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Developments in Mathematics
Christian Constanda
Dale Doty
William Hamill
Boundary Integral
Equation Methods
and Numerical
Solutions
Thin Plates on an Elastic Foundation
Developments in Mathematics
VOLUME 35
Series Editors:
Krishnaswami Alladi, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
Hershel M. Farkas, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
123
Christian Constanda Dale Doty
The Charles W. Oliphant Professor Department of Mathematics
of Mathematical Sciences The University of Tulsa
Department of Mathematics Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA
The University of Tulsa
Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA
William Hamill
Department of Mathematics
The University of Tulsa
Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA
We wish to express our thanks to Elizabeth Loew, Executive Editor for Math-
ematics at Springer, who has guided the evolution of this project with impeccable
professionalism and great efficiency.
Also, two of us (CC and DD) are grateful to our wives for their support, under-
standing, and remarkable staying power in the face of stiff competition from our
computers during the production of this book.
3 Existence of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1 The Classical Indirect Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.1 The Dirichlet Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.1.2 The Neumann Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.1.3 The Robin Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 The Direct Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.1 The Dirichlet Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.2 The Neumann Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.3 The Robin Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4 Software Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.1 Programming Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3 Coding the Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4 Coding of the Matrix of Fundamental Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.5 The Singularities of D and P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.6 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.7 Coding the Single-Layer and Double-Layer Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.8 Coding the Boundary Integral Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.9 Outline of the Boundary Element Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.10 Parametrization and Segmentation of the Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.11 Construction of a B-Spline Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
ix
x Contents
5 Computational Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.1.1 Test Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.1.2 Computational Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.2 Dirichlet Problem in an Ellipse: Piecewise Linear Spline . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2.3 Solution Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.2.4 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.3 Dirichlet Problem in an Ellipse: Piecewise Constant Spline . . . . . . . . 104
5.3.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.3.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.3.3 Solution Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3.4 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.4 Dirichlet Problem in an Asymmetric Domain: Piecewise Linear
Spline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.4.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.4.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.4.3 Solution Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.4.4 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.5 Dirichlet Problem in an Ellipse: Computational Difficulties . . . . . . . 119
5.5.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.5.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.5.3 Solution Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.5.4 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.6 Dirichlet Problem in an Ellipse: Error Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.6.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.6.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.6.3 Solution Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.6.4 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.6.5 O(h2 ) Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.7 Dirichlet Problem in a Domain with Corners: Piecewise Cubic
Spline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.7.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.7.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.7.3 Solution Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.7.4 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.8 Dirichlet Problem in a Domain with Corners: Piecewise Quintic
Spline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.8.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.8.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Contents xi
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Chapter 1
The Mathematical Model
Throughout the book, Latin and Greek subscripts take the values 1, 2, 3 and 1, 2,
respectively, and the convention of summation over repeated indices is understood.
For simplicity, we denote by I both the identity matrix on any space of square ma-
trices and the identity operator on any space of functions. Also, we denote the trans-
pose of a matrix X by X T and the derivatives of a function f = f (xi ) by
∂f
= f , i = ∂i f ,
∂ xi
∂2 f
= f , i j = ∂i ∂ j f ,
∂ xi ∂ x j
with the obvious generalization for higher-order derivatives.
Let S be a finite domain in R2 , with a simple and closed boundary ∂ S oriented in
the positive direction.
x2
νx
S
x1
Fig. 1.1 The geometric configuration of the domains and boundary.
ti j, j + qi = 0,
where the ti j = t ji are the components of the stress tensor and qi are the components
of the body force vector. For a homogeneous and isotropic material, the constitutive
equations have the form
where ui are the displacement components, λ and μ are the elastic (Lamé) coef-
ficients, and δi j are the Kronecker delta. The components of the stress vector in a
direction n = (n1 , n2 , n3 )T are
ti = ti j n j ,
and the internal energy density is
uα = uα (x1 , x2 ), u3 = 0,
qα = qα (x1 , x2 ), q3 = 0,
n = (n1 , n2 , 0)T .
Hence, the equilibrium equations, the constitutive relations, the stress tensor com-
ponents, and the internal energy density can be expressed as
tαβ ,β + qα = 0, (1.1)
tαβ = λ uγ ,γ δαβ + μ (uα ,β + uβ ,α ), (1.2)
tα = tαβ nβ , (1.3)
E = 12 tαβ uα ,β . (1.4)
(λ + μ )uβ ,β α + μ uα ,β β + qα = 0,
or
(λ + μ )grad div u + μΔ u = q, (1.5)
which can be written as
A(∂1 , ∂2 )u = q,
where
u = (u1 , u2 )T , q = (q1 , q2 )T , Δ = ∂12 + ∂22 ,
and A(∂1 , ∂2 ) is the matrix differential operator
μ Δ + (λ + μ ) ∂12 (λ + μ ) ∂1 ∂2
A(∂1 , ∂2 ) = .
(λ + μ ) ∂1 ∂2 μ Δ + (λ + μ ) ∂22
or
Z(∂1 , ∂2 ) = A(∂1 , ∂2 ) − kI, (1.7)
where k = const > 0 is the elastic constant of the foundation material. Then the
homogeneous equilibrium system can be written as
4 1 The Mathematical Model
Z(∂1 , ∂2 )u = 0. (1.8)
1.3 Theorem. If
λ + μ > 0, μ > 0, (1.9)
then system (1.8) is elliptic.
Proof. Since, under conditions (1.9), the system A(∂1 , ∂2 )u = 0 is elliptic (see The-
orem 2.1 in [6]), from (1.7) it follows that so is (1.8).
1.4 Remark. In what follows, we assume that inequalities (1.9) are satisfied.
Combining (1.2) and (1.3) and setting nα = να (the components of the outward
unit normal to ∂ S), we arrive at
tα = tαβ νβ = Tαβ uβ ,
From (1.2) and (1.4) it follows that the internal energy density in the absence of
a foundation can be written as
This assertion follows from Theorem 2.2 in [6], which states that E (u, u) is pos-
itive definite, and the fact that the second term in (1.11) is also positive definite.
Let M p×q be the vector space of p × q matrices, and let A be the vector space of
functions u ∈ M2×1 in S− such that, in polar coordinates,
(i) Interior Dirichlet problem (D+ ): Find u ∈ C2 (S+ ) ∩C1 (S̄+ ) such that
(ii) Exterior Dirichlet problem (D− ): Find u ∈ C2 (S− ) ∩C1 (S̄− ) ∩ A such that
(iii) Interior Neumann problem (N+ ): Find u ∈ C2 (S+ ) ∩C1 (S̄+ ) such that
(iv) Exterior Neumann problem (N− ): Find u ∈ C2 (S− ) ∩C1 (S̄− ) ∩ A such that
(v) Interior Robin problem (R+ ): Find u ∈ C2 (S+ ) ∩C1 (S̄+ ) such that
(vi) Exterior Robin Problem (R− ): Find u ∈ C2 (S− ) ∩C1 (S̄− ) ∩ A such that
Any function that satisfies pointwise one of the above systems of equations is
termed a regular solution, or, simply, a solution of that boundary value problem.
The following assertion is analogous to Green’s first identity [13].
1.6 Theorem. If u ∈ C2 (S+ ) ∩C1 (S̄+ ), then
uT (Zu) da = uT (Tu) ds − 2 E(u, u) da.
S+ ∂S S+
∂S S+ S+
= uT (Tu) ds − 2 E(u, u) da.
∂S S+
1.7 Corollary (Betti formulas). (i) If u ∈ C2 (S+ ) ∩C1 (S̄+ ) and Zu = 0 in S+ , then
2 E(u, u) da = uT (Tu) ds. (1.13)
S+ ∂S
x2
KR
S
S
x1
KR \ S
By (1.7),
uT (Zu) da = uT (Au) da − k uT u da.
KR \S̄+ KR \S̄+ KR \S̄+
Since here the outward normal to ∂ S is directed into S+ (see Fig. 1.2), we have
uT (Tu)ds = uT (Tu)ds − uT (Tu)ds,
∂ (KR \S̄+ ) ∂ KR ∂S
By (1.12),
u = O(r−1−α ), α > 0,
so
uT u = u21 + u22 = O(R−2−2α ) in KR\S̄+ ;
therefore,
uT u da = O(R−2−2α )O(R2 ) = O(R−2α ) → 0 as R → ∞. (1.17)
KR \S+
Since
∂1 u, ∂2 u = O(r−2−α ),
it follows that
uT (Tu) ds = O(R−1−α )O(R−2−α )O(R)
∂ KR
= O(R−2−2α ) → 0 as R → ∞. (1.18)
Also, KR \ S+ expands into the whole of S̄− as R → ∞; therefore, in the limit, for-
mulas (1.16)–(1.18) generate (1.14).
The analog of Green’s second identity [13] is called the reciprocity relation.
1.9 Theorem (Uniqueness). Each of (D+ ), (D− ), (N+ ), (N− ), (R+ ), and (R− ) has
at most one solution.
Proof. Let u = v − w, where v, w ∈ C2 (S+ ) ∩ C1 (S̄+ ) are any two solutions of one
of (D+ ) or (N+ ) with the same nonhomogeneous term. Then u is a solution of the
corresponding homogeneous problem, so, by (1.13),
2 E(u, u) da = uT (Tu) ds = 0.
S+ ∂S
Since E(u, u) is a positive definite quadratic form, it follows that E(u, u) = 0, which
implies that u = 0, or v = w; hence, each of (D+ ) and (N+ ) has at most one solution.
The proof for (D− ) and (N− ) is similar, with (1.14) used instead of (1.13).
We now turn to the Robin problems. As above, the difference u = v − w of any
two solutions v, w ∈ C2 (S+ ) ∩ C1 (S̄+ ) of (R+ ) for a given K and a given positive
definite 2 × 2 matrix function σ ∈ C(∂ S), is a solution of the homogeneous problem
(R+ ), so, again, from (1.13) it follows that
2 E(u, u) da = uT (Tu) ds = − uT (σ u) ds,
S+ ∂S ∂S
We have
uT σ u = σαβ uα uβ ;
consequently, since E(u, u) is a positive definite quadratic form and σ is a positive
definite matrix, we conclude that u is a rigid displacement in S+ that vanishes on
∂ S, so u = 0, or v = w, which means that (R+ ) has at most one solution.
The proof for (R− ) is similar to that for (R+ ), with the Betti formula (1.14) in-
stead of (1.13).
Chapter 2
The Layer Potentials
= μ (λ + 2μ )Δ 2 − 2k μΔ − (λ + μ )kΔ + k2
k(λ + 3μ ) k2
= μ (λ + 2 μ ) Δ −
2
Δ+
μ (λ + 2 μ ) μ (λ + 2 μ )
= μ (λ + 2μ )(Δ −C12 )(Δ −C22 ), (2.3)
where
k k
C12 = , C22 = .
μ λ + 2μ
where K0 is the modified Bessel function of the second kind and order zero (see Fig.
2.1); that is,
(Δ − h2 )K0 (h|x − y|) = −2πδ (|x − y|).
K0 r
r
Fig. 2.1 The modified Bessel function K0 .
(Δ −C22 )t(x, y)
= p(Δ −C22 )K0 (C1 |x − y|) + q(Δ −C22 )K0 (C2 |x − y|)
= p(Δ −C22 )K0 (C1 |x − y|) − 2π qδ (|x − y|)
= p[(Δ −C12 ) + (C12 −C22 )]K0 (C1 |x − y|) − 2π qδ (|x − y|)
= p(Δ −C12 )K0 (C1 |x − y|) + p(C12 −C22 )K0 (C1 |x − y|) − 2π qδ (|x − y|)
= −2π pδ (|x − y|) + p(C12 −C22 )K0 (C1 |x − y|) − 2π qδ (|x − y|).
so
(Δ −C12 )(Δ −C22 )t(x, y) = (Δ −C12 )p(C12 −C22 )K0 (C1 |x − y|)
= p(C12 −C22 )(Δ −C12 )K0 (C1 |x − y|)
= −2π p(C12 −C22 )δ (|x − y|). (2.4)
2.1 Fundamental Solutions 11
where
1
p= ,
2π k(λ + μ )
1
q=− ;
2π k(λ + μ )
consequently,
1
t(x, y) = [K0 (C1 |x − y|) − K0 (C2 |x − y|)]. (2.5)
2π k(λ + μ )
In this case,
or, component-wise,
Another necessary tool for handling our boundary value problems is the matrix
of singular solutions
P(x, y) = [T (∂y )D(y, x)]T , (2.9)
where
12 2 The Layer Potentials
It is important to know the asymptotic behavior of D(x, y) and P(x, y) for small
and large values of |x − y|.
2.1 Fundamental Solutions 13
so
and, by (2.5),
t(x, y) = A|x − y|2 ln(|x − y|) + B|x − y|2 + O(|x − y|4 ln |x − y|), (2.12)
where A and B are combinations of λ and μ . Direct computation now shows that, in
terms of the point x,
xα − yα
|x − y|,α = ,
|x − y|
1 (xα − yα )(xβ − yβ )
|x − y|,αβ = δαβ − ,
|x − y| |x − y|3
xα − yα
(ln |x − y|),α = ,
|x − y|2
1 (xα − yα )(xβ − yβ )
(ln |x − y|),αβ = δ −2 ,
|x − y|2 αβ |x − y|4
(xα − yα )(xβ − yβ )
(|x − y|2 ln |x − y|),αβ = (2 ln |x − y| + 1)δαβ + 2 ;
|x − y|2
2.2 Theorem (Somigliana formulas). (i) If u ∈ C2 (S+ ) ∩C1 (S̄+ ) and (Zu)(x) = 0,
x ∈ S+ , then
⎧
⎪
⎪ x ∈ S+ ,
⎨u(x),
[D(x, y)(Tu)(y) − P(x, y)u(y)]ds(y) = 12 u(x), x ∈ ∂ S, (2.18)
⎪
⎪
∂S ⎩0, x∈S . −
Proof. (i) Consider the region S̄+ \ σx,ε , where σx,ε is a disc centered at x and of
radius ε , and such that σ̄x,ε ⊂ S+ (see Fig. 2.2).
x2
x x,
S \ x,
S
x1
Using Theorem 1.8 in S̄+ \ σx,ε with the position of u and v reversed and v = v(y)
replaced by the columns D(α ) (y, x) of D(y, x), we find that
T
[D(α ) (y, x)(Zu)(y) − uT (y)Z(∂y )D(α ) (y, x)] da(y)
S+ \σx,ε
T
= [D(α ) (y, x)(Tu)(y) − uT (y)T (∂y )D(α ) (y, x)] ds(y)
∂S
T
+ [D(α ) (y, x)(Tu)(y) − uT (y)T (∂ y)D(α ) (y, x)] ds(y).
∂ σx,ε
By Theorem 2.1,
T
[D(α ) (y, x)(Zu)(y) − uT (y)Z(∂y )D(α ) (y, x)] da(y) = 0,
S+ \σx,ε
Taking (2.9) and (2.8) into account, we can write the integrands in (2.20) as
T
D(α ) (y, x)(Tu)(y) − uT (y)T (∂y )D(α ) (y, x)
so (2.20) yields
[D(x, y)(Tu)(y) − P(x, y)u(y)] ds(y)
∂S
+ [D(x, y)(Tu)(y) − P(x, y)u(y)] ds(y) = 0. (2.21)
∂ σx,ε
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In the Senate, Feb. 28th, 1882, Mr. Miller said:
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not only under circumstances as imperative in their demands for its
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argument made against its approval swept away. It is an interesting
fact in the history of this measure, that the action which has cleared
its way of the impediments which were made the reasons for the
veto, was inaugurated and consummated with splendid persistence
and energy by the same administration whose executive interposed
the veto against it. Without stopping to inquire into the motive of the
Hayes administration in this proceeding, whether its action was in
obedience to a conviction that the measure was in itself right and
expedient, or to a public sentiment, so strong and universal as to
demand the utmost vigor in the diplomacy necessary for the removal
of all impediments to its progress, it must be apparent that the result
of this diplomatic action has been to add a new phase to the question
in respect of the adoption of the measure itself.
“In order to fully appreciate this fact it may be proper to indulge in
historical reminiscence for a moment. For many years complaints
had been made against the introduction into the United States of the
peculiar people who come from China, and the Congress, after
careful consideration of the subject, so far appreciated the evil
complained of as to pass a bill to interdict it.
“The Executive Department had, prior to that action, with
diplomatic finesse, approached the imperial throne of China, with
intent, as was said, to ascertain whether such an interdiction of
coolie importation, or immigration so called, into the United States
would be regarded as a breach of friendly relations with China, and
had been informed by the diplomat, to whom the delicate task had
been committed, that such interdiction would not be favorably
regarded by the Chinese Government. Hence, when Congress, with
surprising audacity, passed the bill of interdiction the Executive,
believing in the truth of the information given him, thought it
prudent and expedient to veto the bill, but immediately, in
pursuance of authority granted by Congress, he appointed three
commissioners to negotiate a treaty by which the consent of China
should be given to the interdiction proposed by Congress. These
commissioners appeared before the Government of China upon this
special mission, and presented the request of the Government of the
United States affirmatively, positively, and authoritatively made, and
after the usual diplomatic ceremonies, representations,
misrepresentations, avowals, and concealments, the treaty was
made, the concession granted, and the interdiction agreed upon. This
treaty was presented here and ratified by the Senate, with what
unanimity Senators know, and which the rules of the Senate forbid
me to describe.
“The new phase of this question, which we may as well consider in
the outset, suggests the spectacle which this nation should present if
Congress were to vote this or a similar measure down. A great nation
cannot afford inconsistency in action, nor betray a vacillating,
staggering, inconstant policy in its intercourse with other nations. No
really great people will present themselves before the world through
their government as a nation irresolute, fickle, feeble, or petulant;
one day eagerly demanding of its neighbor an agreement or
concession, which on the next it nervously repudiates or casts aside.
Can we make a solemn request of China, through the pomp of an
extraordinary embassy and the ceremony of diplomatic negotiation,
and with prudent dispatch exchange ratifications of the treaty
granting our request, and within less than half a year after such
exchange is made cast aside the concession and, with childish
irresolution, ignore the whole proceeding? Can we afford to make
such a confession of American imbecility to any oriental power? The
adoption of this or some such measure becomes necessary, it seems
to me, to the intelligent and consistent execution of a policy adopted
by this Government under the sanction of a treaty with another great
nation.
“If the Executive department, the Senate, and the House of
Representatives have all understood and appreciated their own
action in respect of this measure; if in the negotiation and
ratification of the new treaty with China, the Executive and the
Senate did not act without thought, in blind, inconsiderate
recklessness—and we know they did not—if the Congress of the
United States in the passage of the fifteen passenger bill had the
faintest conception of what it was doing—and we know it had—then
the policy of this Government in respect of so-called Chinese
immigration has been authoritatively settled.
“This proposition is submitted with the greater confidence because
the action I have described was in obedience to, and in harmony
with, a public sentiment which seems to have permeated the whole
country. For the evidence of the existence of such a sentiment, it is
only necessary to produce the declarations upon this subject of the
two great historical parties of the country, deliberately made by their
national conventions of 1880. One of these (the Democratic
convention) declared that there shall be—
“‘No more Chinese immigration except for travel, education, and
foreign commerce, and therein carefully guarded.’
“The other (the Republican) convention declared that—
“‘Since the authority to regulate immigration and intercourse
between the United States and foreign nations rests with Congress,
or with the United States and its treaty-making power, the
Republican party, regarding the unrestricted immigration of the
Chinese as an evil of great magnitude, invokes the exercise of these
powers to restrain and limit the immigration by the enactment of
such just, humane, and reasonable provisions as will produce that
result.’
“These are the declarations of the two great political parties, in
whose ranks are enrolled nearly all the voters of the United States;
and whoever voted at the last Presidential election voted for the
adoption of the principles and policy expressed by those
declarations, whether he voted with the one or the other of the two
great parties. Both candidates for the Presidency were pledged to the
adoption and execution of the policy of restriction thus declared by
their respective parties, and the candidate who was successful at the
polls, in his letter of acceptance, not only gave expression to the
sentiment of his party and the country, but with a clearness and
conciseness which distinguished all his utterances upon great public
questions, gave the reasons for that public sentiment.” He said:
“‘The recent movement of the Chinese to our Pacific Coast
partakes but little of the qualities of an immigration, either in its
purposes or results. It is too much like an importation to be
welcomed without restriction; too much like an invasion to be looked
upon without solicitude. We cannot consent to allow any form of
servile labor to be introduced among us under the guise of
immigration.’
“If you would ‘secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our
posterity,’ there must be some place reserved in which, and upon
which, posterity can exist. What will the blessings of liberty be worth
to posterity if you give up the country to the Chinese? If China is to
be the breeding-ground for peopling this country, what chance of
American posterity? We of this age hold this land in trust for our race
and kindred. We hold republican government and free institutions in
trust for American posterity. That trust ought not to be betrayed. If
the Chinese should invade the Pacific coast with arms in their hands,
what a magnificent spectacle of martial resistance would be
presented to a startled world! The mere intimation of an attempt to
make conquest of our western shore by force would rouse the nation
to a frenzy of enthusiasm in its defense. For years a peaceful, sly,
strategic conquest has been in progress, and American
statesmanship has been almost silent, until the people have
demanded action.
“The land which is being overrun by the oriental invader is the
fairest portion of our heritage. It is the land of the vine and the fig
tree; the home of the orange, the olive, and the pomegranate. Its
winter is a perpetual spring, and its summer is a golden harvest.
There the northern pine peacefully sways against the southern palm;
the tender azalea and the hardy rose mingle their sweet perfume, and
the tropic vine encircles the sturdy oak. Its valleys are rich and
glorious with luscious fruits and waving grain, and its lofty
Mountains like giants stand,
To sentinel the enchanted land.
“I would see its fertile plains, its sequestered vales, its vine-clad
hills, its deep blue canons, its furrowed mountain-sides, dotted all
over with American homes—the homes of a free, happy people,
resonant with the sweet voices of flaxen-haired children, and ringing
with the joyous laughter of maiden fair—
Soft as her clime, and sunny as her skies—
like the homes of New England; yet brighter and better far shall be
the homes which are to be builded in that wonderland by the sunset
sea, the homes of a race from which shall spring
The flower of men,
To serve as model for the mighty world,
And be the fair beginning of a time.”
Reply of Senator Geo. P. Hoar.
DECLARATION OF RIGHTS.
Section 1. All men are by nature free and independent, and have
certain inalienable rights, among which are those of enjoying and
defending life and liberty, acquiring, possessing, and defending
property, and pursuing and obtaining safety and happiness.
Sec. 17. Foreigners who are or who may hereafter become bona
fide residents of this State, shall enjoy the same rights in respect to
the possession, enjoyment, and inheritance of property, as native-
born citizens.
In the Revised Statutes, section 1999, Congress in the most solemn
manner declare that the right of expatriation is beyond the lawful
control of government:
Sec. 1999. Whereas the right of expatriation is a natural and
inherent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the
rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; and
Whereas in the recognition of this principle this Government has
freely received emigrants from all nations, and invested them with
the rights of citizenship.
This is a re-enactment, in part, of the statute of 1868, of which Mr.
Conness, then a California Senator, of Irish birth, was, if not the
author, the chief advocate.
The California Senator called up the bill day after day. The bill
originally provided that the President might order the arrest and
detention in custody of “any subject or citizen of such foreign
government” as should arrest and detain any naturalized citizen of
the United States under the claim that he still remained subject to his
allegiance to his native sovereign. This gave rise to debate.
But there was no controversy about the part of the bill which I
have read. The preamble is as follows:
Whereas the right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of
all people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness, for the protection of which the
Government of the United States was established; and whereas in the
recognition of this principle this Government has freely received
emigrants from all nations and vested them with the rights of
citizenship, &c.
Mr. Howard declares that—
The absolute right of expatriation is the great leading American
principle.
Mr. Morton says:
That a man’s right to withdraw from his native country and make
his home in another, and thus cut himself off from all connection
with his native country, is a part of his natural liberty, and without
that his liberty is defective. We claim that the right to liberty is a
natural, inherent, God-given right, and his liberty is imperfect unless
it carries with it the right of expatriation.
The bill containing the preamble above recited passed the Senate
by a vote of 39 to 5.
The United States of America and the Emperor of China cordially
recognize the inherent and inalienable right of man to change his
home and allegiance, and also the mutual advantage of the free
migration and emigration of their citizens and subjects respectively
from the one country to the other for purposes of curiosity, of trade,
or as permanent residents.
“The bill which passed Congress two years ago and was vetoed by
President Hayes, the treaty of 1881, and the bill now before the
Senate, have the same origin and are parts of the same measure. Two
years ago it was proposed to exclude Chinese laborers from our
borders, in express disregard of our solemn treaty obligations. This
measure was arrested by President Hayes. The treaty of 1881
extorted from unwilling China her consent that we might regulate,
limit, or suspend the coming of Chinese laborers into this country—a
consent of which it is proposed by this bill to take advantage. This is
entitled “A bill to enforce treaty stipulations with China.”
“It seems necessary in discussing the statute briefly to review the
history of the treaty. First let me say that the title of this bill is
deceptive. There is no stipulation of the treaty which the bill
enforces. The bill where it is not inconsistent with the compact only
avails itself of a privilege which that concedes. China only relaxed the
Burlingame treaty so far as to permit us to ‘regulate, limit, or
suspend the coming or residence’ of Chinese laborers, ‘but not
absolutely to prohibit it.’ The treaty expressly declares ‘such
limitation or suspension shall be reasonable.’ But here is proposed a
statute which for twenty years, under the severest penalties,
absolutely inhibits the coming of Chinese laborers to this country.
The treaty pledges us not absolutely to prohibit it. The bill is
intended absolutely to prohibit it.
“The second article of the treaty is this:
“Chinese subjects, whether proceeding to the United States as
traders, students, or merchants, or from curiosity, together with their
body and household servants, and Chinese laborers, who are now in
the United States, shall be allowed to go and come of their own free
will and accord, and shall be accorded all the rights, privileges,
immunities, and exemptions which are accorded to the citizens and
subjects of the most favored nations.
“Yet it is difficult to believe that the complex and cumbrous
passport system provided in the last twelve sections of the bill was
not intended as an evasion of this agreement. Upon what other
nation, favored or not, is such a burden imposed? This is the
execution of a promise that they may come and go ‘of their own free
will.’
“What has happened within thirteen years that the great Republic
should strike its flag? What change has come over us that we should
eat the bravest and the truest words we ever spoke? From 1858 to
1880 there was added to the population of the country 42,000
Chinese.
“I give a table from the census of 1880 showing the Chinese
population of each State:
Statement showing the Chinese population in each State and
Territory, according to the United States censuses of 1870 and of
1880.
Alabama 4
Alaska
Arizona 20 1,630
Arkansas 98 134
California 49,310 75,025
Colorado 7 610
Connecticut 2 124
Dakota 238
Delaware 1
District of Columbia 3 13
Florida 18
Georgia 1 17
Idaho 4,274 3,378
Illinois 1 210
Indiana 33
Iowa 3 47
Kansas 19
Kentucky 1 10
Louisiana 71 481
Maine 1 9
Maryland 2 5
Massachusetts 97 237
Michigan 2 27
Minnesota 53
Mississippi 16 52
Missouri 3 94
Montana 1,949 1,764
Nebraska 18
Nevada 3,152 5,420
New Hampshire 14
New Jersey 15 176
New Mexico 55
New York 29 924
North Carolina
Ohio 1 114
Oregon 3,330 9,513
Pennsylvania 14 160
Rhode Island 27
South Carolina 1 9
Tennessee 26
Texas 25 141
Utah 445 501
Vermont
Virginia 4 6
Washington 234 3,182
West Virginia 14
Wisconsin 16
Wyoming 143 914
“By the census of 1880 the number of Chinese in this country was
105,000—one five-hundredth part of the whole population. The
Chinese are the most easily governed race in the world. Yet every
Chinaman in America has four hundred and ninety-nine Americans
to control him.
The immigration was also constantly decreasing for the last half of
the decade. The Bureau of Statistics gives the numbers as follows,
(for the first eight years the figures are those of the entire Asiatic
immigration:)
The number of immigrants from Asia, as reported by the United
States Bureau of Statistics is as follows, namely:
1871 7,236
1872 7,825
1873 20,326
1874 13,857
1875 16,498
1876 22,943
1877 10,640
1878 9,014
Total 108,339
1879 9,604
1880 5,802
Total 15,406