EXERCISE 5

TAXYING
 AIM:

To give the student a good understanding and thorough Knowledge of the principles involved
thereby enabling him to correctly and safely manoeuvre the aircraft on the ground.

 DEFINITION:

Taxying is the process whereby the,[/ aircraft is controlled on the ground under its own power by the
independent or combined use of rudder pedals, brakes, flying controls and engine thrust.

 WHAT THE INSTRUCTOR IS TO TEACH:

1- Discuss the principles involved.

2- The air exercise briefing:
A- Applicable procedures and checklists.
B- Aircraft handling techniques:- Demonstration and Observation.
C- Consideration of airmanship and engine handling, marshalling signals, rules of taxying
– as per CAR’s.
D- Similarity to previous exercises.
E- De-briefing after flight.

 HOW THE EXERCISE APPLIES TO FLYING:

To all manoeuvres of the aircraft under it’s own power on the ground

 TAXYING:

Taxiing (rarely spelled taxying) is the movement of an aircraft on the ground, under its own power,
in contrast to towing or push-back where the aircraft is moved by a tug.
  Newton’s Laws with Reference to Flight Controls

- Newton 1 (EQUILIBRIUM) for starting engine

A body will remain in a state of rest or uniform motion until acted upon by an external unbalanced
force.

The aircraft will do nothing until a force is applied. This can be like if the control column is turned to
the right the aircraft will roll to the right. If the control column is pulled back, the aircrafts’ nose will
pitch up.

- Newton 2 (ACCELERATION) during taxying

When an external force acts upon a body, the body will accelerate in the direction of the applied force
and in the same magnitude as the applied force.

The greater the input that the pilot is making, the greater the response the aircraft will give. If the pilot
rolls the control column far to the right, the aircraft will roll rapid to the right.

- Newton 3 (ACTION AND REACTION) action and reaction

For every action there would be an equal but opposite reaction.

For the pro-force that the pilot apply, there is a progressive reaction stopping the aircraft. If the pilot is
turning the control column to the right the aircraft will bank and stop, it wont keep on rolling.

 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL USING:

- DIRECTIONAL CONTROL USING: differential braking means you can apply

different brake pressure for each brake. In a car you have one pedal that applies
equal braking to all of your wheels. In many airplanes you have two brake systems
and you control the left side brakes independently from the right side -- this
is differential braking.
- Rudder Pedals – steerable nose wheel or tail wheel. A steerable nose-wheel or tail-
wheel permits the airplane to be controlled throughout all operations while on the
ground. Steerable wheels are linked to the rudders by cables or rods, while
catering wheels are free to swivel. In both cases, the aircraft is steered using
the rudder pedals.
using method one and two together: some times in a very steep turn you have to use
them both (differential braking - steerable nose-wheel or tail- wheel ) together.

 THE EFFECT OF WIND:

- Weather cocking: a phenomenon experienced by fixed wing aircraft on the ground.

Aircraft on the ground have a natural pivoting point on an axis through the main landing gear contact
point]. As most of the side area of an aircraft will typically be behind this pivoting point, any crosswind
will create a yawing moment tending to turn the nose of the aircraft into the wind.

It is not to be confused with directional stability, as experienced by aircraft in flight

- Slipstream Effect:
The turbulent flow of air driven backward by the propeller or propellers of an aircraft. Also called race.
The area of reduced pressure or forward suction produced by and immediately behind a fast-moving
object as it moves through air or water.

- Use of controls during head, tail- and crosswind conditions:

- Torque effect:

In a single-propeller plane, the result of the torque effect is a tendency of the plane
to turn upwards and left in response to the propeller turning (banking) the plane in the
opposite direction of the propeller spin.

- asymmetric blade effect or p factor: (flight sim video use)

Asymmetric blade effect and asymmetric disc effect, is an aerodynamic

phenomenon experienced by a moving propeller, where the propeller's centre of
thrust moves off-centre when the aircraft is at a high angle of attack
- Gyroscopic effect – applicable to tail wheel aircraft types:

- Ground loop:
- Ground loops occur when the aircraft is moving on the ground—either taxiing,
landing, or during takeoff. Ground loops can damage the undercarriage and wingtips
of an aircraft.
- Control effectiveness – rudder surface.
- Principles (i- iv) are to be discussed under: a. Acceleration. b.
Deceleration.
The maximum taxying speed is 20 knots.
  THE EFFECT OF WIND FOR:

- Crosswind take-offs.

During a cross wind take-off, Wind correction for take-off is a lot like wind
correction for taxi: start by fully deflecting your ailerons into the wind. Why?
Without correction, your upwind wing can lift off early, and the wind can send you
toward the edge of the runway.

- Crosswind landing roll.

First, step on the rudder to get the nose aligned with the runway. Second, use
ailerons to stop drifting left or right, and keep yourself aligned with the runway
centreline. Another good way to get used to the wing-low method is by flying a low
approach over the runway and never touching down.

- Discuss maximum crosswind component:

it varies from aeroplane to aeroplane but in our Cessna it is 15 knots you will find it in
the SOP (standard operation procedures).
If the wind is 30 degrees off the runway, your crosswind component is about 50%
of the wind speed. If the wind is 45 degrees off the runway, the crosswind
component is about 75% of the wind speed. And if the wind is 60 degrees or more
off the runway, the crosswind component is roughly the same as the total wind.

 THE EFFECT OF:

- Surface conditions:

-
- Surface wind on taxying speed, i.e. head- and tailwinds.

- Gradient – up, down and side slopes:

 Positive gradients indicate increasing runway heights (upslope), and negative
indicates the opposite (downslope). Up sloping runways result in longer ground
rolls during take-off. Landing on up sloping runways can actually help deceleration,
reducing the landing roll. The opposite is true for down sloping runways.

 Inertia:
- Inertia is the quality in matter (matter is anything you can touch) that lets it stay still if it is still,
or keeps it moving if it is moving.
If you want to overcome inertia, you have to apply a force. A force will make something that
is still start to move, like flicking a wad of paper with a pencil will make it move. Also force,
due to resistance, will slow or stop something that is already moving. The wad of paper will
be slowed by resistance made by rubbing up against the air it is passing through.

 STARTING AND STOPPING:

 STARTING:
- Control column positioned as applicable.
- Foot brakes on.
- Throttle closed.
- Parking brake released
- Look out
- Foot brakes released.
- Open throttle to overcome inertia.
- Throttle back slightly – effect of inertia.
- Dangers of misuse of power and elevator.

 STOPPING:
- Close throttle.
- Control column positioned as applicable.
- Rudder bar central.
- Intermittent braking.
- Parking brake on only after aircraft has stopped moving.
- Throttle – holding R.P.M.

 CONTROL OF DIRECTION AND TURNING:

- Demonstrate into wind or downwind:
- Look out.
- Use rudder to induce turn.
- When desired rate to turn is achieved.
- Centralise rudder to prevent increase rate of turn.
- Anticipation.
  Demonstrate in a crosswind:
- Weathercock tendency.
- Turns into wind tend to tighten up.
- Aircraft is less willing to turn downwind.

 Demonstrate for quartering wind.

Flight controls to be held relative to wind.

 CONTROL OF SPEED:
- Smooth use of throttle and judgment of speed.
- Control of speed with:a. Power. b. Brake if going to fast with throttle closed.
- Factors effecting speed :( a. Surface gradient. b. Nature of surface. c. Wind).
- Avoid taxying too fast.
- Anticipation.

 TURNING IN CONFINED SPACES:

- Low speed.
- Use :( a. Rudder. b. Rudder and power. c. Rudder, power and brakes
- Avoid turning on a locked wheel; damage to tail wheel/nose wheel.
- Check that the tail is free from obstacles.
  LEAVING PARKING AREA:
- Checks completed.
- Taxy clearance
- Control column as required.
- Foot brakes on.
- Throttle closed.
- Parking brake released.
- Look out.
- Foot brakes released.
- Brakes tested as soon as possible.
- Marshallers signals – pilot’s responsibility.
- Complete taxy checks as required.

 GROUNDLOOP RECOVERY
- Recovery action :( Full opposite rudder. Differential braking if necessary.)
- Of course reduce power.

 the common faults students usually make:

- Students tend to taxy too fast, especially as they gain confidence.
- Many students are careless about look out, and clearing the blind spot created by the nose of
the aircraft (tail wheel).
- Incorrect speed control due to the use of power against brakes.
- Feet incorrectly positioned on the rudder pedals.
- Difficulty in the use of differential braking, and different power required when taxying over
grass and tar
- . Releasing the brakes before closing the throttle prior commencing the taxy.
- Harsh braking when stopping the aircraft.
- Forgetting to check the windsock during taxying to confirm that he is taxying to the correct
runway, and for correct positioning of the flight controls.
- Over activeness on rudders for directional control causing excessive snaking( Emphasise to
taxy in centre of taxiway – how to keep nose wheel on taxy-line-Incorrect position of controls
when taxying in strong wind).