THE RECEPTION OF FREUDIANISM IN MODERN CHINESE LITERATURE

PartI (1920-1949)
WANG NING*

Western scholars have extensively studied the influence which Freudianism has ex-
erted on Western literature, but it is little known that Freud’s ideas have also had
a great impact on Chinese literature.
The relationship between literature and psychology is studied by comparative
literature, especially by the so-called &dquo;American School&dquo; of comparatists, but it is
important that we should break out of the limited field of Eurocentrism and study
the relationship between Freudianism and Chinese literature, as it would mean
crossing disciplinary boundaries as well as those of time and space. Although the
American School dislikes the endless tracing of influences and sources, I still con-
sider it necessary to make clear how Freudianism entered China, how Chinese intel-
lectuals, writers and critics reacted to it, and the great extent to which they were
influenced by it. Only by a detailed reception study can we gain insight into the
complicated phenomenon of Freud’s influence on Chinese literature. In the first part
of my paper, I shall give a brief account of the spread of Freudianism in China be-
fore 1949. In the second part, the period 1949 to the present will be discussed,
through an analysis of concrete works.
Of all the trends of Western thought that have influenced modern Chinese
thought and culture, the Freudian influence has been of the most lasting and con-
troversial. We might well wonder why such an ancient Oriental civilization as China,
with its deep-rooted, millennia-old feudal tradition, was unable to ward off the in-
fluence of Freudianism. Freud’s ideas did not enter China for the first time in the
1980s, along with the &dquo;Open-Door Policy&dquo; and the economic reforms, but has, in
fact, taken decades to penetrate Chinese thought and culture. The &dquo;Freud fad&dquo;
which emerged in China in the past few years is but a late echo of this long his-
tory.
Before we analyze its influence on Chinese literature and its reception by
Chinese writers, it is necessary to give a general account of the early history of
Freudianism in China.

Wang Ning (1955) holds a PhD. in English and Comparative Literature,

and teaches in the Department of English at Beijing University. He is
Guest Professor at Shandong University and Secretary-General of the
Chinese Association of Comparative Literature. At present, he is a Senior
NWO Research Fellow at the University of Utrecht, The Netherlands,
doing research on "The Critical and Creative Reception of Postmodernism
in China". In 1991, he also gave a series of lectures on contemporary
Chinese literature at the invitation of the Sinological Institute, Leiden
University.
His major publications include Chaoxueke bijiaowenxue yanjiu (Interdis-
ciplinary Studies of Comparative Literature), Beijing: Zhongguo shehui
kexue chubanshe, 1989; with Yue Daiyun: Xifang wenyi sichao yu er-
shishiji Zhongguo wenxue (Western Trends of Literary Thought and 20th
Century Chinese Literature), same place, 1990; and Bijiaowenxue yu
Zhongguo dangdai wenxue (Comparative Literature and Contemporary
Chinese Literature), Kunming: Yunnan jiaoyu chubanshe, 1991 (forthcoming).

58
 59

Early Dissemination
The spread and evolution of Freudianism in China began in the 1920s, when it
entered the country through two channels: Japan and Western Europe. It was sepa-
rately introduced in the fields of psychology, culture and literature.
In 1920, Wang Jingxi published an introductory article which mentioned some
of Freud’s theories indirectly, through an account of the ideas on the instinct and
the unconscious put forward by Wallace, McDougall and other psychologistsl.
The
article does not explicitly deal with Freud’s psychoanalysis, but later that year,
Wang published another study which describes the founding of Freudian psychoana-
lysis and its prevalence in Western cultural and intellectual circles after the First
World War 2.
In Wang’s view, the significance of psychoanalysis lies in the following two
aspects: (1) it points out the important role played by instincts and emotions in the
human psyche; (2) it proves the existence of the unconscious and has developed an
effective method of probing into it. These two great discoveries, Wang stated, dealt
a violent blow to conventional rationalist psychology, marking the rise of a new

psychology - that of the unconscious. From Wang Jingxi’s statements, we can deduce
that he himself, at least, had faith in psychoanalysis, greatly admired Freud’s bold
imagination and daring explorations, regarding him as the founding father of a new
school in the development of psychology.
In 1921, Luo Dixian translated a book by the Japanese literary theorist
Kuriyagawa Hakuson, one of the first Japanese scholars who creatively applied
Freudianism to literary theory and criticism3. It was Luo’s translation which effec-
tively introduced Freud’s literary thought to Chinese writers and critics. Another
important early study was Zhu Guangqian’s Freud’s Theory of the Unconscious and
Psychoanalysis, which was published in 19214. A year later, an article by Yang
Zhensheng appeared, in which he also indirectly presented some of Freud’s impor-
tant ideas, such as the unconscious and the libido . Thus, the spread and populari-
zation of Freudianism naturally started in the field of psychology.
Those who took an active part in translating and popularizing Freud’s works in
the fields of culture and psychology also included Pan Guangdan, Zhang Shizhao and

1 Instinct and the in

Wang Jingxi, "Benneng he wuyishi" (The Unconscious),
Xinchao(New Tide), Vol. 2, No. 4.
2 Current Trends of
Wang Jingxi, Xinlixue zhi zuijin de qushi (The Psychol-
ogy), New Tide, Vol. 2, No. 5.
3 The book’s Chinese title Jindai shi Lectures
was wenxue jiang (Ten on

Present-Day Literature).
4 The Chinese title is Fulude de yingyishi yu xinlifenxi. See Dongfang
zazhi, Vol. 18, No. 14 (1921). For a detailed description and analysis of
Zhu Guangqian’s contribution to the popularization of Freudianism in
" (Zhu Guangqian and
China, see Wang Ning: "Zhu Guangqian yu Fuluoyide
in
Freud), Beijing daxue xuebao, No. 4, 1989.
5 Xin xinlixue
" " (A New Psychology), in New Tide, Vol. 3, No. 2.
 60

others, who all, generally speaking, admired Freud and appreciated his theories.
Zhang Shizhao, while studying in Germany, even wrote to Freud himself6.
Dong Qiusi: Freud and Marx

In the early 1940s, the Reading Press (Dushu chubanshe) put out a Chinese edition
of R. Osborn’s Freud and Marx, translated by Dong Pius17,
which immediately
aroused a response amongst Leftist intellectuals, and which was of some significance
in helping them develop a deeper understanding of Marxist dialectical materialism
and historical materialism from a new point of view.
In his epilogue to the Chinese edition, Dong Qiusi tries to estimate the con-
tributions and limitations of Freudianism from the standpoint of Marxism. He starts
by arguing that &dquo;Freud’s fundamental concept, the so-called ’unconscious mind’, is in
fact of adequate and objective validity, although it is idealist in appearance The- ...

refore, it would be unfair indeed to state, on the basis of superficial observation,

that Freud’s theory is mainly idealist&dquo;8.
In Dong’s view, psychoanalysis consists of many materialist and dialectical ele-
ments, which means that it has affinity with Marxism and cannot simply be ignored.
However, as a new and experimental theory, Freudianism has obvious limitations:

Psychoanalysis is not only one of the common extreme views in science, but
its greatest limitation lies in the fact that it bears upon the metaphysical way
of thinking. Its use of dialectics is simply unconscious. Therefore, when Freud
is confined to the field of psychoanalysis, his approach, to a certain extent, is
purely experimental and scientific, and dialectical as well. Beyond his own re-
search field, however, he will be vulnerable to criticism and attack, although
he time and again warns himself and his followers of not misusing his prelimi-
nary research conclusions9.

Frankly speaking, Dong’s praise of Freud and his theory was rather moderate and
dialectical as compared with the words of those who highly praised Freud without
analysis and criticism. As one of the first Chinese scholars who tried to deal simul-
taneously with Marxism and Freudianism, and even to find the common grounds of
these two different theories, he deserves praise. He not only took a correct attitude
toward Freudianism itself, but formulated many insights which are still of sig-
nificance to us today.
In addition, his translation was scholarly and precise (although not particularly
fluent), and he did not add anything of his own to the original text, as Zhang Shi-
zhao did. When his translation was republished in 1986, it attracted a great many
readers and helped the rise of the &dquo;Freud fad&dquo; in China.

6 Freud sent one letter in return, which has now been translated into Chi-
nese, in Yu Fenggao, " Xinlifenxi yu Zhongguo xiandai xiaoshuo, ("Psycho-
analysis" and Modern Chinese Fiction), Zhongguo shehui kexue chuban-
she, 1987, p. 36.
7 The Chinese title was Fuluoyide he Makesi. The translation was later re-
published by Sanlian shudian in 1986.
8
Dong Qiusi, "Epilogue" in R. Osborn, Fuluoyide he Makesi, pp. 189, 190.
9
Ibid., p. 192.
 61

Gao Juefu and Psychology

In the field of psychology, Gao Juefu may be mentioned as one of the few Chinese
scholars who introduced Freud’s theory extensively, and studied it in depth10.
A
graduate from the University of Hong Kong, Gao had a solid foundation in English,
and a wide knowledge of Western psychology and philosophy.
One of his many publications deals with the relationship between Freud’s view
of literature and sexualityll, on which he remarked: &dquo;... It is true that literature is
related to sex, but that does not mean that literature has no adequate material
apart from sexual anxiety’. He criticized the indiscriminate attempt made by some
&dquo;new literary men&dquo; to apply Freud’s theory of sex to literary creation.
In 1931, he published a long article which reached the highest level at the
time in popularizing and criticizing Freudianism in the field of psychologyl~2.
The
author adopts a dialectical attitude to Freud’s theory, highly valuing his contribu-
tions to human civilization and progress. In Gao’s opinion, the importance of Freud
chiefly lay in the following respects: 1) the death-blow he dealt to rationalist
psychology; 2) his fully consistent use of the principle of causation in the field of
psychology; 3) his success in relating psychology closely to human life. Gao then
added: .

&dquo;Thus, it is worth-while to commemorate Freud’s achievements. As a result of

his research, phenomena which cannot be interpreted by causal psychology,
such as dreams, slips of the tongue, wit, and neurosis are all shown to be
governed by the law of causation. Therefore, although we have condemned psy-
choanalysis for being non-scientific, Freud’s insistence on determinism actually
acts as a powerful aid to scientific psychology&dquo;13.
However, Gao Juefu did not confine himself to praising Freud’s contributions, he
~~~..

10 In 1925, he translated Freud’s lecture delivered in 1910 at Clark Univer-

sity: "The Origin and Development of Psychoanalysis", as "Jingshenfenxi
", printed in two installments in Jiaoyu zazhi (The
de qiyuan he fazhan
Journal of Education), Vol. 17, Nos. 10 and 11. In another article, he
questioned the ideas expressed in Zhang Dongsun’s essay " Shouxing wenti
"
(Brutish Nature): see his "Suowei ’shouxing wenti’
", in Yiban (General),
Vol. 1, No. 3, 1926. In 1928, Gao started his all-round popularization of
Freud’s psychology with "Tantan Fuluoyide
" (Random Comments on Freud)
in Yiban, Vol. 5, No. 2, followed by " Fuluoyide de xinlixue
" (Freud’s
Psychology) in Xuesheng zazhi (Students’ Journal), Vol. 17, No. 6, 1930,
and " " (Freud’s Theory and Sexual Education)
Fuluoyideshuo yu xing jiaoyu
in Zhongruesheng (High School Students), No. 22, 1932.

11 Gao Juefu, " " (Youth Psychology and Education) in

Qingnian xinli yu jiaoyu
Jiaoyu Zazhi, Vol. 18, No. 1.

12 of Freud and His

F" " (A Critique
uluoyide jiqi jingshenfenxi pipan
Jiaoyu zazhi, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1931.
Psychoanalysis) in
13 This article was reprinted in Gao Juefu xinlixue wenxuan (Gao Juefu’s Se-
lected Essays in Psychology), Jiangsu jiaoyu chubanshe, 1986, pp. 204-207.
 62

also sharply criticized his theories of the unconscious, dreams and sexual instinct,
warning readers not to &dquo;share his ideas uncritically&dquo;’ .
In 1933 and 1935, Gao’s translations of Freud’s Introductory Lectures on
Psychoanalysis and New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis were published,
which undoubtedly established his reputation as a translator and major authority on
Freudianism 15. His work has played an important part in spreading and popularizing
Freudianism in China’s cultural and intellectual circles 1 . Indeed, it is largely
through his translations and interpretations that many Chinese writers and critics,
including the young writers and critics after the &dquo;Cultural Revolution&dquo;, became ac-
quainted with Freudianism, 17
Thanks to the assiduous efforts made by Gao and all the other scholars men-
tioned above, as well as by many others, Freudianism at last entered Chinese circles
of culture and psychology, thereby dealing a powerful blow at traditional Chinese
culture and its feudal moral standards. However, China was then still in a state of
poverty, ignorance and war, and the enthusiastic spirit roused during the May 4th
New Cultural Movement had by now been nearly extinguished.
The general population was chiefly concerned with problems of economic sur-
vival and was not in a position to study and appreciate Freud’s theory. Moreover,
as the latter is focused on problems of sexuality, it runs utterly counter to tradi-
tional Chinese mores. China, at that time, rigorously adhered to its deep-rooted feu-
dal traditions, so that Freudianism was unable to gain a foothold - although it did
elicit a response from those Chinese intellectuals who, through studies abroad or by
other means, had become acquainted with Western theories and ideas and used them
as a weapon in their struggle against traditional Chinese culturel8. They used
Freudianism for the same purpose, their influence being mainly felt in literature.
It is striking to see how different writers and critics all responded to
Freudianism in different ways, depending on educational background, personality,
and line of approach. A closer look into these different responses will help us un-

14
Ibid., pp. 208-218.
15 The Chinese titles were, and
respectively, Jingshenfenxi yinlun (1933)
Jingshengfenxi yinlun xinbian (1935), published by the Commercial Press
(Shangwu yinshuguan).
16 In the 1980s, when the "Freud fad" started in China, Gao Juefu’s (meticu-
lous but somewhat stiff) translations of these two important works of
Freud enjoyed great popularity once again. They were reprinted in about
100,000 copies and almost completely sold out.
17 Juefu often said that he disliked the term
Interestingly, Gao
"Freudianism", which he, as a psychologist, apparently thinks is often
misused by laymen. During conversations I had with him in February, 1988
in Nanjing, I found he seldom used the term, and even held that it be-
longs to the field of philosophy. However, the method he uses in his re-
search of Freud’s psychoanalysis is more philosophical rather than
psychological in the scientific sense of the word.
18 For detailed account,
a Wang Ning, "
see Fuluoyidezhuyi yu ershishiji
zhongguowenxue" (Freudianism and 20th Century Chinese Literature), in
Yue Daiyun and Wang Ning (Eds.), Xifang Wenyisichao yu ershishiji
zhongguowenxue (Western Trends of Literary Thought and 20th Century
Chinese Literature), Zhongguo shehuikexue chubanshe, 1990, pp. 167-224.
 63

derstand the various views on literary creation and criticism of the persons in-
volved, which may contribute to a better understanding of their writings.
Lu Xun: Application and Critical Assessment
Lu Xun was of the first Chinese writers to learn about Freud’s theory, and his
one

response to it went through various stages, from appreciation to criticism. In spite

of his acute awareness of the limitations of Freudianism, he did in fact use
Freudian ideas, in a number of cases, as a reference for his own work.
Lu Xun’s interest in Freudianism was first roused by the work of Kuriyagawa
Hakuson who, as already explained, was one of the first Japanese scholars who
creatively applied Freudianism to literary theory and criticism. In 1924, Lu Xun
wrote that Kuriyagawa &dquo;in accordance with Bergson’s philosophy, regards insistent
vitality as the basis of human life. Then, discovering from Freud’s science what the
origin of this life force is, he uses it to interpret literature and art, especially li-
terature&dquo;19.
Lu Xun at first showed admiration and appreciation for the &dquo;new theory&dquo; that
Kuriyagawa had taken from Freud. He expressed agreement with the theory of the
unconscious, while at the same time criticizing Freud’s statement that sexuality is
the origin of the life force as &dquo;arbitrary&dquo;. Lu Xun remarked that &dquo;sexuality original-
ly belongs to the animal instincts&dquo;20, and that overemphasizing the function of
sexuality is actually to identify man with the animas. After his initial curiosity and
interest, Lu Xun immediately saw through the weak points of Freudianism. At a
later stage, with an increased knowledge and understanding of Freudianism, he
started to make increasingly critical and analytical assessments of it.
In January 1925, he stated that &dquo;Freud concentrates on cutting apart literary
works with his scalpel so frantically that even he himself doesn’t know what he is
doing. It is all somewhat too far-fetched&dquo;21. Lu Xun did not share Freud’s ideas on
literature and even violently criticized him, but as he maintained that China should
boldly introduce as much foreign literature as possible, he acknowledged that there
were a number of positive elements in Freudianism. He even consciously made use of
them in writing his short stories.
For example, his story Butian (Mending Heaven) was originally intended as a
psychoanalytic story, trying &dquo;to use Freud’s idea to interpret the source of creation
-
of both man and literamre&dquo;22. But in the course of writing it, the original design
was changed and it did not turn out as a psychoanalytic story after all. Other ex-

amples are stories like Xiongdi (Brothers), Feizao (Soap), etc. They are written ac-
cording to Lu Xun’s own creative and aesthetic ideals, being only in part inspired
by Freud’s theory of the unconscious, which Lu Xun used in order to delve deep

19 Lu Xun’s Introduction to the Chinese edition of a collection of Kuriyaga-

wa’s essays, entitled Kumen de xianzheng, yinyan (The Symbol of Depres-
sion), in Lu Xun quanji (Collected Works of Lu Xun), Vol. 10, Beijing:
Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1973, p, 232.

20 Ibid.

21 of Collected Works Lu Xun,

In Shige zhi di (The Enemy Poetry), see of
Vol. 7, p. 237.

22 Collection of in Collected
See his preface to Gushi xinbian (New Stories),
Works of Lu Xun, Vol. 2, p. 341.
 64

into the characters’ psychological world, attaining a high level of psychological

realism.
As said before, Lu Xun disliked Freud’s pansexualism, adopting an attitude of
critical distance toward it. Both in regard to Freudianism and other trends of Wes-
tern philosophical and literary thought, Lu Xun held that, on the one hand, one
should not accept them uncritically, while on the other hand, one should not
neglect their strong points. In my opinion, the way in which Lu Xun combined a
critical attitude with open-mindedness is still extremely instructive today, especially
in view of recent fashionable trends in China like the so-called &dquo;Freud fad&dquo; in the
late 1980s.

The Response of Other Major Writers .

Between 1920 and 1930, many major writers reacted to the great impact of
Freudianism in different ways. Guo Moruo, Yu Dafu, Cheng Fangwu and other Ro-
manticists appreciated and praised some of Freud’s ideas, and were, in varying
degrees, influenced by them. Pan Guangdan, Zhao Jingshen and Zhou Zuoren wel-
comed the challenge which Freudianism posed to Chinese culture with great
pleasure, and actively tried to get it accepted in China.
Liu Na’ou, Shi Zhecun, Mu Shiying and the other so-called &dquo;New Sen-
sationalists&dquo; (Xinganjuepai) became acquainted with Freudianism simultaneously
through Western European and Japanese channels, and applied it creatively to their
own writings. The Chinese New Sensationalist movement lasted somewhat longer
than its Japanese counterpart (both arose in the 1930s), and it may be said that the
former introduced more creative and imaginative elements in its work than the lat-
ter. One woman writer, Zhang Ailing, should be mentioned here, whose stories are
characterized by subtle descriptions of female sexual psychology. Her writing
method, at that time, was somewhat similar to that of the three most prominent
New Sensationalists mentioned above. Later, she went abroad and continued to work
as an Overseas Chinese writer24.
Such realists as Mao Dun and Ba Jin reacted calmly to the influence of
Freudianism on Chinese literature, and sometimes made critical statements on it. But
in spite of the interest shown in Freudianism by nearly all the major writers at the
time, it failed in becoming a generally accepted theory in China, for a variety of
reasons. Partly as a result of the revolutionary tradition of the May 4th Movement,
there was an upsurge of Leftism in China’s literary circles in the 1930s, and Marx-
ism began to exert a greater appeal on certain writers than Freudianism.

Qian Zhongshu: The Fortress Besieged

Unlike those who learned about Freudianism through translations and introductory
materials, Qian Zhongshu had first-hand knowledge of Freud’s works. He graduated
in the early 1930s from the Department of Foreign Languages and Literature of
Qinghua University, and subsequently went abroad to study in Britain and France,

23 detailed account of these writers’s attitudes towards

For a Freudianism,
see Yu Fenggao, Psychoanalysis and Modern Chinese Fiction, in which he
also mentions Xu Jie and a number of writers of minor importance.
24 like Qian Zhongshu in the mid-1980s, has only recently re-
Zhang Ailing,
ceived wide attention among scholars of modern Chinese literature in
mainland China, although she has long been popular in Hong Kong,
Taiwan and sinological circles in the West.
 65

where he acquired a wide knowledge of Western aesthetics, linguistics, psychology

and literary theory. During his studies abroad, he wrote an essay in which he rein-
terpreted classical Chinese literary criticism, using the &dquo;theory of empathy&dquo; from
Western aesthetics~.
At the time when Qian studied abroad, Freud was at the height of fame and
psychoanalysis flourished, and already in his younger days, he was much interested
in Freudianism, consciously applying it in writing his novel The Fortress Besieged2
and other works. In 1941, he published a collection of essays in which he made use
of Freudian ideas.27 In other works, Qian frequently quoted from The Interpretation
of Dreams, Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, New Introductory Lectures on
Psychoanalysis, and Totem and Taboo.28 With his wife Yang Jiang, he has translated
sections from The Interpretation of Dreams.29
He remained interested in Freudianism in later life and even took interest in
its reinterpretation by Jacques Lacan and other &dquo; neo- psychoanalysts&dquo;. 30
Somehow, it
is a pity that Qian, who, with his solid foundation in psychology and aesthetics, was
certainly aware of the Chinese debate on Freudianism, did not make any extensive
comments upon it.
The question arises whether or not his novel The Fortress Besieged itself can
be interpreted as a psychoanalytical work. Those in favor of this thesis will not
have much difficulty in pointing out the many places in the book in which reference
to Freudianism is made. For example, the fortress in the novel may be taken as a
symbol for a large womb, in which the hero falls in love with the heroine. Their
flirtation, marriage, etc. can be regarded as symbolizing a return to the &dquo;primitive&dquo;
stage in life (the womb).
However, in my opinion, the fortress is first and foremost the symbol for the
old China with its deeply-rooted feudalism. In this seemingly solid, but already be-

25
"Zhongguo guyoude wenxuepiping de yige tedian" (A Characteristic Fea-
ture in Traditional Chinese Literary Criticism), in Wenxue zazhi
, Vol. 1,
No. 4, 1937.
26 The novel’s Chinese title is Weicheng, in which the term "unconscious" is
used several times as opposed to "conscious". In Chapter 7, there even
appears the following sentence: "once the psychoanalyst hears these words
he will know that it is the unconscious stirring". The novel has now been
reprinted by Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1980.
27 The collection was entitled Xie zai rensheng bianshang (Written on the
Margin of Human Life). The booklet was reprinted in the mid-1980s in
Sichuan, and reprinted again in Beijing in 1990 by the Chinese Academy
of Social Sciences in honor of Qian Zhongshu’s 80th birthday.

28 in his Tan yi lu (On Literature and Art, published by Zhonghua

E.g.
shuju, 1984 (revised edition), and the four-volume monumental work Guan-
zui bian (On Ancient Chinese Literature, Zhonghua shuju, 1979).

29 and
Reprinted in Fuluoyide xinlixue yu xifangwenxue (Freud’s Psychology
Western Literature), Hunan wenyi chubanshe, 1986.
30 Lacan was a French structuralist psychoanalyst. Qian once quoted
Jacques
his essay: " , and compared it
L’instance de la lettre dans l’inconscient"
with the Surrealists’ theory of " . See Qian Zhong-
automatisme psychique
"
shu, On Literature and Art
, op. cit.
 66

those Chinese intellectuals who longed for modem civilization and

sieged &dquo;fortress&dquo;,
progress felt stifled and repressed. Powerless as they felt to change the situation,
they could only surrender to cruel reality, finding an outlet for their repressed
emotions by endless quarrels and bizarre actions.
The characteristic features of this novel do not so much lie in its psychoana-
lytic elements and the revelation of the unconscious mind, but rather in the suc-
cessful combination of wit, irony, and human sympathy. The author’s sober-minded,
and even cynical, attitude towards the social realities of his time are clearly
revealed between the lines.

Shen Congwen: Freud on the Soil of Western Hunan

Shen Congwen is usually regarded as a &dquo;Modernist writer&dquo;, because he belonged

neither to the Realist school headed by Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Ba Jin and others, nor to
the Romantic school led by Guo Moruo, Yu Dafu, a.o. However, from Shen’s own
statements and works, it is clear that he was influenced both by writers from the
classical Chinese tradition, such as Zhuangzi and Qu Yuan, and by foreign authors
such as Dickens, Maupassant, Tolstoy, Joyce and Faulkner-~1. Shen created a unique
personal style, in which features of realism, naturalism, impressionism, symbolism,
Freudianism and other schools were successfully combined.
Some critics like to compare Shen Congwen with the American novelist William
Faulkner, because they both chose as the setting for their stories the worlds of
their own experience: Shen often described frontier scenes of Western Hunan
Province, and Faulkner’s &dquo;Yoknapatawpha&dquo; novels dealt with the decline of the
aristocratic world of the American South. Both stayed far from the hectic life in
the crowded metropolis.
There is also another point of similarity to which I would like to draw atten-
tion : both Shen and Faulkner were indirectly influenced by Freudianism. In many of
Faulkner’s novels and stories, he makes use of the characters’ subconscious and un-
conscious motives, descriptions of the free associations and ravings of mad men, and
numerous symbols of psychoanalytic significance. Although Faulkner himself denied
that he was influenced by Freudianism, Capvel Collins has provided convincing evi-
dence to the contrary3 .
Shen Congwen himself stated that he had been influenced by Freudianism.33 He
had had no opportunity to study in the West, like Qian Zhongshu and Zhu Guang-
qian, and observe the psychoanalytical movement there directly, nor could he read
Freud in the original, but he was particularly interested in the developments in
Western literary theory and criticism, and admired the bold artistic experiments
conducted by avant-garde writers. He was closely associated with the Chinese

31 Cf. the Border Town

Ling Yu, Cong biancheng zou xiang shijie (From to
the World), Sanlian shudian, 1985, Chapter I.
32 Cf. Capvel Collins, "The Interior Monologues of The Sound and the Fury",
in Irving Malin (Ed.), Psychoanalysis and American Fiction, New York,
1965, pp. 223-243.
33 " (My Learning), in Dagongbao, 11 Novem-
See Shen Congwen, "Wode xuexi
ber 1951. See also Lin Yu, op. cit. Early in 1925, he used the term "the
unconscious" (xiayishi) in one of his stories, and he wrote an essay ex-
plaining why he had done so: " Yong eizi jixialaide shi" (A Thing Recorded
Under the Letter A) in Chenbao, wenxue xunkan (Morning Paper: Literary
Supplement), 5 September 1925.
 67

avant-garde journal Xiandai (Modernity), and from his correspondence with Zhu
Guangqian, Shi Zhecun and others, we can establish that, between 1920 and 1930,
when Freudianism made its appearance in the field of Chinese literature, Shen
Congwen became acquainted with at least some of Freud’s basic ideas through
translations and various secondary sources.
The influence that Freudianism exerted on him is embodied in his subtle psy-
chological descriptions and analyses on the different levels of the conscious, the
subconscious, and even the unconscious. His presentation of the characters’ subcon-
scious and unconscious motives and their psychological characteristics (whether nor-
mal or abnormal) are extremely lively.
Some people take offense at his literary use of the sexual passion of the male
and female characters, their sexual lust and abnormal psychology, and regard them
as exaggerated applications of Freudian themes. In my opinion, however, the
Freudian and other elements imported from abroad in Shen’s work are not what is
most characteristic and important about it. Rather, it is the vivid description of
scenes and characters of Western Hunan, reflecting the national style and Zeitgeist,
which makes Shen’s work of eternal value, and the reason for the high praise it has
elicited from Chinese and Western critics alike.
Shen Congwen’s stories are deeply rooted in the native soil of China. He only
borrowed elements from foreign literary theory and Freudianism in as far as he
could place them in the service of his own literary endeavors, which were primarily
aimed at representing the national spirit. This is why, with the passing of time, his
stories have become more and more important.
z

.
The New Sensationalists -

Possibly, those who, in the 1930s, admired Freudianism most and used it most effec-
tively in their writings are the three major figures of the New Sensationalist School
(Xinganjuepai): Liu Na’ou, Mu Shiying, and Shi Zhecun.
Liu Na’ou skillfully used the techniques of the stream of consciousness and
psychoanalysis in his stories, which expose, from one point of view, the dissipated
life-style and decadence of the upper-class.34 Mu Shiying depicted the &dquo;burning&dquo;
&dquo;

sexual passion and primitive &dquo;sex worship&dquo;, and Freudian symbols regularly appear in
his stories.35 Shi Zhecun, who was actively involved in the editing of the magazine
Modernity, consciously used the themes of unconscious motives, free association, and
the psychoanalytical analysis of sexuality. He wrote a number of psychoanalytical
stories which made him the most important writer in this particular field at that
time.36
Although these New Sensationalists differed widely in outlook and personality,
their works have a number of characteristic features in common. First, they were
inspired by the Japanese New Sensationalist School, with its emphasis on so-called

34
E.g. "A Lady to Keep You Company" (original English title), and "
Liangge
shijian buganzhengzhe" (Two Men Who Do Not Feel the Time). Both Liu
Na’ou and Mu Shiying had a good command of foreign languages and
sometimes gave their stories English or French titles.

35 Stories of his influenced by Freudianism are e.g. "PIERROT" (original

title), Di’erlian (The Second Love), Baijin de nüti suxiang (The Female
Figure of Platinum), and Mou furen (A Certain Lady).
36 These stories include Jiangjun ditou (The General’s Head), Shi Xiu (Shi
Xiu), and Chunyang (The Spring Sun).
 68

&dquo;instant sensation&dquo; and &dquo;novel feelings&dquo;. Second, they were a reaction against tradi-
tional realistic novels. These authors consciously and creatively used Freudian ideas
and themes such as sexual lust, the unconscious, free association, and the analysis
of dreams, in order to break with the objective description of the surface of reality
characteristic of traditional realism. Their aim was to delve into the very depths of
the characters’ subconscious and unconscious minds, and attain a subtle and very
sophisticated psychological realism.
As a result of historical factors and the attitude of the public, the works of
the New Sensationalists have long been neglected. During the 1930s, when Marxism
became a strong force among Chinese intellectuals, Leftist writers raised the slogan
&dquo;art for life’s sake&dquo;, which seemed to be more attractive to progressive intellectuals
and the reading public than the New Sensationalists’ experiments with new subject
matter and novel artistic devices.
The Leftist writers regarded literature as a weapon with which to fight against
the old society, launching violent attacks against its feudal &dquo;man-eat-man&dquo; mores.
Although they were, at one time, interested in Freudianism, they used psychoana-
lysis for the particular aim of fighting traditional feudal ideas and concepts. This
led them to disagree with the New Sensationalists, who had a different view on the
role of literature and stood far from any mass movement. Once faced with the up-
surge of the Leftist literary movement, some New Sensationalists joined in, but
others silently withdrew from the scene out of disagreement with the movement.
Textbooks published in China before 1986 on the history of modem Chinese
literature either ignore the New Sensationalists or criticize them sharply, usually
without mentioning their artistic achievements. The reason for their deplorable
treatment may well be that they were, in varying degrees, associated with
Freudianism and influenced by it. Many great figures in modem Chinese literature
have been influenced by Freudianism (e.g. Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Yu Dafu, Zhou
Zuoren, Shen Congwen and Qian Zhongshu), and it would surely be wrong to deny
their importance because of this. Moreover, any book dealing with the history of
modern Chinese literature which does not mention the New Sensationalist writers
would be incomplete, to say the least 37
Today, through our reconsideration of Freudianism, we are in a better position
to evaluate it in a fair and objective way. Those writers who were influenced by
Freudianism should be re-examined, so that both the achievements and limitations of
their work can be properly assessed, and they can be given their rightful places in
literary history. Only by doing this can we be considered to be taking the Marxist
attitude of dialectical and historical materialism. Thus, to a large extent, I agree
with Yan Jiayan’s illuminating statements in his evaluation of the New Sensationa-
lists :

The writings of the New Sensationalists have proven that Freud’s theory of
the unconscious has opened up a new world, [Le.] for psychoanalytic fiction, in
improving their creation of literary works and in presenting the depth of the
characters’ psychological state. The healthy development of this type of fiction
depends upon the writer’s in-depth exploitation of the social contents of the
characters’ psychology. The combination of these two aspects will help to de-

37 In a new academic textbook, there is a section dealing with the New

Sensationalist writers. See Qian Liqun et al., Zhongguo xiandai wenxue
sanshinian (Thirty Years of Modern Chinese Literature), Shanghai wenyi
chubanshe, 1987.
 69

velop psychoanalytic fiction. The New Sensationalist writers, led by Shi Zhe-
cun, have taken the first step on this wide road, and made some advances38.

However, we should not stop at this point. The traditional socio-historical perspec-
tive has its limitations, and I believe that a careful re-reading and re-interpretation
of New Sensationalist works should also be conducted from the perspective of
psychoanalysis itself.39
Freudianism and Chinese Drama: The Case of Cao Yu

The Freudian influence on modem Chinese drama is comparatively much less than
on the novels and stories4O. Of the more important playwrights, the influence of
Freudianism is only strongly felt in the case of Cao Yu. His play Le’ryu (Thun-
derstorm) deals with the theme of the Oedipus complex and contains many other
Freudian elements, so that it is open to psychoanalytical interpretation.
Cao Yu himself has never mentioned coming into contact or having been in-
fluenced by Freudianism4l, but there is some circumstantial evidence. In the first
place, 7&dquo;hunderstorrn was written in 1933, over ten years after Freudianism had en-
tered the fields of Chinese culture and literature, and at a time when nearly all the
major Chinese writers were interested in it in varying degrees.
Secondly, as a talented young playwright, and a student majoring in Western
Literature at Qinghua University, Cao Yu must have been widely read in Western
literature and literary criticism. He must have been familiar with Freudianism, which
was the then prevailing trend in social and cultural thought. Moreover, Professor
Zhu Guangqian had, by that time, just returned home from abroad and was lecturing
on the psychology of literature and art, both in Peking University and Qinghua

University. His lectures are said to have attracted a large audience of students.
Thirdly, Cao Yu was, like Freud, very fond of Greek tragedies, especially So-
phocles’ Oedipus Rex which was, i.a., the basis for Freud’s concept of the Oedipus
complex. The theme of the Oedipus complex also appears in Cao Yu’s plays, either
as a result of direct inspiration from the Greek tragedies, or indirectly through
Freudian theory. On the information available, it is not really possible to say which.
However, another channel through which Freudianism may have reached him is
the work of Eugene O’Neill, for whose plays he has had a life-long admiration. In

38 See the Preface in Yan Jiayan (Ed.), Xinganjuepai xiaoshuoxuan (Selected

Short Stories by the New Sensationalists), Renmin wenxue chubanshe,
1985, p. 29.
39 I will give concrete demonstrations of this approach in a future publication.
40 A number of minor playwrights were influenced by Freudianism, such as
Hong Shen, Ding Xilin, Ouyang Yuqian and others, sometimes through in-
direct channels such as the spread of Western Expressionist drama in
China. Cf. Zhang Hao, " Ershishiji zhongguo xiju zhongde biaoxianzhuyi
"
(Expressionism in 20th Century Chinese Drama), in Yue Daiyun and Wang
Ning (Eds.), op. cit., pp. 373-397.
41 In Cao Yu’s notes and essays, which I have nearly all examined, there is
no explicit evidence of his being influenced by Freudianism.
 70

1957, he said, O’Neill’s plays &dquo;have an intense drama. I quite appreciate his early
plays, because they are very realistic&dquo;42. In 1982, he again stated:

The American playwright Eugene O’Neill is one of the playwrights who have
influenced me greatly. Beyond the Horizon, one of his earliest plays, is my fa-
vorite. I admire [O’Neill] in the following respects: 1) he has unremittingly
sought and created new dramatic techniques, so as to represent his characters’
states of mind vividly; 2) his early plays show his understanding of sailors
from the lower ranks of society, coming really from life itself&dquo;.

From Cao Yu’s plays, we can easily find a great deal of evidence to show that he
was influenced by O’Neill, especially in the plot and techniques of his Yuanye
(Champaign), there are quite a few similarities with those in O’Neill’s Emperor
Jones. Although, in my opinion, it is not in Champaign, but in Thunderstorm that
the Freudian elements are most explicit, I do believe that O’Neill was one of the
sources from which Cao Yu received the influence of Freudianism.

Freudianism in Modern Chinese Literary Criticism

During 1919-1949, Freudianism exercised much less influence on Chinese literary
criticism than on literary creation. There was no critical counterpart to the New
Sensationalists, nor is there any important work of psychoanalytical literary criti-
cism. The critics usually drew upon Freud’s theory in an unsystematic, haphazard
manner. Some young critics even thought that modem Western literary criticism was
characterized by psychoanalysis. Qian Zhongshu took issue with this idea:

&dquo;... we say that Western criticism is characterized by

cannot
psychoanalysis, for before this school existed, Western criticism had al-
ready developed for over 2000 years. And after psychoanalysis began to
be applied to literature, there were still many unique schools in Western
critical circles

The role of Chinese critics in the spreading of Freudianism in China took two
forms: application of Freudianism in literary criticism, or its general dissemination
and popularization in a critical manner. Of those who were engaged in the latter
activity, Zhu Guangqian (whom I have discussed elsewhere) was the most important.
In the early 1920s, Chinese critics began to learn about Freud’s theory and
apply it to literary criticism, at the same time that Chinese authors began to apply
Freudianism to literary creation. Initially, critics used Freud’s theory to make new
interpretations of classical and modem Chinese literary works. Guo Moruo, apart

42 See "
Cao Yu in
tongzhi tan juzuo" (Comrade Cao Yu on Writing Plays)
Wenyibao, No. 2, 1957.
43 Cao Yu, "He tan dushu he xiezuo
" and
juzuojiamen (On Reading Writing
with Playwrights), in Juben (Plays), No. 10, 1982.
44 Wenxue zazhi, Vol. 1, No. 4, August 1937.
 71

from introducing Freudian themes in his creative work45, made many original con-
tributions to this kind of re-interpretation.46
However, Guo Moruo’s approach suffered from an overemphasis on pan-
sexualism, which could easily give rise to the impression that it is the main feature
of Freudianism. Moreover, he randomly ascribed Freudian complexes to authors
without solid evidence. On the basis of the content of the Xixiangji, he concluded
that its author, Wang Shipu, showed &dquo;symptoms of sexual which in-
fluenced his creative production and caused him to be obsessed with abnormality&dquo;
women.4
Zhou Zuoren not only engaged enthusiastically in the dissemination and popula-
rization of Freudianism in China, he also used Freud’s in his creative
pansexualism
works. He wrote an essay entitled Chenlun (Depravity) &dquo;, in defence of Yu Dafu’s
collection of stories with the same title, which was violently attacked upon
publication. Zhou Zuoren wielded Freud’s pansexualism as a weapon against his op-
ponents by pointing out that man’s psychic behavior &dquo;is dominated by sexuality in a
broad sense. Even in the infantile stage, he has his own sexual life&dquo;. That which
finds embodiment in a work of art, he stated, is just &dquo;the sublimation of the desire
for sex&dquo;.
Zhou’s essay played a positive role in its forceful counter-attack on hypocriti-
cal feudal morality, and in establishing the value of Yu Dafu’s book. At the same
time, however, its one-sided view on Freudianism exerted a negative influence on its
reception in Chinese literary criticism.
Others who were active during the 1920s and 1930s in the popularization and
interpretation of Freudianism, and who applied it in literary criticism, were Pan
Guangdan, a sociologist, Zhang Shizao, who also translated some of Freud’s works,
and Zhao Jingshen4 . Shi Zhecun should be mentioned for his activities in the be-
ginning of the 1940s, but his literary criticism was not so well-regarded in critical
circles as his creative work, probably in part because he had, by that time, already
&dquo;returned on the road to Realism&dquo;, as he said himself.
According to the traditional periodization of 20th century Chinese literature, _

Chinese literature entered a new stage in 1949, that of contemporary literature. As

a result of profound changes in the fields of Chinese politics, society, and culture,
Freudianism subsided silently until its powerful come-back in the 1980s. The rise of
the &dquo;Freud fad&dquo; in contemporary Chinese literature will be dealt with, among other
things, in the second part of this article. ,

- . End of Part L To be continued.

45 He made moderate use of, e.g., the themes of sublimation of instinctive

drives, pansexualism, the interpretation of dreams, and the Oedipus complex.

46 works
For example, he offered interesting new interpretations of classical
like Chuci (The Songs of Chu), Hujia shibapai (18 Beats of Hujia), etc.
47 zuozhe de
See his Xixiangji yishu shangde pipan yu qi xingge (Criticisms
of Xixiangji’s Art and Its Author’s Character), 1921.

48 1922.
In Chenbao, wenxue xunkan (Morning Paper: Literary Supplement),
49 of
Pan Guangdan’s Xiaoqing zhi fenxi (Analysis Feng Xiaoqing) was a
notable work.