UNIT 1 8. What are the features that make women talk different from men talk.

(notes)
9. Comment on: "Feminine speech community differ from those in the masculine
1. Explain: language in contact; speech community speech community, and are called relational talk."

2. Write short notes on: bilingualism/multilingualism, code-switching and mixing, The statement suggests that there are differences in communication styles between feminine
diglossia, pidgins (link language) & creoles. and masculine speech communities. Feminine speech communities tend to focus on building
relationships, expressing emotions, and understanding each other. They engage in what is
3. Rephrasing of sentences in pidgins & creoles; identifying the form of language in often called "relational talk." For example, a group of close friends, mostly women, may
contact in which the sentence is constructed. (DOUBT) discuss a problem they're facing. They take turns sharing their perspectives, expressing their
feelings, and actively listening to one another. Their conversation revolves around finding a
4. Differentiate: language & variety; standard & non-standard; native & non-native; solution that keeps their friendship strong.
dialect & accent.
On the other hand, masculine speech communities often prioritize tasks, efficiency, and
5. Explain language varieties based on its user, use, style problem-solving. Their communication style tends to be more direct and task-oriented. For
instance, a team of engineers, mostly men, working on a project may discuss the tasks at
6. Dialect vs accent
hand, technical details, and finding efficient solutions. They give clear instructions, discuss
Dialect and accent are two different aspects of language variation. Dialect refers to the goals, and make decisions to ensure the successful completion of the project.
variations in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation within a specific language. It is
influenced by factors such as geography, social class, and cultural background. On the other It's important to note that these examples highlight general patterns, and individuals within
hand, accent refers specifically to the way in which sounds and pronunciation are produced each speech community may have their own unique communication styles. Furthermore, not
within a particular language or dialect. all individuals within a speech community will conform strictly to these patterns. It's essential
To illustrate the difference between dialect and accent, let's use the example of English to approach these observations with an understanding of the diversity and individual
Dialect: American English vs. British English variations within and across speech communities.

10. Choose appropriate pronouns to complete the sentences given below: (a) If Akash
 Vocabulary: Dialectal differences can be seen in the vocabulary used. For example, in
and Shreyanshu request me, I would certainly tell ...... (b) Everyone wants .........
American English, the term "elevator" is used, while in British English, "lift" is preferred.
parents to be healthy and be with ...... forever.
 Grammar: Dialectal differences can also be observed in grammatical structures. For
instance, in American English, it is common to say "I just got home," whereas in British
(a) If Akash and Shreyanshu request me, I would certainly tell them.
English, "I've just arrived home" is more typical.
(b) Everyone wants their parents to be healthy and be with them forever.
 Pronunciation: For example, the pronunciation of the "r" sound and the vowel sounds
in words like "dance" and "bath" differ between the two accents.
11. Traditionally, who do you think, a man or a woman, would have spoken this
sentence:
7. Provide vocabulary based on these professions: medical, engineering,
(a) I think that golf on television is kind of boring, don't you?
sports, education.
(b) I am the leader and you have to follow me.
Medical: Doctor, Nurse, Patient, Hospital, Surgery, Prescription, Diagnosis, Medicine,
In a traditional context, it is more likely that a man would have spoken the sentence "I think
Healthcare, Stethoscope
that golf on television is kind of boring, don't you?" This is because sports, such as golf, have
Engineering: Engineer, Technology, Design, Construction, Blueprint, Innovation, Structural,
been traditionally associated with male interest and participation.
Mechanical, Electrical, Project
Sports: Athlete,Team, Coach,Stadium, Competition, Victory, Training, Score Championship,
Similarly, in a traditional context, it is more likely that a man would have spoken the sentence
Fitness
"I am the leader and you have to follow me." Traditional gender roles have often assigned
Education: Teacher, Student, Classroom, Curriculum, Learning, School ,Lesson,
leadership and authority positions to men.
Homework,Examination, Knowledge,
12. Compare the features identified by woman speech with the features specific to man
speech. Provide valid examples keeping in mind gendered interaction. (same as 8)
UNIT 2
1. Difference between: presupposition & implicature
Answer In notes
Example - Woman Speech: "This might be a silly question, but would you mind helping me
Presupposition: Presupposition refers to an assumed or implied belief that the speaker takes
with this task?" Man Speech: "Can you help me with this task?"
for granted. It is something the speaker assumes to be true before even making a statement.
For example:
13. Rephrase following expressions to make them gender neutral: Master mind,
Statement: "Sarah is going to the party again." The presupposition here is that Sarah has
brotherhood, spokesman, under the law, all men are equal, every man should work
been to the party before.
for the benefit of the mankind, don't be too bossy, a man's home is his castle.
Provide valid explanations to prove that the aforementioned expressions are
Implicature: Implicature refers to the implied meaning that is understood by the listener,
inappropriate.
even though it is not explicitly stated by the speaker. It involves making inferences based on
the context and speaker's intentions.
1. Mastermind -> Key person in charge: "Mastermind" is changed to "key person in
charge" to remove any gender-specific connotations and simply refer to the person
For example: Statement: "I bought some fruits.". The implicature here is that the speaker
leading or organizing a plan.
did not buy all types of fruits, only a selection of them.
2. Brotherhood -> Fellowship or Community. "Brotherhood" is replaced with
"fellowship" or "community" to include people of all genders and emphasize a sense of
In summary, presupposition is about assumptions or beliefs the speaker takes for granted,
belonging and togetherness.
while implicature is about understanding implied meanings beyond what is explicitly stated.
3. Spokesman -> Spokesperson or Representative: "Spokesman" is replaced with
Presupposition is something assumed by the speaker, while implicature is something inferred
"spokesperson" or "representative" to indicate someone who speaks on behalf of a group
by the listener.
without implying a specific gender.
4. Under the law -> According to the law or Legally: "Under the law" is changed to
2. Rephrase the following sentences using parallelism:
"according to the law" or "legally" to describe compliance with legal regulations without
referencing gender.
(a) Without good pitching, the Knight Riders can be expected to lose more than eighty
5. All men are equal -> Everyone is equal: "All men are equal" is modified to "everyone
games, to draft early in next year’s draft, and attendance will suffer greatly.
is equal" to convey the idea that equality applies to all individuals regardless of gender.
(b) Anand was both an industrious student, and he was also an excellent athlete.
6. Every man should work for the benefit of mankind -> Everyone should work for the
(c) My uncle likes lasagna, pizza, and eating fruit salad.
greater good: "Every man should work for the benefit of mankind" is revised to
(d) The principal is excited about both the swim team earning national honors, and that
"everyone should work for the greater good" to emphasize collective efforts without
the debate team won its first tournament.
excluding any gender.
7. Don't be too bossy -> Avoid being too controlling: "Don't be too bossy" is changed to
ANS.
"avoid being too controlling" to discourage overly dominant behavior without
(a) Without good pitching, the Knight Riders can expect to lose more than eighty games, draft
associating it with a specific gender.
early in next year’s draft, and to experience a significant decline in attendance.
8. A man's home is his castle -> A person's home is their sanctuary: "A man's home is
(b) Anand was not only an industrious student but also an excellent athlete.
his castle" is rephrased to "a person's home is their sanctuary" to emphasize that everyone
(c) My uncle likes eating lasagna, pizza, and fruit salad.
has the right to ownership and security in their living space, regardless of gender.
(d) The principal is excited about the swim team earning national honors and the debate team
winning its first tournament.
3. Features of language used by the politicians; Relevance in language in politics.
Certainly! Here are the characteristics of language used by politicians explained in simpler
language:
1. Persuasive and Convincing: Politicians use language to persuade and convince people.
They use techniques like repeating important points, appealing to emotions, and using
powerful comparisons to make their ideas more convincing.
2. Formal and Impressive: Politicians often speak in a formal and impressive way to
sound serious and knowledgeable. They use sophisticated words, complex sentences, and
confident delivery to make an impact.
3. Unclear or Open to Interpretation: Sometimes politicians use words that can have
different meanings or are not specific to avoid committing to a particular position. This
allows them to be flexible and appeal to different groups of people.
4. Positive Presentation: Politicians usually talk about their ideas and policies in a positive
way, focusing on the benefits and downplaying any potential negatives. They carefully
choose their words to shape public opinion in their favor.
5. Memorable Phrases: Politicians often use catchy phrases and memorable soundbites to
make their messages stick in people's minds. These short and memorable statements help
them get attention and reinforce their main ideas.
6. Appeals to Values and Emotions: Politicians connect with people by talking about
values and using emotional language. They share stories and use words that resonate with
people's emotions to create a sense of unity or shared purpose.
4. Apply the concept of Euphemism and rewrite the following sentences: Martin’s
uncle died in World War II. Chelsea was an advertising executive, but now she’s a
housewife.
5. Explain: Euphemism, Metaphors
6. Presupposition can be “fair and controversial”. Comment.
7. Discuss the four maxims of Paul Grice.
8. Write short note on: Rule of three, Bushism, Neologism, Political correctness
9. Short note on: Media language into different types
There are different types of media languages which include written, verbal, non-verbal, visual
and aural.
1. Written Language : In print-based media, also in text such as captions for
photographs. The language chosen generates meaning. Captions allow the publication
to present a story in a particular way.
2. Verbal Language In media areas such as television, radio and film. How the language
is delivered and its context used are important factors in the way meaning is generated
for the audience.
3. Non – Verbal Language This is in terms of body language: gestures and actions. The
meaning received by the audience is seen through how the actor uses their body.
4. Visual Language Television and film. What is on the screen has been chosen
specifically to generate a series of effects and meanings (semiotics). Specific camera
angles and movement are chosen to tell the story and meaning of that scene.
5. Aural Language Sound can help create a scene and construct the environment,
atmosphere and mood. The aural language of a media text can also help us to define
the genre of a piece.
10. Identify the six persuasion language techniques used in media. Explain them with
the help of examples.
The six persuasion language techniques used in media, along with explanations and examples:
1. Rhetorical Questions: Rhetorical questions are asked not to elicit an answer but to make
a point or persuade the audience. They engage the audience and encourage them to
think in a particular way. For example: "Isn't it time we took action to protect our
environment?"
2. Emotional Appeal: Emotional appeal aims to evoke specific emotions in the audience
to influence their thoughts and actions. It can be done through storytelling, vivid
language, and imagery. For example: "Your heart will melt when you see the innocent
faces of these hungry children. Donate now to give them a chance at a better life."
3. Loaded Language: Loaded language uses emotionally charged words and phrases to
shape perceptions and opinions. It often carries a strong connotation that appeals to the
audience's values and beliefs. For example: "This groundbreaking innovation will
revolutionize the way we live and change the world forever."
4. Social Proof: Social proof leverages the influence of others to persuade. It involves
showcasing testimonials, user reviews, endorsements, or statistics to demonstrate that
many people have already benefitted from a product or idea. For example: "Join millions
of satisfied customers who have experienced the incredible results of our fitness
program."
5. Fear Appeal: Fear appeal uses fear or threats to persuade the audience to take a
desired action. It highlights potential negative consequences or dangers if the audience
doesn't comply. For example: "If we don't act now, our planet will suffer irreversible
damage, leading to catastrophic consequences for future generations."
6. Bandwagon Effect: The bandwagon effect taps into the desire to be part of a group or
follow the majority. It suggests that everyone is doing or believing something, so the
audience should join in. For example: "Join the millions of people who have already
switched to our brand and experience the difference for yourself."
How Media rhetoric is different:
1. Medium: Rhetoric can be applied in various contexts, while media rhetoric focuses on
persuasive techniques in media.
2. Audience: Media rhetoric targets a mass audience, while rhetoric can involve one-on-one
or small group interactions.
3. Visual/Multimedia: Media rhetoric incorporates visual and multimedia elements.
4. Commercial/Political: Media rhetoric often serves commercial or political purposes.
5. Speed/Accessibility: Media rhetoric operates in a fast-paced, quickly spreading media
environment.

These persuasion language techniques are commonly employed in media to shape opinions,
influence behavior, and create persuasive messages that resonate with the audience.

11. List the 'positive' and 'negative' impact of media.

Positive impacts of media:

1. Facilitates communication and connectivity across the globe.
2. Provides access to information and knowledge.
3. Raises awareness on social, environmental, and political issues.
4. Promotes cultural exchange and understanding.
5. Empowers marginalized voices and facilitates social movements.

Negative impacts of media:

1. Spreads misinformation and fake news.
2. Increases exposure to violence and inappropriate content.
3. Encourages addictive behavior and excessive screen time.
4. Breaches privacy and security.
5. Reinforces stereotypes and promotes unrealistic beauty standards.

12. Compare the concept of 'rhetoric' with 'media rhetoric' and comment on how
they are different.

The concept of "rhetoric" refers to the art of effective communication and persuasion. It
involves using language and other persuasive techniques to influence an audience's beliefs,
attitudes, or actions.

On the other hand, "media rhetoric" specifically refers to the persuasive techniques employed
in media communication. It encompasses the use of rhetoric in various forms of media, such
as news articles, advertisements, speeches, and social media content. Media rhetoric aims to
shape public opinion, influence behavior, and convey messages in a compelling manner.
UNIT 3
1. Define the following with the help of examples
‘Linguistic relativity’ and ‘linguistic determinism’,
Linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism are two related concepts in the field of
linguistics that explore the relationship between language and thought. While they are often
used interchangeably, they represent slightly different perspectives.
Linguistic Relativity (also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis): This concept suggests
that the structure and vocabulary of a language can influence or shape the way its
speakers perceive and think about the world. In other words, different languages provide
different cognitive frameworks, and speakers of different languages may perceive and
interpret the world differently based on their linguistic systems. For example, the Eskimo-
Aleut languages have multiple words to describe different types of snow, which is believed to
reflect the importance of snow in their culture and their heightened perception of snow-related
distinctions.
Linguistic Determinism: This concept takes a stronger stance than linguistic relativity. It
posits that language not only influences thought but also determines and limits it. According
to linguistic determinism, the structure and categories of language define and constrain
the cognitive processes of its speakers.
A well known example of this is the people of Piraha, who have only three numbers in their
language: one, two, and many. They had great difficulty in comprehending the difference
between, say, four and five, which was considered to be a sign that because their language do
not include the lexical items for four and five, their mind was not able to make that difference.
‘culture and how language shapes the culture and vice-versa’.
Culture is the knowledge, beliefs, values, customs, and practices shared by a group of
people. Language plays a big role in shaping culture, and culture also influences language.
Language helps us learn about our culture by transmitting cultural ideas and categories.
Culture also influences language by shaping its vocabulary, grammar, and structure.
Different cultures may have unique words or phrases that express concepts not found in other
languages. Language reinforces and maintains cultural norms and social hierarchies, such as
showing respect or addressing people in positions of authority.
Cultures can influence language through borrowing words or structures from other languages
when they come into contact. The relationship between culture and language is dynamic, as
both influence and reflect the society they exist in.
EXAMPLE
Let's say we have two cultures: Culture A and Culture B. In Culture A, dogs and horses are
considered important and valued animals. The language of Culture A has specific words for
dogs and horses, reflecting their cultural significance. People in Culture A learn from a young
age that dogs and horses are distinct creatures with their own characteristics and roles.
In contrast, in Culture B, there are no horses, and they are not familiar with them. Therefore,
their language does not have a specific word for "horse." Instead, they may use a more
general term to refer to large animals. The cultural knowledge and experiences of Culture B
do not include horses, so they don't have a linguistic category for them.
2. Differentiate:
Cognitive category and social category
Cognitive Categories:
 Related to how we think and understand the world.
 Reflected in language structure and conceptual distinctions.
 Vary across different cultures and languages.
 Examples include animacy, importance, shape, etc.
 Reflect cultural interpretations and ways of thinking.
Social Categories:
 Used to define and categorize people based on social connections.
 Help us understand our relationships with others.
 Can be broader than technical definitions, including close friends and others.
 Expressed through terms like uncle, grandmother, brother, etc.
 Address terms indicate social status and familiarity.
 Influenced by social norms and interactions within a society.
Lexical categories and non-lexical categories
Lexical Categories:
 Lexical categories are conceptual distinctions that are expressed as single words or terms
in a language.
 These categories have specific lexicalized terms that represent the distinctions.
 Examples in English include sleet, slush, snowflake, avalanche, blizzard, etc., which are
specific terms for different types of snow-related phenomena.
Non-lexical Categories:
 Non-lexical categories refer to conceptual distinctions that are not expressed as single
words or terms in a language. Instead, speakers can create phrases or complex
expressions to refer to these distinctions.
 Examples include phrases like fresh snow, powdery snow, dirty snow, etc., which are
non-lexicalized ways of categorizing different types of snow.
 Non-lexical categories allow for greater flexibility and creativity in expressing variations
and nuances within a category.
Jargon, slangs and taboo terms
Jargon- The defining feature of register is the use of jargon. Technical vocabulary associated
with special activity or group. For example: Doctors (stethoscope, surgery, amputation),
Linguists (suffix, inflection, semantics), Computer specialists (‘Insider’ vs. ‘outsider’).
Slang - Words or phrases used instead of everyday speech by those who are outside higher-
status groups. – e.g. ‘buck’ (dollar). It is used as a marker of social group especially among
young people. Slang expressions can ‘grow old’ quickly.
Taboo terms - words and phrases that people avoid- religious, politeness, or prohibited
behaviour –e.g: Swear words.
Style-Shifting And Code-Switching
Style-Shifting: Style-shifting is when we change the way we talk to fit different situations or
people. It means using different words, grammar, or pronunciation depending on where we
are and who we're talking to. For example, we might speak more formally at work or use
slang when talking to friends. We do this on purpose to match the way others are speaking
and to be polite or appropriate.
Code-Switching: Code-switching is when we switch between two or more languages or
dialects while talking. It happens when we use different languages in the same conversation.
People code-switch for different reasons, like showing their identity, connecting with a certain
group, or because there are words or ideas that are easier to express in one language than the
other. Code-switching can happen without thinking, or we can do it on purpose. For example,
someone might switch between English and Spanish during a conversation, or use specific
words from one language while speaking mostly in another.
3. Examine the Sapir-Whorf's hypothesis and identify the reason why the theorists
went against the Sapir-Whorf's hypothesis.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, suggests that the structure and vocabulary of a language shape
the thoughts and perceptions of its speakers. It proposes that the language we use influences
how we perceive and interpret the world around us.
According to the hypothesis, different languages represent reality in distinct ways, which
leads to differences in how speakers of those languages think and perceive the world.
The strong version of the hypothesis, known as linguistic determinism, argues that language
determines our thoughts and limits our cognitive abilities.
The weaker version, known as linguistic relativity, acknowledges that language influences
our thoughts, but it does not determine them entirely.
Critics of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis have raised the following points:
1. Confusion of linguistic and biological classification: The hypothesis mixes how
language categorizes things with how speakers actually perceive them biologically. Just
because a language classifies objects in a certain way does not mean people see them that
way.
2. Language is influential but not deterministic: While language does influence our
thinking, it does not completely determine or limit our cognitive abilities or our
understanding of the world. Other factors, such as culture and personal experiences, also
play important roles.
3. Cultural variation within languages: Different individuals and communities within the
same language may have diverse perspectives and interpretations of the world. This
shows that factors beyond language, like culture and individual experiences, significantly
shape cognition and perception.
4. Lack of explicit advocacy: Sapir and Whorf did not write a joint work explicitly
supporting the hypothesis. The attribution of the hypothesis to them is based on their
individual writings, and their exact stance is open to interpretation.
4. Specify the kind of categorization involved in ‘Address Terms’ and ‘Classifiers’
Address Terms:
Kind of Categorization: Social Categorization
Explanation: Address terms categorize people based on their social relationships, status, or how well
we know them. They show how we are connected to others and indicate our level of familiarity with
them.
Examples: For example, we might use "Mr." or "Mrs." to show respect for someone older or in a higher
position, and use first names or nicknames for friends or people we know well.
Classifiers:
Kind of Categorization: Cognitive Categorization
Explanation: Classifiers are words or markers used in certain languages to categorize or group nouns
based on their properties or characteristics. They help us organize objects into different categories in our
minds.
Examples: For instance, in Swahili, there are different classifiers for non-human objects and for
humans.
UNIT 4
1. Identify and explain the kind of slip in each case: Also, rephrase the expressions:
three little bigs and a big bad wolf; call bost gusters; three, four, sive, six, seven; I
have a snore neck; turn the wot hotter on; Winnie the Pooh pook; the shun is sining;
not now, another nay

1. Slip of tongue - Malapropism: "Three little bigs and a big bad wolf."
"bigs" for "pigs." The correct phrase should be "Three little pigs and a big bad wolf."

2. Brain slip - Exchange: "Call Bost Gusters."

Explanation: This is a brain slip where the speaker's mind unintentionally substitutes
"Bost Gusters" for "Ghost Busters." The correct phrase should be "Call Ghost Busters."

3. Brain slip -Anticipation: "Three, four, sive, six, seven."

Explanation: This is a slip of brain where the speaker unintentionally substitutes "sive"
for "five." The correct sequence should be "Three, four, five, six, seven."

4. Slip of tongue - Malapropism: "I have a snore neck." "snore" for "sore." The correct
phrase should be "I have a sore neck."

5. Slip of tongue - Spoonerism - : "Turn the wot hotter on." Explanation: substitutes initial
sound of hot and water." The correct phrase should be "Turn the hot water on."

6. Slip of Tongue - malapropism: "Winnie the pook." Explanation: substitutes "pook" for
"pooh." The correct name should be "Winnie the Pooh."

7. Slip of tongue - Spoonerism: "The shun is sining." Explanation: 2nd sound of both
shining is substituted to sun. The correct phrase should be "The sun is shining."

8. Slip of Brain - Preservation: "Not now, another nay." Explanation: The n sound is
carried over. Should be day not nay

*A malapropism is a type of linguistic error that occurs when a person mistakenly replaces a
word with a similar-sounding word that has a different meaning, resulting in a humorous or
nonsensical statement.

*Spoonerism - It occurs when the initial sounds or letters of two or more words are swapped
to create a new phrase, often resulting in a humorous or nonsensical expression.
 4. Distinguish between: the slip of tongue; slip of brain; slip of ear.
2. Enlist the four regions in the left hemisphere of the brain that support
language related activities with the help of well labelled diagram. Slip of the tongue: It refers to a spontaneous error or mistake that occurs while
speaking. It can involve substituting, omitting, or rearranging sounds, words, or
(1) Broca's area: Responsible for speech phrases unintentionally. It can happen due to factors such as rapid speaking,
production and articulation. unfamiliar or similar-sounding words, or interference from other thoughts or
(2) Wernicke's area: Involved in language distractions. E.g.: long shory stort (long story short)
comprehension and understanding.
(3) Motor cortex: Controls motor Slip of the brain: It involves errors or lapses in thinking, cognition, or memory
movements, including speech processes. It can manifest as mistakes in reasoning, decision-making, problem-
articulation. solving, or memory retrieval. E.g. my favourite fong (my favourite song)
(4) Arcuate fasciculus: Connects language
comprehension and production regions in Slip of the ear: Slip of the ear is a result of errors in the perception and processing of
the brain, facilitating communication auditory information by the brain. It can be caused by factors like background noise,
between them. unclear pronunciation, accents, or inattentiveness. E.g. grey tape is heard as great ape

5. Distinguish between: spoonerism and malapropism.

3. Identify aphasia based on different types of impairment of language
function due to localized brain damage.

Different types of aphasia can occur when specific language functions are impaired
due to localized brain damage. Here are some common types:

1. Broca's aphasia: Difficulty speaking fluently, finding the right words, and
forming sentences correctly.
2. Wernicke's aphasia: Trouble understanding spoken or written language and
producing meaningful speech.
3. Global aphasia: Severe language impairment, with difficulties in both
understanding and speaking.
4. Anomic aphasia: Trouble finding and remembering specific words or names.
5. motor aphasia: Difficulty starting speech, but able to repeat words and phrases.
6. sensory aphasia: Fluent speech that lacks meaning or relevance, with 6. Identify the language disorder and explain the cause of disorder:
comprehension difficulties.
7. Conduction aphasia: Difficulty repeating words or phrases accurately. (a) I egg and eat and drink coffee breakfast.
(b) I can't talk all of the thing I do, and part of the part I can go alright, but I
These types of aphasia can occur depending on which part of the brain is damaged can't tell from the other people.
and the extent of the damage. (c) Now there there I remember, I have you there what I thought was the ….. a
lady one. Another. With a very short. Very very clever done. Do that the one
two. Go. But there’s the liver. And there is the new. And so on.
(d) speech ….. two times ….. read …..wr …. Ripe, er, rike, er, write ….?

(a) Agrammatism. The cause could be related to damage or dysfunction in brain
regions responsible for processing syntax and grammar, such as the left frontal
regions. It can occur due to conditions like stroke, traumatic brain injury, or
neurodegenerative disorders.
(b) Broca's Aphasia. This type of language disorder often results from damage to the
left hemisphere of the brain, particularly in the frontal regions, including Broca's
area. Causes can include stroke, brain tumors, head injuries, or other conditions
affecting the language centers of the brain.
(c) Anomic Aphasia. Anomic aphasia can be caused by various factors, such as
brain injury, stroke, or neurodegenerative disorders. It may arise from damage or
disruption in brain regions involved in word retrieval, such as the temporal or parietal
lobes.
(d) Phonemic paraphasia. Phonological processing impairments can be associated
with conditions like aphasia, traumatic brain injury, or specific language disorders.
The underlying cause may involve disruption in the connections between language-
related brain regions, such as the auditory cortex, Broca's area, or the arcuate
fasciculus.
7. Examine the case of ‘Genie’ in the light of The Critical Period and Dichotic
Listening Test.
The case of Genie provides insights into the concept of the critical period for
language acquisition and the use of the dichotic listening test. Here's an examination
of Genie's case in relation to these concepts:
Critical Period: The critical period refers to a specific period during early childhood
when the brain is highly receptive to language acquisition. Genie's case challenges
the idea of a strict critical period for language learning. When Genie was first
brought into care at the age of 13, she was unable to use language. However, over
time, she developed speaking abilities and started understanding a significant number
of English words. This suggests that language acquisition can occur beyond the
typical critical period, but there may be limitations in acquiring complex linguistic
structures. Genie's syntax remained simple, indicating a diminished capability for
acquiring more complex grammar.
Dichotic Listening Test: The dichotic listening test is a tool used to assess language
lateralization, particularly the dominance of the left hemisphere for language
processing. In Genie's case, the dichotic listening test revealed that she had no left
hemisphere language faculty. However, she was able to use her right hemisphere to
acquire language. This suggests that the capacity for language is not limited to
specific regions within the brain but relies on complex connections extending
throughout the brain.
In summary, Genie's case challenges the strict notion of the critical period for
language acquisition by demonstrating that language learning can occur beyond early
childhood. However, her difficulties in acquiring complex grammar support the idea
that there may be a sensitive period during which language acquisition is optimal.
Additionally, her use of the right hemisphere for language suggests that language
processing involves more complex connections throughout the brain rather than
being limited to specific regions.
8. Write short notes on: (a) Cerebral Dominance; (b) Language Lateralization
on brain; (c) Lateralization.
Cerebral dominance, also known as cerebral lateralization, refers to the
specialization of functions in the two hemispheres of the brain. In most individuals,
the left hemisphere of the brain is dominant for language processing, while the right
hemisphere is dominant for certain nonverbal and spatial tasks.
Language dominance is typically associated with the left hemisphere, specifically in
regions such as Broca's area and Wernicke's area. The left hemisphere is
responsible for language production (expressive language) and language
comprehension (receptive language) in the majority of right-handed individuals and a
significant proportion of left-handed individuals.
The concept of cerebral dominance is not limited to language but extends to other
functions as well. For example, the right hemisphere is typically dominant for spatial
reasoning, visual processing, and some aspects of emotional processing, while the
left hemisphere is dominant for analytical reasoning, mathematical abilities, and
certain aspects of emotional processing.
Language Lateralization - Language is defined as a method of human
communication through organized words, either spoken or written. Lateralization is
referred to as the localization of functions in the brain, commonly attributed to its left
hemisphere and right hemisphere.
The area of the brain that is responsible for both spoken and written language is the
Wernicke’s Area in the left hemisphere. Analysis of written words is performed in
the temporoparietal cortex as well as in the anterior inferior frontal cortex.
On the other hand, speech production is initiated in the Broca’s Area. This area is
assisted by the premotor area in selecting and sequencing speech sounds. The arcuate
fasciculus makes it possible for the language information in the Wernicke’s Area to
be transmitted to the Broca’s Area to produce speech.

When studying patients with split-brain, where the connection between the brain
hemispheres is cut, researchers have found evidence for functional differences. The
left hemisphere tends to be dominant for speech and language processing, while the
right hemisphere is more involved in spatial tasks and visual processing. This
suggests that each hemisphere has its own specialties.

Lateralization - refers to the specialization of brain functions in either the left or

right hemisphere of the brain. The human brain is divided into two hemispheres,
connected by a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum, which allows
communication between the two sides.

Lateralization suggests that certain mental processes or functions are primarily

controlled by one hemisphere or the other. For example, the left hemisphere is
typically associated with language processing, logical reasoning, and analytical
thinking, while the right hemisphere is often linked to spatial awareness, creativity,
and holistic thinking.
However, it's important to note that the brain functions as a highly interconnected
system, and both hemispheres work together in most tasks. Lateralization does not
mean that one side of the brain is completely responsible for a specific function, but
rather there tends to be a dominant hemisphere for certain functions.

9. Find out the phenomenon that has led to the given constructions: (a) use the
door to open the key; (b) fifty-pound dog of bag. (doubt)