INTRODUCTION − intend to guide and direct people

what to do. Ex. “obey your parents”

Ethics
2. Impartiality
- “ethos” means custom or a manner of acting − moral rule should be neutral
and behaving − should apply to anyone regardless of
Morality status or situation
3. Overridingness
- “mores” means custom or practice − moral principles should tower over all
other norms or standards of
Ethics Morality
focused on the general the praxis, the evaluation.
principles, rules, and application of those − hegemonic (over and above) authority
theories on determining principles (Fernandez, 4. Autonomous from Arbitrary Authority
what is right or wrong 2012) − moral standards should be
independent, hence be able to stand
on its own
Human Conduct or Human Act
− based on the ethical principles and
- is the material object of ethics not on what men say
5. Publicity
Morality of Human Act or Human Conduct
− made public
- is its formal object − reason dictates that rules are made
and promulgated to advice, as well as
Morality
praise or blame certain actions
- a system of belief about what is right behavior 6. Practicability
and wrong behavior (Rubin, 2015) − moral standards exist in which human
- deals with how a person relates with others beings are capable of doing
and with the world to promote what is good − if they are too heavy it will be
(Thiroux and Krasemann, 2009) impossible for individuals to obey in
Dr. James Rachels (Elements of Moral Philosophy) which it may result for men to do
another act that is illicit in order to
- asserted that at the very least morality is the obey the norms set forth.
effort to guide one’s conduct by reason – to
act based on the best reasons for doing – Kinds of Moral Act:
while giving equal weight to the interests of Act of Man Human Act
each individual affected by one’s decision those acts of which man those actions which are
(Rachels, 2015) has no control, within the control of
INVOLUNTARY ACT, Ex. man, VOLUNTARY ACT,
Two Division of Ethics:
“emotions, breathing” Ex. “walking, talking”
General Ethics Applied or Special
Ethics
Three Essential Elements of Act of Man and Human
morality of human act refers to the application
act:
focuses on the basic of the moral principles,
concepts standards, and norms in 1. Knowledge
various specific areas of
− the doer is aware of what he/she is
human life and activity
doing
− one cannot hold a person fully
Ethics then is both a theory and a practice. responsible for something that he or
she is not aware of. ACT OF HUMAN
Moral principles must have the following
2. Freedom
characteristics:
− act is not done by force
1. Prescriptivity − state of being unrestricted from the
− action-guiding nature of personality. internal impulse and external pressure
 − free when he can exercise control
over himself and over his action, that
is, he can make a wide range of
choices whether to do it or not.
− HUMAN ACT
3. Will
− of which the doer has gives his or her
consent to do the act.
− unless the act is done with consent,
no action can be considered a human
act.
*The absence of either one or two of the elements
may lessen the accountability of the doer or no
accountability at all.
Voluntariness
− very much akin to consent
− Latin word “voluntas”
− act of the will, hence only a voluntary act is a
human act.
Four Kinds of Voluntariness:
1. Perfect Voluntariness – all elements of human
act are present. Man is fully accountable of
the act committed.
2. Imperfect Voluntariness – knowledge is
absent, no accountability
3. Simple Voluntariness – simply doing or not
doing the act since has cannot do anything
about it. Positive or Negative
4. Conditional Voluntariness – when the person
is forced to do an act in which in normal
condition it should not be done.
*Morality of an act can either be moral, immoral, or
amoral.
Immoral – if it is bad
Moral – good act
Amoral – indifferent or neither good nor bad,
depending on the motive or intention of the doer.
How doe we know the morality of the act then? The
following are the determinants of morality:
1. The Object or Act itself – deed done by the
doer of the action. It is either good or bad
2. Motive or Intent – the purpose or reason of
doing the act.
3. Circumstances – the situations that surrounds
the commission of the act, basically practical
answers to particular questions
a. Who – persons involved in the act
committed.
b. Why – the reason or motive the act
c. By What Means – “the end does not
justify the means.”
d. Where – settling of the action
e. When – time of the commission of the
act
f. How
Circumstances could be:
Justifying – act of self-defense
Mitigating – a person is forced to slap due to boredom
Exempting – wife killed her husband as it having
sexual intercourse.
Modifiers of Accountability:
1. Ignorance – absence of knowledge
a. Vincible – lack of knowledge can
easily be rectified
b. Invincible – difficult to rectify’
2. Concupiscence or passion – emotions
whether negative or positive desire.
a. Antecedent – weaken the will power,
becomes irrational “crimes of
passion”, VOLUNTARY but
accountability is diminished
Ex. A woman caught his sexual
intercourse with another woman and
killed him
b. Consequent – intentionally aroused
and kept where the doer willfully
plays his emotions.
Ex. A man kept on watching
pornographic videos and eventually
committed the crime of rape
3. Fear – disturbance of the mind when a person
is confronted by danger or harm to oneself or
loved ones.
a. Act done with fear – car racing
b. Act done out of or because of fear –
runs upon seeing a dog
4. Violence – physical force is exerted to a
person by another for the purpose of
compelling or forcing the person to act against
his will
5. Habits – frequently repeated acts. Bad or
good. becoming INVOLUNTARY
Moral Norms – to measure whether an act done is
good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral.
 1. Eternal Divine Law – OBJECTIVE and is the
ultimate and absolute norm of morality,
DIVINE REASON.
• Eternal Law – made known to man
through his reason and conscience
known as the natural law (lex
naturalis)
• Moral Law – ordinal of reason
promulgated by those who have the
authority and care of the community
for the promotion of the common
good.
• Human Law – are those enacted by
men.
*Moral law only covers both external actions of man.
Human law covers both external and internal.
2. Human Reason – related to person’s
conscience which is proximate norm of
morality telling a person internally what to do
and should not do. SUBJECTIVE, found in the
subject itself.
According to the harmony or disharmony with
the objective truth, conscience can be:
• Correct Conscience – must be always
obeyed, whatever it commands or
forbids
• Erroneous Conscience
a. Invincibly Erroneous –
mistake cannot be avoided
regardless of the effort or
attempt exerted to correct
b. Vincibly Erroneous – person is
moral accountable since the
error could have been
avoided with ordinary
diligence on his/her part
c. Perplexed Conscience –
happens when a person has
two alternative options but
fears that bad consequences
is present in both choices
d. Pharisaical Conscience –
magnifies small offenses as
grave and serious one as little.
Firmness in its judgment of the morality of the
act, conscience is either
• Certain Conscience – judgment is sure
that the action is morally good or bad
• Doubtful Conscience – person
hesitates in making a particular
judgment since he/she is not certain
or unsure whether something is good
or bad, PERSON MUST NEVER ACT
• Scrupulous Conscience – describe as
very cautious or extremely fearful that
the person involved do not want to
make any action in a given situation
• Lax Conscience – person takes serious
bad act very lightly and considers as
morally importance, take things FOR
GANTED Ex. Lazy
*Norms are formal, or material as derived from
natural law.
Formal Norms – “what we ought to be” like we should
be sensitive, giving, and obedient.
Material Norms – “what ought to be done” Ex. “do
not lie, do good, and do not be selfish”
Square of Moral Evaluation and Decision (Prof. L.
Bete, a REMASE theologian)
1. The Act Itself – of paramount angle of
consideration, human action alone (The Act
perse or the Arc as Is)
• Action of Nature – no moral bearings
• Action of Man – biological, physiological,
psychological human deeds
Natures of the Act Itself
Intrinsic Action Extrinsic Action
act of giving, act of act done by politicians:
killing, act of cheating love to give but tinted
“white lies” with ill-intention
“hidden string attached”
2. The Intention - known as Premeditated
motivation covertly present in the mind of the
agent before he/she executed the action.
• Concomitant Consequence or incidental side
effect
• Collateral Effect – in legal parlance
3. Circumstances – understand as the prevailing
and prompting condition or situation behind
the doing of the act.
a. Aggravating Moral Circumstance –
committed by an agent or doer in
different situation when there is an
element of added factor/s
contributing to the first or initial
section.
 b. Mitigating Moral Circumstance –
understood as lessening or
diminishing the suppose moral gravity
of the crime.
c. Justifying Moral Circumstance – act is
justified, “as if no moral offense is
committed” Ex. Self-defense
d. Exempting Moral Circumstance –
actions are termed in Ethics Amoral or
no moral significant or no moral
bearing.
4. The End – “end of the action”, the “result of
the action”
• “The end does not justify the means”
Full Culpability – when an act is intrinsically good, but
the intention is bad
Zero Culpability – when an act is intrinsically bad, but
the no prior intention
Partial Culpability – when an act is intrinsically bad,
but the intention is for the greater good
CHAPTER 1
LESSON 1
Moral Experience – any encounter wherein a person
understands that the values he or she believes to be
important are either realized or thwarted.
*Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in
modern society at the level of the person, society, and
in interaction with the environment and other shared
resources
Rule – a statement that tells you what is or is not
allowed in a particular, situation
LESSON 2
Moral Standard – a code of what is right or wrong
without reference to specific behaviors or beliefs
*Feelings of guilt and shame are often associated
when the person goes against his or her moral
standards (Manda, 2010; Velazquez, 2012)
Six Characteristics of Moral Standards
1. Moral Standards involve behaviors that
seriously affect other people’s well-being.
Ex. Lying, Stealing, Killing
2. Moral standards take a more important
consideration than other standards including
self-interest.
Ex. Trust over Revenge
3. Moral standards do not depend on any
external authority but in how the person
perceives the reasonableness of the action.
Ex. Aside from cheating can failed you as your
teacher told so, you personally believe it is
wrong.
4. Moral standards are believed to be universal.
Ex. Truly believe an act is wrong, you will not
agree, vice versa
5. Moral standards are based on objectivity.
Ex. Right or wrong depends on a universal
standpoint where everyone’s interest is
counted as equal.
6. Moral standards are associated with
vocabulary that depicts emotion or feelings.
Ex. Against your moral standards will feel
guilty, remorseful, or ashamed
Non-moral standards – can be considered relative
standards by which something or someone is judged
as either good or bad.
Etiquette – set of rules on how individual should
responsibly behave in the society
Policy – clear, simple statement of how an
organization plans to handle its services, actions, or
business. guiding rules
Law – rule created and enforced by the government
and its agencies to maintain order, resolve dispute,
and protect a person’s liberty and rights
Commandment – rule that is to be strictly observed
because it was said to be set by a divine entity, such as
those in the Ten Commandments
LESSON 3
Dilemma – a situation in which a difficult choice has to
be made between two or more alternatives, especially
equally undesirable ones
A moral dilemma is a situation where:
1. There are two or more actions that you can
possibly do.
2. There is a moral reason (s) for doing such
actions.
3. You cannot do all the possible actions
presented to you. You only need to choose
one.
Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
a. Personal Dilemma – when your decision in a
situation where there is moral conflict is the
 cause of either your own; that another
person; group of people’s potential harm
b. Organizational Dilemma – when a member or
members of the organization is in a situation
where there is moral conflict, and the decision
will potentially harm either some members of
the group or the entire organization.
c. Structural Moral Dilemma – when a person or
group of persons who holds high-level
positions in the society faces a morally
conflicting situation wherein the entire social
system is affected.
LESSON 4
Why only human beings can be ethical?
*According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the fundamental
difference between animal ethics and human ethics is
that animals behave instinctively while human
behavior is rational.
Instinctive behavior – hard-wired, inborn,
characteristic response to specific environmental
stimuli; an example is the altruistic behavior of social
animals
Rational behavior – decision-making process where
the person acts in ways that best achieve his or her
needs in accordance with his or her set preferences,
priorities, and principles.
*Thus, only human beings can be ethical because only
humans have the capacity for free moral judgment.
The Foundation of Morality
C.S. Lewis – used an interesting metaphor to explain
morality. Likened morality to a fleet of ships.
One crucial difference between a ship and person:
*A ship is under the COMMAND of a ship captain.
However, a person is FREE to decide his or her course.
Why is freedom crucial in your ability to make moral
decisions?
Virtue
− is our thought or behavior guided by, and
displays, high moral standards
− habits developed through learning, and
practice
Virtuous Person
− characteristically acts in ways consistent with
his or her mora principles
− a standard for everyone to follow
− must be free
The Human Person as a Free Being
Human being – is as person endowed with
characteristics that are material, spiritual, rational,
and free.
Human person – is a being (with inborn properties):
idea of being connotes actuality; existence, and actual
condition or circumstance
*One of the inborn properties of the human person is
FREEDOM
Philosophical Insights on Freedom
Freedom is a Gift – ability to act significantly, gift given
to us by God.
Freedom is Complementary to Reason – freedom and
reason as necessary faculties for consciously making
sense of things (Aristotle)
Freedom is Absolute – “absolutely free” (Jean-Paul
Satre)
Freedom demands Responsibility – Satre’s idea was
that freedom is the capacity to choose, that even not
choosing is a choice; responsibility follows freedom
*Responsibility as a moral quality serves as a
voluntary check and balance of one’s freedom.”
How Culture Shapes Human Behavior
Culture – complex phenomenon, contains nearly all
aspects of shared human experiences.
Plato worried about idols and ideologies of his day
and especially about the power of the public to
corrupt a young person' s mind
Karl Marx, culture served to justify inequality because
the ruling class determines what is right and wrong
while the rest merely follow.
Elements of Culture
Symbols – anything that a group of people find
meaningful
Language – complex symbol system that enabled
human beings to communicate either verbally or
through writing
Beliefs – assumptions or convictions held to be true by
an individual or a group of people, could be events,
people, or things
Values – culturally acceptable standards of behavior
Norm – an informal guideline by a particular group of
people or social unit about what is considered normal
or correct/incorrect social behavior
How does culture define Moral Behavior?
*Plato implied that if a person's surroundings reward
conformity to agreeable norms it would lead the
person to behave much better and quell undesirable
conduct. Thus, Plato insisted that a child's cultural
surroundings should "express the image of a noble
character"
Why can’t all cultural practices be always correct?
Cultural Relativism
− idea that value, knowledge, and behavior of
people must be understood withing its own
cultural context, and not by the standards of
other cultures.
− there is not “one” standard that is “better”
among all others
Five Claims of Cultural Relativists
1. Different societies have different moral codes
2. The moral code of a society determines what
is right or wrong. There is no objective
standard considered better than others.
3. There are no universal moral truths.
4. The moral code of a particular society has no
special status. It is but one among many.
5. It is arrogant for one culture to judge another
culture. There should be tolerance among
cultures.
Two Advantages of Cultural Relativism
1. It warns us from assuming that our
preferences are the absolute rational
standard.
2. It teaches us to keep an open mind and to be
more amenable in discovering the truth.
Dangers of Cultural Relativism
1. We cannot call out societal practices that
promote harm.
2. We cannot justifiably criticize our own
culture’s harmful practices.
3. The idea of social progress becomes doubtful.
Peace – is a set of beliefs, values, attitudes, traditions,
and modes of behavior and ways of life based on:
1. Respect for life
2. Respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms
3. Rejection of all forms of violence
4. Adherence to the principles of justice,
democracy, tolerance, solidarity, cooperation,
diversity, dialogue, and understanding in all
levels of society.
Three phases to accomplish peace:
1. Cognitive phase which is understanding and
being aware to the happenings in the society.
2. Affective phase which is being concerned and
responsible learning to value peace since
rational beings are species of social
interaction.
3. Active phase which is taking practical action in
which a course that will lead us to what is
good for the benefit of the majority.
“Peace education seeks the abolition of war as an
institution”
Two types of peace:
1. Negative Peace – absence of direct/physical
violence (both macro and micro)
Direct Violence – war, torture, child, and
woman abuse
2. Positive peace – presence of conditions of
well-being and just relationships:
a. Economic, political, and ecological
b. Structural Violence – poverty, hunger
c. Socio-cultural Violence – racism, sexism,
religious intolerance
d. Ecological Violence – pollution,
overconsumption
Six Dimensions and Operative Values
1. Personal & Family (Spiritual) – values
formation starts in the family.
2. Human Rights & Democracy (Justice) –
indicates that political respect is the key
towards human viability and sustainability in
achieving peace.
3. Poverty Eradication (Compassion) – poverty is
inevitable.
4. Intercultural Understanding & Solidarity
(Dialogue) – “what is right for your might be
wrong for me, what is wrong for me might be
right for you”
 5. Disarmament & Cessation of Hostilities
(Action/Non-Violence) – “the absence of war
is the absence of conflict, the absence of
conflict, is the presence towards a culture of
peace”
6. Environmental Protection (Stewardship) -
taking care of the environment and nature
Peace Education – education that seeks the
transformation of people’s mindsets, attitudes and
behaviors toward peace, justice, and environmental
care.
LESSON 3
Three Universal Values shared by all Cultures:
1. Caring for the young
2. Murder is wrong
3. Tell the truth
LESSON 4
Qualities of the Filipino Moral Identity
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino Character
are rooted in factors such as:
1. Home Environment – family
2. Social Environment – dependence on
relationships and the struggle for survival
3. Culture and Language – openness to foreign
elements
4. History – culprit behind our colonial mentality
5. Educational System – schools are highly
authoritarian
6. Religion – taught us optimism and resilience,
however installed in us a fatalistic attitude.
7. Economic Environment – work hard and take
risk, abroad
8. Political Environment – political power is
mainly in the hands of the elite
9. Mass Media – emphasis on the superiority of
an imported brand
10. Leaders and Role Models – any person with
authority is look up to
Strengths of the Filipino Character
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao – Filipino’s openness,
helpfulness, and generosity; bayanihan and
Famous Filipino hospitality
2. Family Orientation – love for family
3. Joy and Humor – cheerful and fun loving,
fiestas and social gatherings
4. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity –
improvise and make use of whatever is at
hand
5. Hard work and Industry – willingness to take
risks and work in other countries
6. Faith and Religiosity – “bahala na” mindset,
“kickstarter”
7. Ability to Survive – “matutong mamaluktot
habang maikli ang kumot”
Weaknesses of the Filipino Character
1. Extreme Personalism – led to the prevalence
of graft and corruption in the country
2. Extreme Family-Centeredness – manifested in
our political system where political dynasties
lord over our elected government
3. Lack of Discipline – “ningas cogon” start out
with full enthusiasm and interest, later died
down
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative – related of
discipline, have very high respect for authority
5. Colonial Mentality – connected to our general
feelings of inferiority, where we think
foreigners are superior
6. Kanya-Kanya Syndrome – related to extreme
personalism and family centeredness,
“Crab mentality” tend to pull others down to
climb up
7. Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection –
“madaling makalimot” or short memory
LESSON 5
Moral – concerned with the principles of right and
wrong behavior or the goodness and badness of the
human character
Character – the mental and moral qualities distinct to
an individual
*Philosophy, denotes to the moral dimension of a
person
Moral Character – existence (or lack of) virtues such
as integrity, courage, fortitude, honest, and loyalty.
Moral Character as Disposition
Moral Character – dispositions or the tendency to act
or think in a particular way for which a person can be
held morally responsible.
Philosophical Views on Moral Character
Confucian Traditions
 − Personality, “an achieved state of moral
excellence”
Four Beginnings in Confucian Traditions:
1. The heart of compassion, which leads to Jen.
– goodwill, sympathy towards others
2. The heart of righteousness, which leads to Yi.
– righteousness and the respect of duty
3. The heart of propriety, which leads to Li.
– outward behavior such as etiquette
4. The heart of wisdom, which leads to Zhi.
– wisdom, a product of practicing Jen, Yi, Li
Aristotle & Virtue Ethics
Virtue Ethics – an approach that reduces the
emphasis on rules, consequence, and particular acts.
− focus on the quality of person
What does it mean to be a good person?
− Aristotle believed that humans have an
essence called PROPER FUNCTIONING where
everything has a function and the thing that
performs as intended is called good
*Virtue for the Greeks equivalent to excellence.
The principle of being virtuous is called “Doctrine of
the Golden Mean”- that moral behavior is the one that
is in the middle of two extreme behaviors (VICES)
Extreme behavior – the act was either excessive or
deficient.
Temperance – the golden mean between gluttony and
starvation
Virtuous Man – who can satisfy both inclinations and
rational desires because his or her inclinations and
desires are aligned.
Why do we have to be virtuous?
Eudomania – “happinesss”, “well-being” or the “good
life”
LESSON 6
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality
− Judgment at this level is solely focused on the
self
a. Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation
- “pre-moral” stage where decisions
and actions are determined by
immediate physical consequence and
not the true moral value
- to avoid punishment, Ex. “I am going
to study my lessons because mom will
get mad at me if I do not pass this
test”
b. Stage 2: Reward Orientation
- negotiation, to meet and wants that
must be satisfied too.
Level 2: Conventional Morality
− typical of adolescents and adults.
c. Stage 3: Good Boy/ Good Girl Orientation
- seek approval from other people by
living up to their expectations
d. Stage 4: Authority Orientation
- adulthood, consider society as a
whole (law and order)
Level 3: Post Conventional
− “principled level”, growing realization that
people are unique and are an independent
part of the society.
− Lead to disobeying the law to follow personal
principles
e. Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation
- aware that much of what is
considered to be moral or good is
mainly based on personal beliefs
f. Stage 6: Ethical – Principle Orientation
- based on abstract reasoning such as
being able to put oneself in other
people’s shoes.
CHAPTER 2: THE ACT
LESSON 1
Philosophical Insights on Feelings
Hume and the Philosophy of the Mind
David Hume (1711-1776)
− argued to regulate actions using reason and
that reason has dominion over feelings or
emotions.
Asserting that:
1. Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will,
but rather is the “slave of the passions”
2. Moral distinctions are not derived from
reason.
3. Moral distinctions are derived from the
moral sentiments: feelings of approval
 (esteem, praise) and disapproval (blame) felt
by spectators who contemplate a character
trait or action.
4. While some virtues and vices are natural,
others (including justice are artificial.
According to his “Theory of the Mind”, humans have
what he called passions (which he used to describe
emotions or feelings).
a. Direct – caused directly by the sensation of
pain or pleasure Ex. hope, fear
b. Indirect – cased by the sensation of pain or
pleasure derived from some other idea or
impression. Ex. love, ambition and humility
Scheler and the Philosophy of Feelings
Max Ferdinand Scheler
− German ethical philosopher, “emotion is the
most important aspect in human existence”
− asserted that emotions/feelings are inherent,
objective, and it exists even if you have not
experience it before (a priori)
− claimed that feelings are independent of the
mind; that it corresponds to the Divine
feelings are not chaotic.
− feelings are the “PUREST SPERE” of human
consciousness
Four Strata of Feelings:
1. Sensual Feelings – bodily pleasures or pain
2. Vital Feelings – life functions, health &
sickness
3. Psychic Feelings – about aesthetics, justice,
and knowledge
4. Spiritual Feelings – deal with the Divine
*Spiritual feelings alone are INTENTIONAL, directed to
a particular special object or a higher being, the
Divine”
Difference Between Responses Based on Reason and
on Feelings
Dr. James Rachels – asserted that in moral reasoning,
you could not rely on your feelings no matter how
powerful these feeling may be.
An argument is reasonable if:
a. The facts are correct.
b. The moral principles are correctly applied
c. Each individual’s well-being is treated equally
important.
What is the Role of Feelings in Decision-Making?
*Our moral compasses are also powerfully influenced
by feelings.
*Reasoning in moral decisions is preceded by an initial
intuition or gutfeel
Alfred Jules Ayer described two elements in moral
judgment:
a. Emotive – expressing positive feelings towards
a particular act. Ex. “Kindness is good” meant
you feel positive about acts of kindness
b. Prescriptive – an instruction or prescription of
a particular behavior. Ex. “Be kind t o others”
this act encouraged others to follow
Why feelings can be obstacles to making right
decisions?
1. Its non-deliberate nature
2. Its partial nature
3. It is capricious
Deliberate – act was intentional, planned, with
conscious effort.
Nondeliberate – contrary term that denotes
spontaneous actions
*Emotions are no different from mindless automatic
reflex.
Aaron Been Zeev summarized the nondeliberate
nature of feelings as follows:
1. Responsibility entails free choice; if we are not
free to behave in a certain manner, then we
are not responsible for this behavior.
2. Free choice entails an intellectual deliberation
in which alternative are considered and the
best one is chosen.
3. Since intellectual deliberation is absent from
emotions, we cannot be responsible for our
emotions.
The Partial Nature of Feelings
“the law of concern”, emotions are quiet when it is of
no personal concern, interested only in the immediate
situation, no rational explanations
Two aspects in the partial nature of emotions:
1. Decisions based on feelings focus only on a
narrow area
2. It reflects personal and self0interest
perspectives
*Emotions influence our attention
The Capricious Nature of Feelings
*Emotions rises for arbitrary reasons.
How Emotions Help in Making the Right Decisions
*Emotions are the foundation of all our cognitive and
behavioral processes; and emotional responses often
guide a person in making beneficial choices without
any conscious reasoning
Three ways that feelings, especially negative feelings,
help in making decisions:
1. It signals the need to adjust behavior
2. It can help us learn from our mistakes
3. Emotional responses can be reshaped as time
pass by
Counterfactual thinking – psychological concept
about human tendency to create possible or
alternative scenarios other than what had actually
happened.
Mindfulness – give active and open attention to
personal thoughts and feelings show that, with some
effort, emotional reactions can be brought in accord
with your beliefs and goals.
LESSON 2
Why should human beings be moral?
a. It is enlightened self-interest
b. It is the traditional law
c. It is a responsibility
d. It is what is fair and equitable
e. People have shared human needs, goals,
desires, and/or objectives; and there are
better met when people treat each other in a
manner that promotes what is right and good.
Is reason a requirement for morality?
*The power of the mind to think, understand, and
form judgments by a process of logic
Immanuel Kant – reason alone is the basis for
morality, and once the person understood this basic
requirement for morality, he or she would see that
acting morally is the same an acting rationally.
Is impartiality a requirement for morality?
Impartiality – decisions should be “based on objective
criteria rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or
preferring to benefit one person over another for
improper reasons”
Dr. Rachels – “at the very least is the effort to guide
one’s action based on the most logical choice (reason)
while giving equal importance to the interests of each
person affected by your decisions (impartiality)
The 7-step Moral Reasoning Model
1. Gather the facts
2. Identify the stakeholders
3. Articulate the dilemma
4. List the alternatives
5. Compare the alternative with the principles
6. Weigh the consequences
7. Make a decision
LESSON 3
Moral Courage – courage to put your moral principles
into action even though you may be in doubts, are
afraid, or face adverse consequence.
Mark Johnson – it is important to have “an ability to
imaginatively discern various possibilities fo action
within a given situation to envision the potential help
and harm that are likely to result from a given action
called MORAL IMAGINATION
Moral Imagination – ability in particular
circumstances to discover and evaluate possibilities
not merely determined by that circumstance or
limited by its operative mental mode or merely
framed by a set of rules or rule-governed concerns.
*To practice moral courage, you need a will
Will – mental capacity to act decisively on one’s
desire.
− the product of intellect and sensation and that
gave the person the capacity for “exciting
movement in space”
Developing the “will”
Aristotle said:
− we become just by the practice of just actions
Self-mastery – product of the “will” that is achieved
by actually putting rational, moral choice into action