How did Prussia outstrive in Germany?
Ans. The nation building process in Germany had demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state
power. The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernising the currency, banking, legal and
judicial systems in Germany.
Q. 13. Describe any three economic hardships faced by Europe in the 1830s. [CBSE (AI) 2017 ]
Ans. Economic hardships faced by Europe in the 1830s :
(i) Enormous increase in population was seen all over Europe. In most countries, there were
more seekers of jobs than employment. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to
live in over crowded slums.
(ii) Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap
machine made goods from England.
(iii) In Europe, where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of
feudal dues and obligations.
(iv ) The rise of food prices as a result of bad harvest led to wide spread pauperism in town and
country . (Any three)
Q. 14. Explain the concept of liberal nationalism which developed in Europe in early 18th
century.
Ans. Liberalism meant different things to different people.
Political liberalism:
O It stood for equality before the law.

O Revolutionary France marked the rst political experiment in liberal democracy in which right

to vote and get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men.

O Men without property, and all women were excluded from political rights.

O Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, women and non-propertied men organised opposition
movements demanding equal political rights.
Economic liberalism:
O It stood for freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the

movement of goods and capital.

O Customs Union or ‘ zollverein’ was formed in Prussia, joined by most of the German states.

O The Union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to

two.
Q. 15. What do you mean by conservatism? Highlight the main features of the beliefs.
Ans. Conservatism was a political philosophy that stressed the importance of the tradition and
preferred gradual development to quick change.
Features of the believers of conservatism:
O They believed in established, traditional institutions of state and society.

O They believed in a monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, etc.

O They did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days. Rather, they realised

that modernisation could in fact, strengthen the traditional institutions like the monarchy.
Q. 16. Write three features of the painting of Frederic Sorrieu.
Ans. Features:
O Men and women walking across the statue of liberty offering homage.

O Statue of liberty has a torch of enlightenment and Charter of the Rights of Man.

O On the Earth lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.

Q. 17. How was France responsible in spreading nationalism to other parts of Europe?
Ans. O Students and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs like
in
France, in European countries.
O Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for French armies which moved into Holland,

Switzerland, Belgium and much of Italy in the 1970s.

O With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to carry the idea of

nationalism abroad.
Q. 18. Give a short note on the Habsburg Empire.
Ans. O It ruled over Austria-Hungary.
O It was a patchwork of many different regions and people.

O It included the Alpine regions — the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland — as well as Bohemia,

where the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking.

O It also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.

Q. 19. Which conditions in France depicted their political liberalism?

Ans. O The right to vote and to get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men.
O Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights.

O The Napoleonic Code went back to limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of a

minor, subject to the authority of father and husband.

Q. 20. Explain the role of romanticism in national feeling.
OR
“The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and territorial
expansion. Culture played an important role in creating th e idea of the nation.” Elaborate
upon the statement. [CBSE Sample Paper-2016]
Ans. O Romantic artists and poets created a sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural
past, as the basis of a nation.
O It was through folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation was

popularised.
O Emphasis was given on the vernacular language and the collection of folklore, to carry the

modern nationalist message to large audiences.

Xam idea 18
Social Science–X
Q. 21. Describe the Silesian weavers’ uprising.
Ans. In 1845, weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors who supplied them with raw
materials and got nished goods. A crowd of weavers marched in pairs upto the mansion of th eir
contractors, demanding higher wages. They smashed their windowpanes and also plundered the
supply of cloth. As a result, the contractor ed away from his house with his family.
Q. 22. What kind of policy was followed by Bismarck? How did he manage to oust Austria from
the German federation?
Ans. O Bismarck followed the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’.
O He was the architect of this process, which he carried out with the help of the Prussian army

and bureaucracy.
O Three wars were fought for over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France, which ended

in the victory of Prussia and completed the process of unication.

Q. 23. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?
Ans. O A large part of Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
O Ideas of nationalism in the Balkans with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this

region very explosive.

O The rebellion nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back

their long lost independence.

Q. 24. How was the concept of ‘Nationalism’ introduced by the French Revolution?
Ans. France was a full-edged territorial state in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch. The
political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the
transfer of sovereignty from monarchy to a body of French citizens. The revolution proclaimed
that it was the people who would, henceforth, constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
Q. 25. What was the political status of Europe before the concept of ‘Nation States’?
Ans. O Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose r
ulers
had their autonomous territories.
O Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which

lived diverse people. They did not see themselves, as sharing a collective identity or a common
culture. Often, they even spoke different languages and belonged to different ethnic groups.
Q. 26. Describe any three conditions that led to the formation of the British Nation State.
[CBSE Foreign-2017 ]
Ans. The conditions that led to the formation of the British Nation State were:
(i) The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such
as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political
traditions. But as the English nation steadily g rew in wealth, importance and power, it was able
to extend its inuence over the other nations of the islands.
(ii) The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of
a protracted conict, was the instrument through which a nation-state, with England at its
centre, came to be forged.
(iii) The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the
‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its in uence
on Scotland. The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members.
Q. 27. What do you understand by ‘Economic liberalism’?
Ans. In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of
stateimposed
restrictions on the movements of goods and capital.
In German-speaking regions during Napolean’s rule, there were 39 states, each of it possessed its
own currency and weights and measures.
19 History: India and the
Contemporary World–II
A merchant travelling from Hamburg to Nuremberg to sell his goods had to pass through 11
customs barriers and pay a customs duty of about 5 per cent at each one of them.
Q. 28. How did liberal nationalism develop in Europe?
Ans. As conservative regimes tried to consolidate their power. Liberalism and nationalism came to
be
increasingly associated with revolution in many regions of Europe such as the Italian and German
states, the provinces of Ottoman Europe, Ireland and Poland.
These revolutions were led by the liberal nationalists belonging to the educated middle class elite.
Among them, there were professors, school-teachers, clerks and members of the commercial
middle
classes, who all believed in liberal nationalism and wanted to ght for it.
Q. 29. How were the feelings of nationalism kept alive by the people of Poland?
Ans. Poland had been partitioned at the end of the 18th century by the Great Powers—Russia,
Prussia
and Austria. Even though Poland no longer existed as an independent territory, nationalist
feelings were kept alive through music and language. Karol Kurpinski, celebrated the national
struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into
nationalist symbols.
Q. 30. What conditions prevailed in 1848 France?
Ans. (i) The year 1848 was the year of food shortages and widespread unemployment. It brought
the
population of Paris on the roads.
(ii) Barricades were erected and Louis Phillippe was forced to ee.
(iii) A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above the
age of 21 and guaranteed the right to work. National workshops to provide employment were
also set up.
Q. 31. Were anti-imperial movements nationalist? Could the anti-imperialists movements be
considered as nationalist movements?
Ans. Yes, the anti-imperial movements could be considered as nationalist as it was the struggle to
form
an independent nation-states and were inspired by a sense of collective national unity, forged
in confrontation with imperialism. European ideas of nationalism were nowhere replicated, for
people everywhere developed their own specic variety of nationalism. But the idea that societies
should be organised into ‘nation-states’ came to be accepted as natural and universal.
Q. 32. ‘Ideas of national unity in the early nineteenth century Europe were closely allied to the
ideology of liberalism’. Support the statement with arguments.
[CBSE Sample Paper-2017, CBSE (Comp) 2017 ]
Ans. Liberalism
Liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. Politically, it
emphasized the concept of government by consent.
(i) Derived from’ liber’ means free
(ii) Stood for freedom for all and equality for all before the law
(iii) Politically –Govt. by consent
(iv) Universal suffrage, right to vote for all
(v) French revolution stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and
representative govt. through parliament.
(vi) Struggles for equal political rights.
(vii) It stressed on Economically, inviolability of private property.
(viii) Freedom of markets and abolition of state restrictions.
(ix) Any other relevant point
Q 33. The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. Explain how?
[CBSE Sample Paper-2016]
OR

@StudyManiaChannel
Xam idea 20
Social Science–X
“The decade of 1830 had brought great economic hardship in Europe”. Support the
statement with arguments. [CBSE (AI) 2016]
OR
What was the status of people in Europe during economic hardships in 1830s?
Ans. (i) There was enormous increase in population all over Europe. In most countries there were
more seekers of jobs than employment.
(ii) Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
(iii) Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap
machine-made goods from England.
(iv) In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled
under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
(v) The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and
country.
Q 34. How had the female gures become an allegory of the nation during nineteenth century in
Europe? Analyse. [CBSE Delhi 2016]
Ans. The female gures as an allegory of the nation:
(i) Artists found a way out to represent a country in the form of a person.
(ii) Then nations were portrayed as female gures.
(iii) The female gure was chosen to personify the nation. It did not stand for any particular
woman in real life.
(iv) It gave the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form.
(v) Thus, the female gure became an allegory of the nation.
(vi) During the French Revolution, artists used the female allegory to portray idea such as Liberty,
Justice and the Republic.
Q 36. “Culture had played an important role in the development of nationalism in Europe
during
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.” Support the statement with examples.
[CBSE (F) 2016]
Ans. Culture
(i) Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation, art and poetry, stories and
music helped to express and shape nationalist feelings.
(ii) emotions, intuition and mystical feelings were not focused.
(iii) their effort was to shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.
(iv) They criticized the glorication of reason and science.
(v) German philosopher Johann Gottfried popularised true spirit of nation through folksongs,
folk poetry and folk dance.
Q. 37. ‘The idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment of nationalism became a narrow creed with
limited ends.’ Support the statement in the context of Balkan nationalism in the early 1 9th
century. [CBSE Sample Paper-2017 ]
Ans. The Balkans comprised modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia,
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
(i) The disintegration of the ruling Ottoman Empire and the spread of the ideas of romantic
nationalism made this area explosive.
(ii) The European subject nationalities started breaking from its control to declare independence.
(iii) The Balkan revolutionaries’ acts were directed to gain back the long-lost independence.
(iv) The Balkan States were ercely jealous of each other and wanted to gain more territory at the
expense of the other.
(v) There was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade, colonies, naval might and
military might. European powers such as Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary
21 History: India and the
Contemporary World–II
were keen on opposing the hold of other powers over the Balkans for extending their own
area of control.
(vi) All these events ultimately triggered the First World War (1914).
Q. 38. Explain the dominance of landed aristocracy in Europe.
Ans. Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class in the continent. The
members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions.
They owned estates in the countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French for purposes
of diplomacy and in high society. Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. This
powerful aristocracy was, however, numerically a small group.
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 marks)
Q. 1. Briey explain the process of unication of Italy.
Ans. (i) Political Fragmentation: Like Germany, Italy was also politically fragmented. During the
middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia–
Piedmont was ruled by an Italian Prince.
(ii) Role of Mazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini made efforts to unite Italian Republic. He had formed a
secret society called ‘Young Italy’ for achieving his goal.
(iii) Role of Count Cavour : He was the chief minister who led the movement to unify Italy. He
formed a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and defeated the Austrian forces.
(iv) Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi: Garibaldi also formed armed volunteers. In 1860, they marched
into South Italy and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies and succeeded in driving out the Spanish
rulers.
In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of United Italy.
Q. 2. What conditions led to the development of a new middle class in Europe?
Ans. (i) In Western Europe and parts of Central Europe, the growth of industrial production and
trade meant the growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes whose existence
was based on production for the market.
(ii) Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the 18th century, but in France and
parts of the German States, it occurred only during the 19th century.
(iii) In its wake, new social groups came into being, a working class population and middle classes
made up of industrialists, businessmen and professionals.
(iv) In Central and Eastern Europe, these groups were smaller in numbers till late 19th century.
(v) It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity following the
abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.
Q. 3. Who hosted ‘Vienna Congress’ in 1815 ? Analyse the main changes brought by the ‘Vienna
Treaty.’ [CBSE Delhi 2017 ]
OR
Describe the main clauses of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815.
Ans. The main clauses of the Treaty of Vienna signed in 1815 were:
Vienna Congress: The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor “Duke Metternich”.
(i) The Bourbon dynasty which had been deposed during the French Revolution was restored to
power.
(ii) France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
(iii) A series of states were setup on the boundaries of France to prevent French extension in future.
(iv) Kingdom of the Netherlands, included Belgium was setup.
(v) Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers.
Q. 4. What was Zollverein? Why was it formed?
Xam idea 22
Social Science–X
Ans. In 1834, the customs union of Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and was joined
by
most of the German states.
(i) The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to
two.
(ii) The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic
interests to national unication.
(iii) A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments growing at
the time.
(iv) Varied currencies and weights and measures were obstacles to economic growth, so the
creation of a unied economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people
and capital was needed. So, Zollverein was formed.
Q. 5. What kinds of conservative regimes were set up in 1815? What did liberals think about
them?
Ans. Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic.
(i) They did not tolerate criticism and dissent and sought to curb activities that questioned the
legitimacy of tyrannical governments.
(ii) Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books,
plays and songs and reected the ideas of liberty and freedom associated with the French
Revolution.
(iii) The memory of the French Revolution nonetheless, continued to inspire liberals.
(iv) One of the major issues taken up by the liberal nationalists (who criticised the new
conservative order) was freedom of the press.
Q. 6. Give a brief description of the French Revolution of 1830.
Ans. The rst upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings who had been restored
to
power during the conservative reaction after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries,
who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head. Metternich once remarked,
“When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.” The July Revolution sparked an uprising
in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdoms of the Netherlands.
Q. 7. Exp lain how folklore, folk songs raised the spirit of nationalism in Europe.
Ans. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation was
popularised. So, collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project
of nation building. The emphasis on vernacular languages and the collection of local folklore was
not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message
to large audiences who were mostly illiterate. In Poland, they popularised their language, folk
stories, folk songs and folk dances to propagate nationalism among Polish people, who were
under the rule of Russia, Prussia and Austria.
Q. 8. How did the Polish language work as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance?
Ans. Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.
After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language
was imposed everywhere. In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which was
ultimately crushed. Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language
as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for church gathering and all religious
instructions. As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia
by the Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russia. The use of Polish
came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.
Q. 9. What do you understand by the term ‘allegory’? How did a female gure become an allegory
of a nation?
Ans. When an abstract idea is expressed through a person or a thing, it is called an allegory. It is the
personication of a country.

@StudyManiaChannel
23 History: India and the
Contemporary World–II
While it is easy enough to represent a ruler through a portrait or a statue, it is dif cult to give a
face to a nation. Artists in the 18th and 19th centuries found a way out by personifying a nation.
In other words, they represented a country as if it were a person. Nations were then portrayed as
female gures. The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any
particular woman in real life, rather it would give an abstract idea of the nation in concrete form.
This is how the female gure became an allegory of the nation.
Q. 10. What conditions of Balkan areas led to World War I?
Ans. (i) As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to dene their identity and independence, the
Balkan area became an area of intense conict.
(ii) The Balkan states were ercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory
at the expense of others.
(iii) During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and
colonies as well as army and naval might.
(iv) These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problems unfolded.
(v) Each power—Russia, Germany, England, Austria-Hungry—was keen on countering the hold
of other powers over the Balkans and extending its own control over the area. This led to a
series of wars in the region and nally the First World War.
Q. 11. Explain the Napoleonic Code.
OR
What were the advantages and disadvantages of the Napoleonic code?
Ans. Advantages:
(i) Established equality before law.
(ii) Abolished all privileges based on birth.
(iii) Simplied administrative divisions.
(iv) Granted the right to property to French citizens.
(v) Abolished feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom.
(vi) Eliminated restrictions on guilds in town.
(vii) Made efforts to improve transport and communication.
Disadvantages:
But this initial enthusiasm soon turned into hostility and opposition when it became visible
that the new administrative arrangements do not go hand in hand with the political freedom.
Censorship, taxation, forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of
Europe, all seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.
Q. 12. Explain the nation building process of Germany. [CBSE Sample Paper 2017 ]
OR
Examine the ‘Nation State Building’ process in Germany after 1848.
[CBSE (F) 2017, CBSE (Comptt.) 2017 ]
Ans. German Unication
(i) After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and
revolution.
(ii) Nationalist sentiments were often mobilized by conservatives for promoting state power and
achieving political domination over Europe.
(iii) Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans in 19 century.
(iv) In 1848 they tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nationstate
governed by an elected parliament.
(v) This liberal initiative to nation-building was repressed by the combined forces of the
monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
(vi) Prussia took on the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, who became the architect of this process.

@StudyManiaChannel
Xam idea 24
Social Science–X
(vii) Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory
and completed the process of unication.
(viii) In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor.
Q. 13. Analyse the measures and practices introduced by the French revolutionaries to create a
sense of collective identity amongst the French people. [CBSE Delhi 2016]
Ans. Measures and practices introduced by the French revolutionaries for collective identity:
(i) The ideas of la patrie and le citoyen emphasized.
(ii) A new French ag, the tricolor was chosen.
(iii) The Estate General was elected by the active citizens.
(iv) The elected body of active citizens renamed as National Assembly.
(v) New hymns were composed.
(vi) Oaths were taken.
(vii) Martyrs commemorated.
(viii) A centralized administrative system was implemented.
(ix) Formulated uniform laws.
(x) A uniform system of weights and measures were adopted.
(xi) French became the common language of the nation.
Q. 14. In Britain, the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or
revolution. Validate the statement with relevant arguments. [CBSE Sample Paper 2016]
Ans. In Britain, the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or
revolution.
It was the result of a long-drawn-out process.
O Role of ethnic groups: their cultural identities

O Steady growth of the English nation steadily in case of wealth, importance and power, it was

able to extend its inuence over the other nations of the islands.
O The Act of Union 1707—between England and Scotland.

O The growth of the British identity.

O Language and religious policies.

Q. 15. “Napoleon had destroyed democracy in France but in the administrative eld he had
incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational
and efcient.” Analyse the statement with arguments. [CBSE (AI) 2016]
Ans. Napoleon had destroyed democracy in France but in administrative eld he had incorporated
revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and ef cient.
(i) All privileges based on birth were removed.
(ii) He had established equality before law.
(iii) Right to property was given.
(iv) Simplied administrative divisions were made.
(v) Feudal system was abolished and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
(vi) Guild restrictions were removed.
(vii) Transport and communication systems were improved.
Q. 16. “Nationalism no longer retained its idealistic liberal democratic sentiment by the last
quarter of the nineteenth century in Europe.” Analyse the statement with examples.
[CBSE (F) 2016]
Ans. Nationalism in Europe- The Balkans:
(i) During this period, nationalist groups become increasingly intolerant of each other.
(ii) Manipulations of the nationalist aspirations were there.
(iii) The Balkan was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
(iv) Ideas of romantic nationalism spread in the Balkan.

@StudyManiaChannel
25 History: India and the
Contemporary World–II
(v) They claimed for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove
that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign
domination.
(vi) Russia, Germany, England, Austria-hungry were keen on countering the hold of other powers
over the Balkans.
(vii) This led to a series of wars in the region and nally the First World War.
HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)
Q. 1. Which conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange & growth by the new
commercial classes during Napoleon’s rule?
Ans. Following conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchanges & growth by the new
commercial classes:
(i) There was an enormous increase in population.
(ii) Feudal system, serfdom and manorial dues were taxing for the poor landless peasants.
(iii) There were no standardised weights and measures and neither a common national currency.
(iv) There was an increased taxation, censorship, forced recruitment into the French armies to
conquer Europe.
(v) There was no freedom to peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen.
Q. 2. How was Europe closely allied to the ideology of liberalism?
Ans. (i) Ideas of national unity in early 19th century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of
liberalism.
(ii) The term ‘liberalism’ is derived from the Latin word ‘liber’ which means free.
(iii) For the new middle classes, liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all
before law.
(iv) Politically, it emphasised the concept of government by consent.
(v) Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical
privileges, a constitution and representatives government through parliament.
Q. 3. “The Habsbury Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungry, was a patchwork of many different
regions and peoples.” Justify the statement with suitable examples.
Ans. O Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which
lived diverse people.
O They did not see themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture.

O The Habsburg empire that ruled over Austria-Hungry, for example, was a patchwork of many

different regions and people.

O It included the Alpine regions—the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland— as well as Bohemia,

where the aristocracy was predominantly German speaking.

O It also included the Italian speaking princes of Lombardy and Venetia.

O In Hungry, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects.

O In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish.

O Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived within the boundary of empire, a mass

of subject peasant peoples — Bohemians, Slovaks to the north, slovens in Carniola, Croats in
the south and Romans to the east in Transylvania.
The only tie binding these diverse groups together was a common allegiance to the emperor.
Q. 4. “Vernacular language and local folklores carried modern nationalist message to large
audiences, who were mostly illiterate.” Justify with suitable examples.
Ans. O Vernacular languages and local folklores played an important role in creating the idea of
nation in Europe.
O This was especially so in the case of Poland which had been partitioned by the great powers —

Russia, Prussia & Austria.

O Karol Kurpinski of Poland celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music,

turning folk dances like the Polonaise, Mazurka into nationalist symbols.
O After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian

language was imposed everywhere.

O Many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national

resistance.
O Polish was used for church gatherings and all religious instructions.

O As a result a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the

Russian authorities.
O The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.

Q. 5. Why was the issue of extending political rights to women a controversial one within the
liberal movement in 1848? What do these revolutions reveal about political con icts due
to gender differences?
Ans. O Parallel to the revolts of poor, unemployed and starving peasants and workers in many
European countries in the year 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was
underway.
O Events of February 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch and a

republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed.

O In other parts of Europe where independent nation states did not exist —such as Germany,

Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire—men and women of the liberal middle classes
combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unication.
O The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal

movement, in which large number of women had participated actively over the years.
O Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in

political meetings and demonstrations.

O Despite this, they were denied suffrage rights during the elections of t he Assembly.
O When the Frankfurt Parliament was held in Church of St. Paul’s, women were admitted only as
observers to stand in visitor’s gallery.
Q. 6. Explain the statement “When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.”
Ans. O Most of the European countries followed France persistently.
O The rst upheavel took place in France in July 1830.

O The Bourbon kings, who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after

1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries, who installed a constitutional monarchy
with Louis Philippe at its head.
O ‘When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold’ was spoken by Metternich.

O The July revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from

the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

O An event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe was the

Greek war of Independence.

Q. 7. ‘‘The rst clear expression of nationalism came with the ‘French Revolution’ in 1789.’’
Examine the statement. [CBSE (AI) 2017 ]
Ans. “The rst clear expression of Nationalism came with the ‘French Revolution’ in 1789”:
(i) The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French revolution led
to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens.

27 History: India and the

Contemporary World–II
(ii) Sense of collective belonging with La Patrie (the fatherland) and Le Citoyen (the citizen).
(iii) Formation of National Assembly.
(iv) Hymns were composed and oaths were taken.
(v) Centralised and uniform laws were introduced.
(vi) Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and
measure were adopted.
(vii) French became the common language of the nation.
(viii) With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to carry the idea of
nationalism abroad.