REDOX & EQUIVALENT CONCEPTS (STOCHIOMETRY-II)

‰ OXIDATION & REDUCTION

/HWXVGRDFRPSDUDWLYHVWXG\RIR[LGDWLRQDQG5HGXFWLRQ
Oxidation Reduction
 $GGLWLRQRIR[\JHQ L 5HPRYDORIR[\JHQ
e.g. 0J2 o0J2 e.g. &X2 & o&X&2
 5HPRYDORI+\GURJHQ LL $GGLWLRQRI+\GURJHQ
e.g. +6&O o+&O6 e.g. 6+ o+6
 ,QFUHDVHLQSRVLWLYHFKDUJH LLL 'HFUHDVHLQSRVLWLYHFKDUJH
e.g. )H o)HH¤ e.g. )HH o)H
 ,QFUHDVHLQR[LGDWLRQQXPEHU LY 'HFUHDVHLQR[LGDWLRQQXPEHU
     
6Q&O o6Q&O 0Q2¤ o0Q
 5HPRYDORIHOHFWURQ Y $GGLWLRQRIHOHFWURQ
e.g. 6Q o6QH¤ e.g. )HH¤o)H

Oxidation Number :
‹ ,WLVDQLPDJLQDU\RUDSSDUHQWFKDUJHJDLQHGE\DQHOHPHQWZKHQLWJRHVIURPLWVHOHPHQWDO
IUHHVWDWHWRFRPELQHGVWDWHLQPROHFXOHV
‹ ,WLVFDOFXODWHGRQEDVLVRIDDUELWUDU\VHWRIUXOHV
‹ ,WLVDUHODWLYHFKDUJHLQDSDUWLFXODUERQGHGVWDWH
Rules governing oxidation number :
7KHIROORZLQJUXOHVDUHKHOSIXOLQFDOFXODWLQJR[LGDWLRQQXPEHURIWKHHOHPHQWVLQWKHLUGLIIHUHQW
FRPSRXQGV,WLVUHPHPEHUWKDWWKHEDVLVRIWKHVHUXOHLVWKHHOHFWURQHJDWLYLW\RIWKHHOHPHQW
‹ Fluorine atom :
)OXRULQHLVPRVWHOHFWURQHJDWLYLW\DWRP NQRZQ ,WDOZD\VKDVR[LGDWLRQQRHTXDOWR¤LQDOO
LWVFRPSRXQGV
‹ Oxygen atom :
,QJHQHUDODQGDVZHOODVLQLWVR[LGHVR[\JHQDWRPKDVR[LGDWLRQQXPEHUHTXDOWR¤
In case of : L SHUR[LGH HJ+21D2 LV¤
LL VXSHUR[LGH HJ.2 LV¤ ×
LLL R]RQLGH .2 LV¤ 1 3
LY R[\JHQIOXRULGH2)LV LQ2)LV

1
 ‹ Hydrogen atom :
,QJHQHUDO+DWRPKDVR[LGDWLRQQXPEHUHTXDOWR%XWLQPHWDOOLFK\GULGHV HJ1D+.+
LWLV¤
‹ Halogen atom :
,QJHQHUDODOOKDORJHQDWRP &O%U, KDVR[LGDWLRQQXPEHUHTXDOWR¤
%XWLIKDORJHQDWRPLVDWWDFKHGZLWKDQPRUHHOHFWURQHJDWLYHDWRPWKDQKDORJHQDWRPWKHQLW
ZLOOVKRZSRVLWLYHR[LGDWLRQQXPEHUV
5 5 7 5
HJ KClO3  HlO3  HClO4  KBrO3
‹ Metals :
D $ONDOLPHWDO /L1D.5E DOZD\VKDYHR[LGDWLRQQXPEHU
E $ONDOLQHHDUWKPHWDO %H0J&D DOZD\VKDYHR[LGDWLRQQXPEHU
Note : 0HWDOPD\KDYHSRVLWLYHRU]HURR[LGDWLRQQXPEHU
F $OXPLQLXPDOZD\VKDYHR[LGDWLRQQXPEHU
‹ 2[LGDWLRQQXPEHURIDQHOHPHQWLQIUHHVWDWHRULQDOORWURSLFIRUPVLVDOZD\V]HUR
0 0 0 0
HJ O2 ,S8 ,P4 ,O3
‹ 6XPRIWKHFKDUJHVRIHOHPHQWVLQDPROHFXOHLV]HUR
‹ 6XPRIWKHFKDUJHVRIDOOHOHPHQWVLQDQLRQVLVHTXDOWRWKHFKDUJHRQWKHLRQ
‹ ,IWKHJURXSQRRIDQHOHPHQWLQSHULRGLFWDEOHLVQWKHQLWVR[LGDWLRQQXPEHUPD\YDU\IURP
QWRQ¤ EXWLWLVPDLQO\DSSOLFDEOHLQSEORFNHOHPHQWV
HJ 1DWRPEHORQJVWRYJURXSLQWKHSHULRGLFWDEOHWKHUHIRUHDVSHUUXOHLWVR[LGDWLRQQXPEHUPD\
YDU\IURP
3 2 3 4 5
¤WR (NH3 ,NO,N2O3,NO2 ,N2O5 )
Calculation of average oxidation number :
Solved Examples :
Ex. &DOFXODWHR[LGDWLRQQXPEHURIXQGHUOLQHGHOHPHQW1D62
Sol. /HWR[LGDWLRQQXPEHURI6DWRPLV[1RZZRUNDFFRUGLQJO\ZLWKWKHUXOHVJLYHQEHIRUH
 Ó [ Ó ¤ Ó 
[ 
Ex. 1D 6 2
Sol. /HWR[LGDWLRQQXPEHURI6DWRPLV[
 Ó [ Ó ¤ Ó 
[ 
‹ ,W VLPSRUWDQWWRQRWHKHUHWKDW1D62KDYHWZR6DWRPDQGWKHUHDUHIRXU6DWRPLQ1D62
EXWVXOSKXUDWRPLQERWKWKHFRPSRXQGKDYHRUR[LGDWLRQQXPEHULWLVWKHDYHUDJH
FKDUJH 21R :KLFKUHVLGHRQHDFKVXOSKXUDWRPWKHUHIRUHZHVKRXOGZRUNWRFDOFXODWHWKH
LQGLYLGXDOR[LGDWLRQQXPEHURIHDFKVXOSKXUDWRPLQWKHVHFRPSRXQG

2
Ex. &DOFXODWHWKH26RIDOOWKHDWRPVLQWKHIROORZLQJVSHFLHV
L &O2¤ LL 12¤ LLL 12¤ LY &&O Y .&U2 DQG YL .0Q2
Sol. L ,Q&O2¤WKHQHWFKDUJHRQWKHVSHFLHVLV¤DQGWKHUHIRUHWKHVXPRIWKHR[LGDWLRQVWDWHV
RI&ODQG2PXVWEHHTXDOWR¤2[\JHQZLOOKDYHDQ26 RI¤DQGLIWKH26 RI&O
LV DVVXPHG WR EH [  WKHQ [ ¤  VKRXOG EH HTXDO WR ¤
[ LV  
¤
LL 12    Ó ¤   [  ¤ ZKHUH [  LV 26 RI 1
? [  
¤
LLL 12   [   Ó ¤   ¤ ZKHUH [  LV 26 RI 1
[  
LY ,Q &&O &O KDV DQ 26 RI ¤
[   Ó ¤  
? [   ZKHUH [  LV 26 RI &
Y .&U2  . KDV 26 RI  DQG 2 KDV 26 RI ¤ DQG OHW &U KDV 26 [  WKHQ
 Ó   [   Ó ¤  
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YL .0Q2    [    Ó ¤  
? [   ZKHUH [LV 26 RI 0Q 
‰ MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
,QRUGHUWRGHWHUPLQHWKHH[DFWRULQGLYLGXDOR[LGDWLRQQXPEHUZHQHHGWRWDNHKHOSIURPWKHVWUXF
WXUHVRIWKHPROHFXOHV6RPHVSHFLDOFDVHVDUHGLVFXVVHGDVIROORZV
O O

‹ 7KHVWUXFWXUHRI&U2LV Cr
O O O

)URPWKHVWUXFWXUHLWLVHYLGHQWWKDWLQ&U2WKHUHDUHWZRSHUR[LGHOLQNDJHVDQGRQHGRXEOH
ERQG
7KHFRQWULEXWLRQRIHDFKSHUR[LGHOLQNDJHLV¤/HWWKH21RI&ULV[
? [ ¤  ¤  RU[ 
? 21RI&U Ans.
–3
O O
O O
K3CrO8 Cr
O O
O O

)URPWKHVWUXFWXUHLWLVHYLGHQWWKDWLQ&U2¤WKHUHDUHIRXUSHUR[LGHOLQNDJHV
7KHFRQWULEXWLRQRIHDFKSHUR[LGHOLQNDJHLV¤/HWWKH21RI&ULV[
? [ ¤  ¤RU[ 
? 21RI&U Ans.
O
‹ 7KHVWUFXWXUHRI+62LV H O O S
O
H O

3
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? ¤[ ¤  ¤  
RU [¤ 
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‰ PARADOX OF FRACTIONAL OXIDATION NUMBER
)UDFWLRQDOR[LGDWLRQVWDWHLVWKHDYHUDJHR[LGDWLRQVWDWHRIWKHHOHPHQWXQGHUH[DPLQDWLRQDQGWKH
VWUXFWXUDOSDUDPHWHUVUHYHDOWKDWWKHHOHPHQWIRUZKRPIUDFWLRQDOR[LGDWLRQVWDWHLVUHDOLVHGLVDFWXDOO\
SUHVHQWLQGLIIHUHQWR[LGDWLRQVWDWHV6WUXFWXUHRIWKHVSHFLHV&2%U2DQG62¤UHYHDOWKHIRO
ORZLQJERQGLQJVLWXDWLRQV
‹ 7KHHOHPHQWPDUNHGZLWKDVWHULVNLQHDFKVSHFLHVLVH[KLELWLQJWKHGLIIHUHQWR[LGDWLRQVWDWH
R[LGDWLRQQXPEHU IURPUHVWRIWKHDWRPVRIWKHVDPHHOHPHQWLQHDFKRIWKHVSHFLHV7KLV
UHYHDOVWKDWLQ&2WZRFDUERQDWRPVDUHSUHVHQWLQR[LGDWLRQVWDWHHDFKZKHUHDVWKH
WKLUGRQHLVSUHVHQWLQ]HURR[LGDWLRQVWDWHDQGWKHDYHUDJHLV+RZHYHUWKHUHDOLVWLFSLFWXUH
LVIRUWZRWHUPLQDOFDUERQVDQG]HURIRUWKHPLGGOHFDUERQ
2 0 2
O C C* C O

6WUXFWXUHRI&2
 &DUERQVXER[LGH
‹ /LNHZLVHLQ%U2HDFKRIWKHWZRWHUPLQDOEURPLQHDWRPVDUHSUHVHQWLQR[LGDWLRQVWDWH
DQGWKHPLGGOHEURPLQHLVSUHVHQWLQR[LGDWLRQVWDWH2QFHDJDLQWKHDYHUDJHWKDWLVGLIIHU
HQWIURPUHDOLW\LV
O +6 +4O O
+6
O = Br = Br* B = O
O O O

6WUXFWXUHRI%U2 WULEURPRRFWDR[LGH

‹ ,QWKHVDPHIDVKLRQLQWKHVSHFLHV62¤LVZKHUHDVWKHUHDOLW\EHLQJDQG
R[LGDWLRQQXPEHUUHVSHFWLYHO\IRUHDFKVXOSKXU
O O
+5 0 0 +5 –
O S S* S* S O
O O

6WUXFWXUHRI62¤ WHWUDWKLRQDWHLRQ

4
‰ OXIDISING AND REDUCING AGENT

‹ Oxidising agent or Oxidant :

2[LGLVLQJDJHQWVDUHWKRVHFRPSRXQGZKLFKFDQR[LGLVHRWKHUVDQGUHGXFHGLWVHOIGXULQJWKH
FKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQ7KRVHUHDJHQWVZKRVH21GHFUHDVHRUZKLFKJDLQHOHFWURQVLQDUHGR[
UHDFWLRQDUHWHUPHGDVR[LGDQWV

HJ .0Q2.&U2+12FRQF+62HWFDUHSRZHUIXOR[LGLVLQJDJHQWV

‹ Reducing agent or Reductant :

5HGXVLQJDJHQWVDUHWKRVHFRPSRXQGZKLFKFDQUHGXFHRWKHUVDQGR[LGLVHLWVHOIGXULQJWKH
FKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQ7KRVHUHDJHQWVZKRVH21LQFUHDVHRUZKLFKORVHVHOHFWURQVLQDUHGR[
UHDFWLRQDUHWHUPHGDVUHGXFWDQWV

HJ .,1D62DUHSRZHUIXOUHGXFLQJDJHQWV

Note : 7KHUHDUHVRPHFRPSRXQGVDOVRZKLFKFDQZRUNERWKR[LGLVLQJDJHQWDQGUHGXFLQJDJHQW

HJ +2 12¤

‰ HOW TO IDENTIFY WHETHER A PARTICULAR SUBSTANCE IS AN OXIDISING OR

REDUCING AGENT

Find the O.State of the central atom

If O.S. is=Max. O.S. or (valence electron) If O.S. =Minimum O.S. If O.S. is intermediate b/w max & minimum

Its Oxidizing It's a reducing It can act both as reducing

agent agent agent & oxidising agent

It can disproportionate
as well

‰ REDOX REACTION
$UHDFWLRQLQZKLFKR[LGDWLRQDQGUHGXFWLRQVLPXOWDQHRXVO\WDNHSODFH
,QDOOUHGR[UHDFWLRQVWKHWRWDOLQFUHDVHLQR[LGDWLRQQXPEHUPXVWHTXDOWKHWRWDOGHFUHDVHLQR[LGDWLRQ
QXPEHU
2 7 3 2
e.g. 10 Fe SO4  2KMnO4 +62o 5 Fe2 (SO 4 )3  2Mn SO 4 .62+2
‰ TYPE OF REACTION
‹ Combination Reactions :
:KHQWZRRUPRUHHOHPHQWFRPELQHWRIRUPFRPSRXQGWKHQVXFKUHDFWLRQDUHUHGR[UHDFWLRQ
)RUH[DPSOH
$%o&

5
 0 0 2 –3
D '
3 Mg(s)  N 2 (g)  o Mg 3 N 2 (s)
0 0 4 2
E '
C(s)  O2 (g)  o CO2 (g)
 4 1 0  4 2 1 2
F '
CH 4 (g)  2O2 (g)  o CO2 (g)  2H2 O( A )
0 0 1 3
G '
Li(s)  N 2 (g)  o Li3 N(s)

,QUHDFWLRQ F WKHUHLVQRFKDQJHLQWKHR[LGDWLRQQXPEHURIK\GURJHQ
‹ Decomposition Reactions :
'HFRPSRVLWLRQUHDFWLRQVDUHRSSRVLWHRIFRPELQDWLRQ'HFRPSRVLWLRQUHDFWLRQVDUHWKRVHLQZKLFK
ZKHQDPROHFXOHEUHDNVGRZQWRIRUPWZRRUPRUHFRPSRQHQWVDWOHDVWRQHRIWKHPPXVWEHLQWKH
HOHPHQWDOVWDWH)RUH[DPSOH
 1 5 2 1  1 0
D '
2K Cl O3 (s)  o 2M Cl(s)  3O2 (g)
2 1 0 0
E '
Ca H2  o Ca(s)  H2 (g)
1 1 0 0
F '
2NaH(s)  o 2Na(s)  H2 (g)
1 2 0 0
G '
H2O(A)  o 2H2 (g)  O2 (g)

([FHSWLRQ
 2 4 2 2 2 4 2
'
Ca CO3 (s)  o CaO(s)  CO 2( g)

‹ Displacement Reactions :
$UHDFWLRQLQZKLFKDQDWRPRULURQLQDFRPSXQGLVUHSODFHGE\DQDWRPRULRQRIDQRWKHUHOHPHQWLV
FDOOHGDGLVSODFHPHQWUHDFWLRQ,WPD\EHGHQRWHGDV
;<=o;=<
‹ Disproportionations reactions :
$UHGR[UHDFWLRQLQZKLFKDVDPHHOHPHQWSUHVHQWLQDSDUWLFXODUFRPSRXQGLQDGHILQLWHR[LGDWLRQ
VWDWHLVR[LGL]HGDVZHOODVUHGXFHGVLPXOWDQHRXVO\LVDGLVSURSRUWLRQDWLRQUHDFWLRQV
'LVSURSRUWLRQDWLRQ UHDFWLRQV DUH D VSHFLDO W\SH RI UHGR[ UHDFWLRQV 2QH RI WKH UHDFWDQWV LQ D
GLVSURSRUWLRQDWLRQUHDFWLRQDOZD\VFRQWDLQVan element that can exist in at least three oxidation
states.7KHHOHPHQWLQWKHIRUPRIUHDFWLQJVXEVWDQFHLVLQWKHLQWHUPHGLDWHR[LGDWLRQVWDWHDQGERWK
KLJKHUDQGORZHUR[LGDWLRQVWDWHVRIWKDWHOHPHQWDUHIRUPHGLQWKHUHDFWLRQ
 1 1
2H2 O2 DT o H2 O A 2 J
0 2 2
¤
S8 (s) 2+ DT o 4 S2 DT  2 S 2O23 DT +2 A
0 1 1
Cl2 J 2+  DT o ClO DT  Cl DT +2 A
¤

6
‹ Consider following reactions :
D .&O2 .&O2
.&O2SOD\VDUROHRIR[LGDQWDQGUHGXFWDQWERWK%HFDXVHVDPHHOHPHQWLVQRWR[LGLVHGDQG
UHGXFHG+HUH&OSUHVHQWLQ.&O2LVUHGXFHGDQG2SUHVHQWLQ.&O2LVR[LGL]HG6Rits not
a disproportion reactionDOWKRXJKLWORRNVOLNHRQH
E 1+12o 1+2
1LWURJHQLQWKLVFRPSRXQGKDV¤DQGR[LGDWLRQQXPEHUVRLWLVQRWDGHILQLWHYDOXHVRLWVQRW
DGLVSURSRUWLRQUHDFWLRQ,WVDH[DPSOHRIcomproportionation reactionZKLFKLVDFODVVRIUHGR[
UHDFWLRQLQZKLFKDHOHPHQWIURPWZRGLIIHUHQWR[LGDWLRQVWDWHJHWVFRQYHUWHGLQWRDVLQJOHR[LGD
WLRQVWDWH
F .&O2o.&O2.&O
,WVDFDVHRIGLVSURSRUWLRQDWLRQUHDFWLRQLQZKLFK&OLVWKHDWRPGLVSURSRUWLRQDWLQJ
‹ List of some important disproportionation reaction :
 +2o+22
 ;2+¤ GLO o;¤;2¤
 ;2+¤ FRQF  o;¤;2¤
F2 does not (can not) undergo disproportionation as it is the most electronegative element.
)1D2+ GLO o) ¤2)
)1D2+FRQFHQWUDWLRQ GLO o) ¤2
‹ 5HYHUVHRIGLVSURSRUWLRQDWLRQLVFDOOHG&RPSURSRUWLRQDWLRQ,QVRPHRIWKHGLVSURSRUWLRQ
DWLRQUHDFWLRQVE\FKDQJLQJWKHPHGLXP IURPDFLGLFWREDVLFRUUHYHUVH WKHUHDFWLRQJRHVLQ
EDFNZDUGGLUHFWLRQDQGFDQEHWDNHQDVDQH[DPSOHRI&RPSURSRUWLRQDWLRQ
, ¤,2¤+o,+2 DFLGLF
‰ BALANCING OF REDOX REACTION
$OOEDODQFHGHTXDWLRQVPXVWVDWLVI\WZRFULWHULD
1. Atom balance (mass balance) :
7KDWLVWKHUHVKRXOGEHWKHVDPHQXPEHURIDWRPVRIHDFKNLQGLQUHDFWDQWDQGSURGXFWVVLGH
2. Charge balance :
7KDWLVWKHVXPRIDFWXDOFKDUJHVRQERWKVLGHRIWKHHTXDWLRQPXVWEHHTXDO
7KHUHDUHWZRPHWKRGVIRUEDODQFLQJWKHUHGR[HTXDWLRQV
D 2[LGDWLRQQXPEHUFKDQJHPHWKRG
E ,RQHOHFWURQPHWKRGRUKDOIFHOOPHWKRG
(a) Oxidation number change method :
7KLVPHWKRGZDVJLYHQE\-RQVRQ,QDEDODQFHGUHGR[UHDFWLRQWRWDOLQFUHDVHLQR[LGDWLRQ
QXPEHUPXVWEHHTXDOWRWRWDOGHFUHDVHVLQR[LGDWLRQQXPEHU7KLVHTXLYDOHQFHSURYLGHVWKH
EDVLVIRUEDODQFLQJUHGR[UHDFWLRQV

7
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HOHFWURQV
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HOHFWURQV
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‹ Step (1) ,QGLFDWLQJR[LGDWLRQQXPEHU
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IDOOLQJVKRUWRI +DWRPVDQGHTXDOQXPEHURI2+¤LRQVWRWKHRWKHUVLGH
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¤ ¤
&O  H o &O
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&O  +2  2+ ¤ o &O2¤  H¤  +2
>&O  H¤ o &O¤@ Ó 

&O  &O  2+ ¤ o &O2¤  &O¤  +2

RU &O  2+ ¤ o &O2¤  &O¤  +2
RU &O  2+ ¤ o &O2¤  &O¤  +2
Ex : %DODQFHWKHIROORZLQJUHDFWLRQE\WKHR[LGDWLRQQXPEHUPHWKRG
0Q2¤)Ho0Q)H

10
Sol : :ULWHWKHR[LGDWLRQQXPEHURIDOOWKHDWRPV
¤
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FKDQJHLQR[LGDWLRQQXPEHUKDVRFFXUUHGLQ0QDQG)H
 
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  'HFUHPHQWLQR[LGDWLRQQRE\

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7RPDNHLQFUHDVHDQGGHFUHDVHHTXDOHT  LVPXOWLSOLHGE\
0Q2¤)Ho0Q)H
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Ex. %DODQFHWKHIROORZLQJFKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQE\R[LGDWLRQQXPEHUPHWKRG DQGZULWHWKHLU VNHOHWRQ
HTXDWLRQ
L &KORULGHLRQVUHGXFHPDJDQHVHGLR[LGHWRPDQJDQHVH ,, LRQVLQDFLGLFPHGLXPDQGJHW
LWVHOIR[LGL]HGWRFKORULQHJDV
LL 7KHQLWUDWHLRQVLQDFLGLFPHGLXPR[LGL]HPDJQHVLXPWR0J LRQVEXWLWVHOIJHWVUHGXFHG
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Sol. L 7KHVNHOHWRQHTXDWLRQIRU WKHJLYHQSURFHVVLV
¤ 
0Q2  &O  o 0Q   &O  +2
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‹ Step (1) : MnO2  &O  o 0Q  Cl2  H2O

‹ Step (2) : O.N. decreases by 2 per Mn

+4
MnO2 + Cl o Mn + Cl2 + H2O
– 2+

O.N. increases by 1 per Cl

‹ Step (3) :(TXDOL]HWKHLQFUHDVHGHFUHDVHLQ21E\PXOWLSO\LQJ

¤
0Q2 E\  DQG &O  E\ 
¤  
0Q2  &O  o 0Q  &O  +2

‹ Step (4) :%DODQFHRWKHUDWRPVH[FHSW+DQG2 +HUHWKH\DUHDOOEDODQFHG

‹ Step (5) :%DODQFH2DWRPVE\DGGLQJ+2PROHFXOHVWRWKHVLGHIDOOLQJVKRUWRI2DWRPV

¤  
0Q2  &O  o 0Q  &O  +2  +2

‹ Step (6) :%DODQFH+DWRPVE\DGGLQJ+LRQVWRWKHVLGHIDOOLQJVKRUWRI +DWRPV

¤   
0Q2  &O   + o 0Q  &O  +2
11
 LL 7KHVNHOHWRQHTXDWLRQIRU WKHJLYHQSURFHVVLV
¤ 
0J  12  o 0J  12  +2
0 5 2 1 2 1 2
‹ Step (1) : Mg  ( N O3 )– o 0J  N2O  H2O
¤
0XOWLSO\12E\WRHTXDOL]H1DWRPV

‹ Step (2) : O.N. increases by 2 per Mg atom

0 +1
Mg + 2NO3– o Mg2+ + N2O + H2O
4 ×2 = 8
O.N. decreases by 4 per N atom

‹ Step (3) :(TXDOL]H LQFUHDVHGHFUHDVHLQ21 E\PXOWLSO\LQJ 0JE\DQG12¤ E\ 

¤  
0J  12   o 0J  12  +2
‹ Step (4) : %DODQFH DWRPV RWKHU WKDQ 2 DQG +
¤  
0J  12   o 0J  12  +2
‹ Step (5) :%DODQFH2DWRPV
0J  12¤  o 0J  12  +2  +2
‹ Step (6) :%DODQFH+DWRPVDVLVGRQHLQDFLGLFPHGLXP
¤   
0J  12   +  o 0J  12  +2
(b) Ion electron method or half cell method :
%\WKLVPHWKRGUHGR[HTXDWLRQDUHEDODQFHGLQWZRGLIIHUHQWPHGLXP
D $FLGLFPHGLXP E %DVLFPHGLXP
‹ Balancing in acidic medium
6WXGHQWVDUHDGYLVHGWRIROORZ WKHIROORZLQJVWHSVWREDODQFHWKHUHGR[UHDFWLRQVE\LRQ
HOHFWURQPHWKRGLQDFLGLFPHGLXP
Solved Examples :
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)H62.0Q2+62o)H 62 0Q62+2
Sol : Step-IDVVLJQWKHR[LGDWLRQ1RWRHDFKHOHPHQWVSUHVHQWLQWKHUHDFWLRQ
2 6 2 1 7 2 1 62 3 62 2 6 2 1 2
Fe S O 4  KMnO4  H2 SO 4 o Fe2 ( SO 4 )3  MnS O 4  H2 O
Step-II 1RZFRQYHUWWKHUHDFWLRQLQLRQLFIRUPE\HOLPLQDWLQJWKHHOHPHQWVRUVSHFLHVZKLFKDUHQRW
JRLQJHLWKHUR[LGDWLRQRUUHGXFWLRQ
7
)H MnO4 o)H0Q

12
 Step-III 1RZLGHQWLI\WKHR[LGDWLRQUHGXFWLRQRFFXUULQJLQWRWKHUHDFWLRQ
undergoes reduction
2+ – 3+ 2+
Fe + MnO 4o Fe + Mn
undergoes oxidation

Step-IV 6SOLWWKHLRQLFUHDFWLRQLQWZRKDOIRQHIRUR[LGDWLRQDQGRWKHUIRUUHGXFWLRQ
oxidation
)H  o )H 0Q2¤ 
Re duction
o 0Q


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R[\JHQDWRPDGGRQH+2RQWKHRWKHUVLGHDQGWZR+RQWKHVDPHVLGH
)Ho)H QRR[\JHQDWRP  L
 ¤ 
+ 0Q2 o 0Q +2

 LL
Step VII 1RZVHHHTXDWLRQ L   LL LVEDODQFHGDWRPZLVH1RZEDODQFHERWKHTXDWLRQVFKDUJHZLVH
WREDODQFHWKHFKDUJHDGGHOHFWURQVWRWKHHOHFWULFDOO\SRVLWLYHVLGH
)H 
oxidation 
o )H H
¤
 

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o 0Q +2  
Step VIII 7KHQXPEHURIHOHFWURQVJDLQHGDQGORVWLQHDFKKDOIUHDFWLRQDUHHTXDOLVHGE\PXOWLSO\
VXLWDEOHIDFWRULQERWKWKHKDOIUHDFWLRQDQGILQDOO\WKHKDOIUHDFWLRQVDUHDGGHGWRJLYHWKHRYHUDOO
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Step IX 1RZFRQYHUWWKHLRQLFUHDFWLRQLQWRPROHFXODUIRUPE\DGGLQJWKHHOHPHQWVRUVSHFLHVZKLFK
DUHUHPRYHGLQVWHS ,, 
1RZE\VRPHPDQLSXODWLRQ\RXZLOOJHW

5
)H62.0Q2+62o )H 62 0Q62+2 RU
2

)H62.0Q2+62o)H 62 0Q62+2.62

‹ Balancing in basic medium :
,QWKLVFDVHH[FHSWVWHS9,DOOWKHVWHSVDUHVDPH:HFDQXQGHUVWDQGLWE\IROORZLQJH[DPSOHEDODQFH
WKHUHGR[UHDFWLRQLQEDVLFPHGLXP
13
Ex : &O2¤&U2¤2+¤o &O¤&U2¤+2
Sol : %\XVLQJXSWRVWHS9ZHZLOOJHW
1 3 6
Reduction
ClO –  o Cl –  CrO2 
Oxidation
o CrO 24


1RZVWXGHQWDUHDGYLVHGWRIROORZVWHS9,WREDODQFH 2 DQG + DWRP

+&O2¤o&O¤+2 +2&U2¤o&U2¤+
‹ 1RZVLQFHZHDUHGRLQJEDODQFLQJLQEDVLFPHGLXPWKHUHIRUHDGGDVPDQ\DV2+¤RQERWK
VLGHRIHTXDWLRQDVWKHUHDUH+LRQVLQWKHHTXDWLRQ
2+¤+&O2¤o&O¤+22+¤2+¤+2&U2¤o&U2¤+
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1RZVHHHTXDWLRQ L DQG LL LQZKLFK2DQG+DWRPVDUHEDODQFHGE\2+¤DQG+2
1RZIURPVWHS9,,,
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2+¤&U2¤o&U2¤+2H¤  LL Ó

Adding :&O2¤&U2¤2+¤o&O¤&U2¤+2
Equivalent weight (E) :

Molecular weight Mol.wt.

(TZW (   valency factor (v.f)  n  factor

mass of a sample
QRRI(TXLYDOHQWV  eq.wt.of that species

‹ (TXLYDOHQWPDVVLVDSXUHQXPEHUZKHQH[SUHVVHGLQJUDPLWLVFDOOHGJUDPHTXLYDOHQWPDVV
‹ 7KHHTXLYDOHQWPDVVRIVXEVWDQFHPD\KDYHGLIIHUHQWYDOXHVXQGHUGLIIHUHQWFRQGLWLRQV
Valency factor calculation :
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H O P H
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H

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GLVVRFLDWLRQ
14
 M M M M
(TZWo
1 2 3 2

Self practice problems :

1. )LQGWKHYDOHQFHIDFWRUIRUIROORZLQJDFLGV
L &+ &22+
LL 1D+32 
LLL +%2 
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1. L  LL  LLL 
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Ex : 1D2+ .2+
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M M
(o
1 1
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1. )LQGWKHYDOHQFHIDFWRUIRUIROORZLQJEDVHV
L &D 2+ 
LL &V2+
LLL $O 2+ 
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1. L  LL  LLL 
‹ Acid - base reaction :
,QFDVHRIDFLGEDVHUHDFWLRQWKHYDOHQFHIDFWRULVWKHDFWXDOQXPEHURI+RU2+¤UHSODFHGLQ
WKHUHDFWLRQ7KHDFLGRUEDVHPD\FRQWDLQPRUHQXPEHURIUHSODFHDEOH+RU2+¤WKDQDFWXDOO\
UHSODFHGLQUHDFWLRQ
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%DVH $FLG
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YDOHQF\IDFWRURIDFLG 
+HUHWZRPROHFXOHRI1D2+UHSODFHG+LRQIURPWKH+62WKHUHIRUHSHUPROHFXOHRI1D2+
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15
Ex : 1D2++32 o1D+32 +2
%DVH $FLG
Sol : YDOHQFHIDFWRURIDFLG 
KHUHRQHRIPROHFXOHRI+32UHSODFHGRQH2+¤IURP1D2+WKHUHIRUHYIIRU+32LV 
mol.wt.of H3PO 4
( 
1
Ex : 1D2++32 o1D+32 +2
%DVH $FLG
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KHUHRQHRIPROHFXOHRI+32UHSODFHGWZR2+¤IURP1D2+WKHUHIRUHYIIRU+32LV 
mol.wt.of H3PO 4
( 
2
Ex : $O 2+ +&Oo$O 2+ &O+2
%DVH $FLG
Sol : YDOHQFHIDFWRURIEDVH 
KHUHRQHRIPROHFXOHRI$O 2+ UHSODFHGRQH+IURP+&OWKHUHIRUHYIIRU$O 2+ LV 
mol. wt.of Al(OH)3
( 
1
‹ For Salts :
(a) ,QQRQUHDFWLQJFRQGLWLRQ
YI 7RWDOQXPEHURISRVLWLYHFKDUJHRUQHJDWLYHFKDUJHSUHVHQWLQWRWKHFRPSRXQG
Solved Examples :
Ex : 1D&2  )H 62  )H62¤ )H62+2
Sol : 9I  Ó  
M M M
(
2 6 2
(b) Salt in reacting condition :
Solved Examples :
Ex : 1D&2+&Oo 1D+&21D&O
%DVH$FLG
Sol : ,WLVDDFLGEDVHUHDFWLRQWKHUHIRUHYIIRU1D&2LVRQHZKLOHLQQRQUHDFWLRQFRQGLWLRQLWZLOOEHWZR
Note :- ,QQHXWUDOFRQGLWLRQLIVDOWLVQRWJLYHQWDNHYDOHQF\IDFWRUDVIRUFRPSOHWHQHXWULOL]DWLRQ
(c) Eq. wt. of oxidising / reducing agents in redox reaction :
7KHHTXLYDOHQWZHLJKWRIDQR[LGLVLQJDJHQWLVWKDWZHLJKWZKLFKDFFHSWVRQHPROHHOHFWURQLQ
DFKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQ

16
 D (TXLYDOHQWZWRIDQR[LGDQW JHWUHGXFHG
Mol.wt.
 No. of electrons gained by one mole
Ex : ,QDFLGLFPHGLXP
H¤&U2¤+o&U+2

Mol. wt of K 2 Cr2 O7 Mol. wt.

(TZWRI.&U2 
6 6

Note : >LQGHQRPLQDWRULQGLFDWHVWKDWHOHFWURQVZHUHJDLQHGE\&U2¤DVLWLVFOHDUIURPWKH
JLYHQEDODQFHGHTXDWLRQ@
E 6LPLODUO\HTXLYDOHQWZWRIDUHGXFWDQW JHWVR[LGLVHG
Mol. wt.
 No. of electrons lost by one mole
Ex: ,QDFLGLFPHGLXP &2¤o&2H¤

Mol. wt.
+HUH7RWDOHOHFWURQVORVW  6RHTZW 
2

F ,QGLIIHUHQWFRQGLWLRQDFRPSRXQGPD\KDYHGLIIHUHQWHTXLYDOHQWZHLJKWV%HFDXVHLWGHSHQGV
XSRQWKHQXPEHURIHOHFWURQVJDLQHGRUORVWE\WKDWFRPSRXQGLQWKDWUHDFWLRQ
Ex : L 0Q2¤o0Q DFLGLFPHGLXP
 

Mol.wt.of KMnO4 158

+HUHHOHFWURQVDUHWDNHQVRHTZW    
5 5

LL 0Q2¤o0Q QHXWUDOPHGLXP
 
Mol.wt.of KMnO4 158
+HUHRQO\HOHFWURQVDUHJDLQHGVRHTZW    
3 3
LLL 0Q2¤o0Q2¤ DONDOLQHPHGLXP
 

Mol.wt.of KMnO4
+HUHRQO\RQHHOHFWURQLVJDLQHGVRHTZW   
1

Note : ,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRQRWHWKDW.0Q2DFWVDVDQR[LGDQWLQHYHU\PHGLXPDOWKRXJKZLWKGLIIHUHQW
VWUHQJWKZKLFKIROORZVWKHRUGHU
DFLGLFPHGLXP!QHXWUDOPHGLXP!DONDOLQHPHGLXP
Ex : 62¤¤o62¤¤H¤
5HGXFLQJDJHQW
2M
HTXLYDOHQWZHLJKWRI62¤¤   0
2

17
‹ Questions based on Equivalent weight :
1. 0ROHFXODUZHLJKWRI.0Q2LQDFLGLFPHGLXPDQGQHXWUDOPHGLXPZLOOEHUHVSHFWLYHO\
$ ÓHTXLYDOHQWZWDQGÓHTXLYDOHQWZW
% ÓHTXLYDOHQWZWDQGÓHTXLYDOHQWZW
& ÓHTXLYDOHQWZWDQGÓHTXLYDOHQWZW
' ÓHTXLYDOHQWZWDQGÓHTXLYDOHQWZW
2. (TXLYDOHQWZWRI+32LQHDFKRIWKHUHDFWLRQZLOOEHUHVSHFWLYHO\
+322+¤ o+32¤+2
+322+¤ o+32¤+2
+322+¤ o32¤+2
$  %  &  ' 
3. ,QDFLGLFPHGLXPHTXLYDOHQWZHLJKWRI.&U2 0ROZW 0 LV¤
$ 0  % 0 & 0  ' 0
Answers :
(1)% (2)$ (3)&
NORMALITY
‰ 1RUPDOLW\RIVROXWLRQLVGHILQHGDVWKHQXPEHURIHTXLYDOHQWRIVROXWHSUHVHQWLQRQHOLWUH P/
VROXWLRQV/HWDVROXWLRQLVSUHSDUHGE\GLVVROYLQJ:JRIVROXWHRIHTZW(LQ9P/ZDWHU

W
‹ 1RRIHTXLYDOHQWRIVROXWH 
E
W
‹ 9P/RIVROXWLRQKDYH HTXLYDOHQWRIVROXWH
E

W u 1000
‹ P/VROXWLRQKDYH
E u VmL

W u 1000
‹ Normality (N) = u
E VmL

‹ Normality (N) = Molarity × Valence factor

1RUPDOLW\ 1  PRODULW\Ó9DOHQFHIDFWRU Q
or1Ó9 LQP/  0Ó9 LQP/ ÓQ
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Solved Examples :

18
Ex : &DOFXODWHWKHQRUPDOLW\RIDVROXWLRQFRQWDLQLQJJRI.0Q2LQP/DFLGLFVROXWLRQ
W u 1000
Sol : Normality (N) =
E u VmL

ZKHUH : J 9 P/

molar mass of KMnO4
( Valence factor
 

6R1 
Ex : &DOFXODWHWKHQRUPDOLW\RIDVROXWLRQFRQWDLQLQJP/RI0VROXWLRQ.&U2LQDFLGLFPHGLXP
Sol : 1RUPDOLW\ 1  0RODULW\Ó9DOHQFHIDFWRU
 Ó 1
‰ LAW OF EQUIVALENCE
7KHODZVWDWHVWKDWRQHHTXLYDOHQWRIDQHOHPHQWFRPELQHZLWKRQHHTXLYDOHQWRIWKHRWKHUDQGLQD
FKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQHTXLYDOHQWDQGPLOOHTXLYDOHQWRIUHDFWDQWVUHDFWLQHTXDODPRXQWWRJLYHVDPHQR
RIHTXLYDOHQWRUPLOOLHTXLYDOHQWVRISURGXFWVVHSDUDWHO\
According :
L D$E%oP0Q1
PHTRI$ PHTRI% PHTRI0 PHTRI1
LL ,QDFRPSRXQG0[1\
PHTRI0[1\ PHTRI0 PHTRI1
Solved Examples :
Ex : )LQGWKHQXPEHURIPROHVRI.0Q2QHHGHGWRR[LGLVHRQHPROH&X6LQDFLGLFPHGLXP
7KHUHDFWLRQLV.0Q2&X6o0Q&X62
Sol : )URPODZRIHTXLYDOHQFH
HTXLYDOHQWVRI&X6 HTXLYDOHQWVRI.0Q2
PROHVRI&X6ÓYI PROHVRI.0Q2ÓYI
PROHVRI&X6Ó ÓŸPROHVRI&X6 
Ex : 7KHQXPEHURIPROHVRIR[DODWHLRQVR[LGL]HGE\RQHPROHRI0Q2¤LRQLQDFLGLFPHGLXP
5 2 3 5
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2 5 5 3
Sol : (TXLYDOHQWVRI&2¤ HTXLYDOHQWVRI0Q2¤
[ PROH Ó Ó
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19
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Sol. /HW WKH YROXPHRI  0 +&O UHTXLUHG WR REWDLQ  / RI 0 +&O  [ /
? 9ROXPH RI  0 +&O UHTXLUHG   ¤ [  /

 09        09  09

0 +&O        0 +&O      0 +&O
 Ó  [   Ó   ¤ [   Ó 
Ÿ [   ¤ [   Ÿ [  

? [   /

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Ex. ,QDUHDFWLRQYHVVHOJRI1D2+LVUHTXLUHGWREHDGGHGIRUFRPSOHWLQJWKHUHDFWLRQ+RZ
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Sol. $PRXQW RI 1D2+ SUHVHQW LQ  P/ RI  0 1D2+   Ó    J
6
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"
Sol. 0HT RI 1D&2 0HT RI +62   Ó 
WNa2 CO3
? Ó    Ó 
E Na2CO3

WNa2 CO3
Ÿ Ó    Ó 
106 / 2

? WNa2 CO3   J

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100
? )RU  J RI SXUH 1D&2 ZHLJKHG VDPSOH u 0.5679
85
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Drawbacks of Equivalent concept :
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DEOHKHQFHLWLVEHWWHUWRXVHPROHFRQFHSW
HJ H¤+0Q2¤o0Q+2

MnO 4 (mol.wt.)
? (TZWRI0Q2¤
5

20
 HJ H¤+20Q2¤o0Q22+¤

MnO4
? (TZWRI0Q2¤
3

Thus the no. of equivalents of MnO4– will be different in the above two cases but no. of
moles will be same.
‹ Normality of any solution depends on reaction while molarity does not.
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Ex : +RZPDQ\PLOOLOLWHUVRI0.0Q2VROXWLRQZRXOGEHUHTXLUHGWRH[DFWO\WLWUDWHP/RI
0)H 12 VROXWLRQ
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 7KLVUHTXLUHVWKDWDWWKHHTXLYDOHQWSRLQW
V(0.02000) (25.00) (0.2000)
 9 P/
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‰ FOR ACID-BASE (NEUTRALIZATION REACTION) OR REDOX REACTION

19 19LVDOZD\VWUXH
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‰ n' FACTOR : FACTOR RELATING MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND EQUIVALENT
WEIGHT
M
QIDFWRU 
E

M
(
n  factor

‰ n-FACTOR IN VARIOUS CASES

In Non Redox Change
‹ n-factor for element : 9DOHQF\RIWKHHOHPHQW
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For acids : $FLGVZLOOEHWUHDWHGDVVSHFLHVZKLFK IXUQLVK+ LRQVZKHQGLVVROYHGLQD
VROYHQW
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VROYHQW7KHQIDFWRURIDEDVHLVWKHQRRI2+¤LRQVWKDWDPROHFXOHRIWKHEDVHZRXOGJLYH
ZKHQGLVVROYHGLQDVROYHQW(Acidity)
)RUH[DPSOH1D2+ Q  %D 2+  Q  $O 2+  Q  HWF
‹ For salts : $VDOWUHDFWLQJVXFKWKDWQRDWRPRIWKHVDOWXQGHUJRHVDQ\FKDQJHLQR[LGDWLRQ
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‰ SOME OXIDIZING AGENTS/REDUCING AGENTS WITH EQ. WT.

Species Changed to Reaction Electrons Eq. wt.

exchanged
or change in
O.N.
M
0Q2¤ 2$ Mn 2 0Q2¤+H¤o 0Q+2  (
in acidic medium 5
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in neutral medium 3

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in basic medium 1

M
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in acidic medium 6

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in acidic medium 2
Cl (O.A.) M
2 &O ¤ &OH¤o &O ¤  (
in bleaching powder
2

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in iodometric titration
1
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2
 IRUWZRPROHFXOHV
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26
‰ SOME REDOX TITRATIONS (EXCLUDING IODOMETRIC / IODIMETRIC)
Estimation of By titrating Reactions Relation between O.A. and
with R.A.
)H 0Q2¤ )Ho)HH¤ )H{0Q2¤

0Q2¤+H¤o0Q+2 (TZW)H 0

(TZW0Q2¤ 0

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&U2¤+H¤o&U+2 (TZW&U2¤ 0

&2¤ 0Q2¤ &2¤o&2H¤ &2¤{0Q2¤

0Q2¤+H¤o0Q+2 (TZW&2¤ 0

(TZW0Q2¤ 0

+2 0Q2¤ +2o+2H¤ +2{0Q2¤

0Q2¤+H¤o0Q+2 (TZW+2 0

(TZW0Q2¤ 0
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27
   Ó  Ó  ¤  Ó  Ó  Ó  LQ  P/   
WMnO2 WMnO2
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0.7821
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3.2
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WO2
Ó Ó   ? WO   J
16 2

0.144
 RI DYDLODEOH 2  Ó   
3.2
Iodometric and Iodimetric Titration :
7KHUHGXFWLRQRIIUHHLRGLQHWRLRGLGHLRQVDQGR[LGDWLRQRILRGLGHLRQVWRIUHHLRGLQHRFFXUVLQWKHVH
WLWUDWLRQV
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GLFKURPDWHVFXSULFLRQSHUR[LGHVHWFFDQEHHVWLPDWHGE\WKLVPHWKRG
,1D62o1D,1D62
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Iodimetric Titration
7KHVHDUHWKHWLWUDWLRQVLQZKLFKIUHHLRGLQHLVXVHGDVLWLVGLIILFXOWWRSUHSDUHWKHVROXWLRQRILRGLQH
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LRGLQHLVFRPSOHWHO\FKDQJHGWRLRGLGH

28
‰ SOME IODOMETRIC TITRATIONS (TITRATING SOLUTIONS IS Na2S2O3.5H2O)

Estimation of Reaction Relation between O.A. and R.A.

, ,1D62o1DO1D62 , ,{1D62

RU (TZWRI1D62 0

,62¤o, ¤62¤

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&D2&O &O.,o.&O,
&D2&O { &O { , { , { 1D 6 2 

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0Q2+&O FRQF 
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o 0Q&O&O+2

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0Q2+&O¤o0Q+2&O (TZWRI0Q2 0

&O, ¤o,&O ¤

,2¤ ,2¤, ¤+o,+2 ,2¤{ , { , { 1D 6 2 

(TZWRI,2¤ 0

+2  +2, ¤+o,+2 +2{ , { , { 1D 6 2 

(TZWRI+2 0

&O &O, ¤o&, ¤, &O{ ,{ ,{ 1D 6 2 

(TZWRI&O 0

2 2, ¤+o, +2 2{ , { ,{ 1D 6 2 

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(TZWRI&U2¤

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29
 (TZWRI0Q2¤ 0

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(TZWRI%U2¤ 0

$V 9 +$V2,¤+o+$V2+2, +$V2{ ,{ ,

(TZWRI+$V2 0

‰ SOME IODIMETRIC TITRATION (TITRATING SOLUTIONS IS I2 IN KI)

Estimation of Reaction Relation between O.A. and R.A.
+6 +6,o6, ¤+ +6{,{,
LQDFLGLFPHGLXP (TZWRI+6 0
62¤ 62¤,+2o62¤, ¤+ 62¤{,{,
LQDFLGLFPHGLXP (TZWRI62¤ 0
6Q 6Q,o6Q, ¤ 6Q{,{,
LQDFLGLFPHGLXP (TZWRI6Q 0
$V ,,,  DWS+  +$V2¤,+2 o+$V2¤, ¤+ +$V2¤{,{,
(TZWRI+$V2¤ 0
1+ 1+,o1+, ¤ 1+{,{,
(TZWRI1+ 0

‰ SUMMARY

wt. in g
 1XPEHURIPROHVRIPROHFXOHV Mol.wt.
wt. in g
1XPEHURIPROHVRIDWRPV Atomic mass
Volume at STP
1XPEHURIPROHVRIJDVHV
Standard molar volume
Number of particles
1XPEHURIPROHVRISDUWLFOHVHJDWRPVPROHFXODULRQVHWF Avogadro No.
0ROHVRIVROXWHLQVROXWLRQ 0Ó9 /

30
 Atomic wt.
 (TXLYDOHQWZWRIHOHPHQW 
Valence
Mol.wt.
(TXLYDOHQWZWRIFRPSRXQG
Total charge on cationor anion
Mol wt.
(TXLYDOHQWZWRIDFLG Basicity

Mol wt.
(TXLYDOHQWZWRIEDVH Acidity

Formula wt.
(TXLYDOHQWZWRIDQLRQ Charge on ion

Molecular wt.
(TXLYDOHQWZWRIDFLGVDOW Replaceable H atom in acid salt
Mol.wt.
(TXLYDOHQWZWRIR[LGL]LQJRUUHGXFLQJDJHQW Change in oxidation number per mole
wt.in g
1RRIHTXLYDOHQW 1Ó9 /  Eq.wt.

Ws u 1000
 0RODULW\ 0    x u d u 10
Ms u V Ms
ZKHUH
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0V 0ROZWRIVROXWH
[ E\PDVVRIVROXWH
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9 YROXPHRIVROXWLRQLQPO
Ws u 1000 x u d u 1000
 1RUPDOLW\ 1  Es u V   Es
:V ZWRIVROXWHLQJ
(V HTYZWRIVROXWH
9 YROXPHRIVROXWLRQLQPO
[ E\PDVVRIVROXWH
G GHQVLW\RIVROXWLRQLQJPO
wt.of solute
 0ROHV 0Ó9 /  
Mol.wt.
wt.of solute
0LOOLPROHV 0Ó9 PO   u 1000
Mol.wt.
(TXLYDOHQWVRIVROXWH 1Ó9 /
wt.
0HTRIVROXWH Eq.wt. u 1000

 0RODULW\HTXDWLRQ
31
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09 09
)RUDEDODQFHGHTXDWLRQLQYROYLQJQPROHVRIUHDFWDQWDQGQPROHVRIUHDFWDQW
M1 V1 M2 V2
n1 n2
1RUPDOLW\HTXDWLRQ$FFRUGLQJWRWKHODZRIHTXLYDOHQFHWKHVXEVWDQFHVFRPELQHWRJHWKHU
wt.of A Eq.wt.of A
LQWKHUDWLRRIWKHLUHTXLYDOHQWPDVVHV wt.of B 
Eq.wt.of B
wt.of A wt.of B
Ÿ
Eq.wt.of A Eq.wt.of B
1XPEHURIJUDPHTXLYDOHQWVRI$ 1XPEHURIJUDPHTXLYDOHQWVRI%
N A u VA
1XPEHURIJUDPHTXLYDOHQWVRI$ 
1000
N B VB
1XPEHURIJUDPHTXLYDOHQWVRI% 
1000
N A VA N B VB
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1000 1000
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 1RUPDOLW\ 1  0RODULW\ 0 ÓQ
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Moles of solute
 0RODOLW\ P 
wt.of solvent (in kg)

 6WUHQJWKRIVROXWLRQ 6  1Ó(TZW
 0ÓPROZW
GLOSSARY
Aliquot.$SRUWLRQRIWKHZKROHXVXDOO\DVLPSOHIUDFWLRQ$SRUWLRQRIDVDPSOHZLWKGUDZIURPD
YROXPHWULFIODVNZLWKDSLSHWLVFDOOHGDQDOLTXRW

Analytical concentration.7KHWRWDOQXPEHURIPROHVSHUOLWUHRIDVROXWHUHJDUGOHVVRIDQ\UHDFWLRQV
WKDWPLJKWRFFXUZKHQWKHVROXWHGLVVROYHV8VHGV\QRQ\PRXVO\ZLWKIRUPDOLW\

32
Equivalent.7KHDPRXQWRIDVXEVWDQFHZKLFKIXUQLVKHVRUUHDFWVZLWKPRORI+ DFLGEDVH 
PRORIHOHFWURQV UHGR[ RUPRORIDXQLYDOHQWFDWLRQ SUHFLSLWDWLRQDQGFRPSOH[IRUPDWLRQ 

Equivalent weight.7KHZHLJKWLQJUDPVRIRQHHTXLYDOHQWRIDVXEVWDQFH

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