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First published 2002 by WILDGuides Ltd.

Second Edition 2010 by WILDGuides Ltd.
Third Edition 2015 by Princeton University Press
Fourth Edition 2020 by Princeton University Press
Copyright © 2002, 2010, 2015, 2020 by David Newland, Robert Still, Andy Swash and
David Tomlinson. Digital artwork, maps and illustrations copyright © 2020 by Robert Still
Copyright in the photographs remains with the individual photographers.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

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photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers.
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ISBN 978-0-691-20544-1
Ebook ISBN 978-0-691-21178-7
Production and design by WILDGuides Ltd., Old Basing, Hampshire UK.

Printed in Italy
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
How butterflies and moths differ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Butterfly biology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Where to look for butterflies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Gardening for butterflies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Butterfly habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Favoured habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Key places for rare and localized butterflies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Butterfly identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The types of butterfly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Colour variation: forms and aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
THE SPECIES ACCOUNTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Former breeding species, rare migrants and vagrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Species of doubtful provenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Caterpillar foodplants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Butterfly nectar sources and caterpillar foodplants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Eggs, caterpillars and chrysalises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Caterpillars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Chrysalises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
List of British and Irish butterflies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Butterfly watching and photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Butterfly Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Recording and monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Climate change and butterflies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Conservation status and legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Sources of further information and useful addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Acknowledgements and photographic/artwork credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Index of English and scientific names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

A male Silver-studded Blue on bell
Silver-studded Blue
heather at Kelling Heath, Norfolk.

Foreword
by Julie Williams
Chief Executive of
Butterfly Conservation
Butterflies are a beautiful and intrinsic part of our
wildlife heritage . No summer’s day is complete
without the delightful flash of colour and flutter
of wings on a gentle breeze . But butterflies are so
much more than that – they are highly sensitive
indicators of the health of the environment and
play a crucial role in the food chain as well as being
important pollinators of plants .
In recent years, scientists have documented alarming declines in the number and
geographic range of insects around the world . Some studies have reported such rapid
declines that it has been referred to as an “Insect Apocalypse” and, sadly, butterflies are
among the worst hit . Even widespread species such as the Small Tortoiseshell, a once
common sight across the UK, have declined by 78% since the 1970s . The recent results
of our Big Butterfly Count suggests that the impact of climate change is actually greater
than was previously thought .
The loss of nature affects us all, but the greatest impact will be felt by young people
and future generations . We need to inspire more people to care about butterflies – and
that is exactly what the revised edition of this fantastic book does . It includes the latest
information on all the British and Irish species, tips on where to find them, and beautiful
photographs to help identify butterflies at all stages of their life-cycle . This is an ideal
book for beginners, but its exceptional quality makes it an essential reference for experts
too . This is one of my favourite butterfly guides: I love the bright and clear design and
absolutely stunning photography showing all aspects of each butterfly in great detail .
Once you appreciate the joy and wonder of our beautiful butterflies you will be
hooked, just like Butterfly Conservation’s 40,000 members and thousands of dedicated
volunteers . There are lots of ways to get involved if you are not already; why not take
part in our Big Butterfly Count during July and August? It is the largest survey of its
kind and provides vital data to help our scientists understand the drivers of change and
declines . Evidence shows that experiencing nature and being outdoors is great for our
health and wellbeing so it will benefit you too . Do visit www.butterfly-conservation.
org to find out more .
I have no doubt you will enjoy this book and revisit it time and time again to recap on
all the fantastic information included . I hope it will inspire you to get out and enjoy our
precious butterflies and the natural world in which they live .

Clouded Yellow

Preface
The first edition of this book was in preparation some 20 years ago but our aim remains
the same: to use the best available photographs to illustrate British and Irish butterflies
in all their life stages and, from the 3rd edition, caterpillar foodplants for each of the
species. Successive editions have provided the opportunity to improve the design and
presentation, introduce new photographs, and ensure that the content is up-to-date.
There has been one addition and one significant change to the species covered in
the book since the first edition was published in 2002. The addition is the appearance
in England, in 2014, of Scarce Tortoiseshells, only seen previously once in 1953, requiring
the inclusion of an extra species account. The change is that the butterfly formerly
known as Réal’s Wood White is now known to comprise two species, one of which
is restricted to Ireland and given the name Cryptic Wood White; this is reflected in
necessary changes to the nomenclature.
We have also had to respond to another development. Taxonomists classify living
creatures according to the perceived complexity of their anatomy and, since 1945,
have listed butterfly species by number, the order running from the more primitive, in
some sense, to the more developed. At the time of the first edition, the definitive list
was by Bradley & Fletcher (1979, revised 1986, 1998, 2000) and the species accounts in
the book and subsequent editions were therefore arranged in that order. Now a new
checklist has gained acceptance, Agassiz et al. (2013), and we have decided to re-order
the species accordingly. Some of the scientific names of butterflies and moths have also
been revised, with the curious result that sometimes the common (vernacular) names by
which we know species are more stable than the scientific names that accompany them.
The only obvious change is that the ‘browns’ are listed before the ‘blues’, rather than the
reverse in previous editions. On closer study, it will be seen that the rest of the pack has
been shuffled too; hopefully this new order will be followed for the foreseeable future.
Other improvements for this edition include new introductory sections to the main
‘types’ of butterflies, which are intended to help in the identification of unfamiliar
species, updated maps, additional background on recording and monitoring, a new
section on the effects of climate change, and an updated section on conservation status
and legislation.
In spite of the uncertain provenance of some butterfly records, unusual or changing
weather patterns may result in unexpected sightings when genuine vagrants are
seen. As before, we have tried to anticipate possible future changes by including the
Map, which is common in continental Europe, and Geranium Bronze, together with full
accounts of 14 other species that formerly bred here or are recognized as occasional
migrants. Yet another potential arrival, Southern Small White, is also referred to briefly.
We are pleased that the section on foodplants, which was introduced in the third
edition, has received positive feedback, as knowledge of how to identify these plants is
invaluable when deciding where to look, and essential if you want to find rare species.
David Newland, Robert Still and Andy Swash

May 2020
7

Introduction
On a sunny summer’s day in the countryside, butterflies are all around us . Perhaps not
as many as in the past, but there are still 59 different species to see in Great Britain and
Ireland, plus a dozen more that visit very occasionally from continental Europe or farther
afield .
This book aims to help you recognize a butterfly when you see it and to get to know
all the British and Irish species . It is so much more fun to know what you are looking at
when you see a butterfly – and to have some idea as to whether it is common or rare,
whether it travels widely or is very local, and what it is doing .
By making butterfly identification as simple as possible, we hope to encourage more
people to take an interest in and enjoy them . Enjoyment is the key, since the more
people that take an interest in butterflies, the more we will learn and the greater the
likelihood that action can be taken to safeguard them for future generations .
The photographs in this book show all our British butterflies in their natural
surroundings . Where males and females look different, both are shown, and for those
species that breed in Britain and Ireland there are also photographs of their egg,
caterpillar and chrysalis .
Digital computer imagery has been used to combine some of the best butterfly
photographs available so that the differences between species can readily be seen .
The text is written in an easy-to-use style and the information given and distribution
maps shown are accurate and up-to-date .
A Ringlet basks in late July sunshine.

INTRODUCTION
Few creatures are more sensitive indicators of the health The ‘eye’ of a Peacock.
of the environment than butterflies, and the continuing
decline of so many species is a serious warning of the
diminishing diversity of our countryside . Conserving
butterflies is more than a case of simply protecting
individual species, or providing isolated reserves . Instead,
we have to consider the whole environment, and how best
to care for it and manage it .
Conservation depends upon popular support – the more
people that become interested in looking after our plants
and animals, the easier it is to argue for the protection of
our countryside and its wildlife . For this reason, we are
delighted to have produced this book in association with Butterfly Conservation, the
charity dedicated to saving butterflies, moths and their habitats in the UK and beyond .
We hope that the book will inspire many more people to appreciate, understand
and enjoy this beautiful and fascinating group of insects . And we hope also that you
will enjoy the book not only for the information it contains but also for the beauty of
the images in it . These images illustrate what you will see if you look carefully in the
field . And that is where nature has so much to offer . These beautiful creatures are there
for all of us to wonder at and enjoy, if only we will take the time to look .
A male Orange-tip nectars on

Dame’s Violet in late May.

How butterflies and moths differ
Butterflies and moths are members of a huge number of some 165,000 insects known
as the Lepidoptera . The word lepidoptera is constructed from the Greek words lepis,
meaning ‘scale’, and pteron, meaning ‘wing’, and is used to describe all insects that have
four scale-covered wings . From it is derived the word lepidopterist for someone who
specializes in studying these insects .
Butterflies reach their greatest diversity in the tropics . The islands of Trinidad and
Tobago, for example, boast more than 600 species of butterflies, yet in Britain and Ireland
there are only about 60 species, despite the land mass being 20 times greater . In Europe,
there are some 440 species .
How butterflies and moths differ

Distinguishing butterflies and moths is not always easy, for the two are closely
related . The easiest way to recognize a butterfly is to look at its antennae: those of
butterflies having clubbed ends, whilst those of moths are fine and often feathery .
In addition, a butterfly rests with its wings held tightly together vertically above the
body . In contrast, a moth usually roosts with its wings held horizontally flat over the
body, the forewing largely obscuring the hindwing .
Butterflies rarely fly at night, and many will only fly in bright sunshine . Moths fly
mainly at night, but the few day-flying species can be readily recognized as moths by
their antennae and resting posture . Of course, as in most classifications in nature, there
are exceptions . For example, Dingy Skipper butterflies often rest in a moth-like pose,
but they have clubbed antennae . Day-flying burnet moths have antennae that can be
described as clubbed, but they always rest with their wings in the typical moth posture .
Dingy Skipper (the British butterfly An Orange-tip, showing its clubbed

that looks most like a moth) resting antennae, rests with wings closed in
in a moth-like pose. an upright position.
10

A Black Arches
moth with
feathered
antennae, in
typical closed-
wing posture.
Some moths, such as this Scarlet Tiger, Six-spot

rest with semi-open wings, but can be Burnet moths
distinguished from butterflies by the fine have ‘clubbed’
antennae without a ‘clubbed’ tip. antennae and
always rest
with closed
wings.
11

Butterfly Biology
This section of the book provides an introduction to the biology and ecology of
butterflies. The diagram opposite illustrates the life-cycle of a butterfly, and the
following sections detail the egg, larval, emergence and adult stages.
EGG
Butterfly eggs come in many shapes and sizes depending on
the species (see pages 219–223) .
Eggs are very small, usually less than 1mm across their
longest dimension . Although shapes, colours and sizes may
differ, the structures are similar, comprising a hard outer
case inside which is contained an embryo surrounded by a
nutritious fluid (much like a chicken’s egg in miniature) .
Once fully formed, the caterpillar chews its way out of the A Green Hairstreak
egg, the remains of which it often eats . egg-laying .
Eggs are laid singly, in small groups or large clusters,
depending on the species involved . The eggs are almost
always laid on, or very close to, the plant upon which the
caterpillar will feed . The eggs usually hatch just over a week
after being laid, except for those that overwinter . Usually, a
high proportion of the eggs hatch, although some are lost
to adverse weather, become victims of parasites or are eaten
by predators . Female butterflies take great care in selecting
locations where their eggs are most likely to survive .
Each egg hatches into a caterpillar . A Marsh Fritillary will lay
her eggs in a cluster of
about 300, but batches can
range in size from between
40 and 600 (there are
approx . 200 in the cluster
above!) .
Common Blues mating;

the female is on the left.
12

When fully formed, the
THE LIFE-CYCLE EMERGENCE butterfly breaks out of the
OF A BUTTERFLY chrysalis . The wings are
initially soft, then fluid
High Brown is pumped into them
and they expand
Fritillary and harden,
becoming rigid
and ready to
use in about
an hour .
CHRYSALIS
(pupa)
The fully grown caterpillar
(such as this Brimstone)
attaches itself to
the underside of a
leaf and spins a
silken girdle NEWLY EMERGED
for support, in ADULT (imago)
preparation
Upon emerging, adult
for pupation.
butterflies soon mate .
CATERPILLAR MATING PAIR

(larva)
Caterpillars
(such as these
newly emerged
Duke of Burgundy
caterpillars) will shed
their skin usually four
or five times before
being fully grown.
Females (such as
High Brown Fritillary this Cryptic Wood White) will
overwinters in the spend as much time as they can
egg stage . laying as many eggs as possible.
EGG (ovum)
13

BUTTERFLY BIOLOGY
CATERPILLAR
Once the caterpillar has emerged, it uses its strong jaws to feed on plant matter.
Caterpillars come in many shapes, sizes and forms (see pages 224–230). They are
vulnerable and their look and behaviour is designed to maximize their chances of
survival.
Many caterpillars are spiny or hairy to deter predators, some are poisonous, and some
are camouflaged to help them avoid being detected. In some species, caterpillars live
together under the relative safety of a silken web, while those of other species live within
a blade of grass that is rolled to create a tube.
When small, caterpillars can fall victim to spiders as well as other insects, and, when
larger, to birds and small mammals.
Each species has a preferential plant or range of plants that it feeds on (see pages
206–213) and many require very specific habitats and weather conditions. As they
grow, caterpillars shed their flexible skin between three and six times, depending on
the species.
When fully grown, after a few weeks or several months (again depending on the
species), the caterpillar anchors itself firmly and sheds its skin for the last time to reveal
the soft casing beneath and enters its third (and inactive) stage, the chrysalis.
The caterpillars of some species, such as the Marsh Fritillary are gregarious and spend this
stage feeding and moulting within the confines of a communal protective web, spun from
silk. The webs of these species can be quite easy to find and observe.
14

BUTTERFLY BIOLOGY
CHRYSALIS
The young chrysalis is soft, but in time the skin hardens .
A typical chrysalis (see pages 231–236) is well
camouflaged to avoid predators because it can no
longer move and has no active defence mechanism .
During the next few days or weeks, its cells are
miraculously rearranged and it changes from a caterpillar A Black Hairstreak chrysalis
into a butterfly, with its newly formed wings crushed resembles a bird dropping
tightly within the chrysalis’s casing . and is ignored by predators .
This transitional stage, otherwise known as pupation,
is also fraught with danger, a large proportion of
chrysalises falling prey to birds and small mammals .
Whilst some species form their chrysalises on fence-
posts and walls and are surprisingly conspicuous, the
chrysalises of others are well camouflaged . For example,
the Black Hairstreak mimics a bird dropping and the
White Admiral resembles a rolled-up Honeysuckle leaf .
Others are formed in dense vegetation or leaf-litter
and some, like the skippers, spin silken cocoons around
blades of grass, within which they pupate .
When mature, the chrysalis casing bursts and the
adult butterfly emerges, its wings expanding as fluid is
pumped into its veins .
At the latter stages of

development all the features
of this Green-veined White
butterfly can be readily seen
as the skin of the chrysalis
becomes transparent .
A sight not yet

observed in the
wild in Britain
– a Camberwell
Beauty emerges
from its chrysalis and
waits for its crumpled
wings to expand.
15

BUTTERFLY BIOLOGY
ADULT
After emergence, the adult takes up to an
hour to expand its wings and be strong
enough for flight . Once on the wing, the
adult butterfly moves off to feed, find a mate
and reproduce, starting the life-cycle all over
again .
Many butterflies have a remarkably short
adult life . For a number of species, such as
blues and hairstreaks, it can be as brief as
four or five days . Others, such as the larger
fritillaries and the Swallowtail, might live for Both hindwings of this Small Tortoiseshell
two or even three weeks, but few survive as have a piece missing, probably as a result
long as a Brimstone, which can live for up to of a bird attempting to catch it whilst it was
ten months (although most of this time is resting with its wings closed .
spent in hibernation) .
Butterflies do not grow once they have emerged but need to continue feeding in order
to maintain their strength to fly, find a mate and lay eggs .
Males often emerge before females . This head start gives them time to set up territories,
and ensures that every emerging female is mated quickly . Once the female butterflies
have laid their eggs, their biological function has been fulfilled . Male butterflies have a
priority to mate with as many females as possible, and their patrolling flights are a constant
This tattered individual is barely recognizable as an

Adonis Blue, testimony of a relatively long and active life.
16

BUTTERFLY BIOLOGY
search for virgin females. Males have 1 adult female

special scales on the upperside of
the forewings that produce scents Approx.50 Eggs
(pheromones) which attract females.
20–40
In most species, the wing patterns of Caterpillars
males and females are significantly 10
different, enabling them to recognize Chrysalises
one another. 2–3
Adults
The main threat to adult butterflies is
predation. A wide range of bird species,
Butterfly survival
including many summer visitors, time
A female has the potential to lay several
their breeding to coincide with peak hundred eggs. However, many individuals
insect emergence. Often you will see only live long enough to lay about 50
butterflies with parts of their wings eggs, of which only 20–40 might hatch
missing, testimony to a narrow escape into caterpillars. Of these, perhaps 10 will
survive to form chrysalises, and of these
from, for example, a Spotted Flycatcher
7–8 will perish, leaving just 2–3 adults
or a Great Tit. surviving from the 50 eggs.
Caterpillar foodplants (see pages 206–213)

Female butterflies invariably lay their eggs on, or close to, their caterpillars’ foodplant,
which might be a flower, grass, shrub or tree. Most butterflies depend on just one or two
favoured foodplants, although some are less fussy. Large Whites, for example, lay their
eggs on a wide range of brassicas, including Cabbages, Kale and Brussels-sprouts, but
they will also use garden Nasturtiums. Such flexibility has ensured the widespread
success of this species, as well as its unpopularity with gardeners! In contrast, British
Swallowtails lay their eggs almost exclusively on Milk-parsley, a very localized fenland
plant, thus restricting where they can breed. Curiously, continental Swallowtails use
a wide range of plants, chiefly of the
Umbelliferae family, which explains why
this butterfly is much more widespread
in Europe than it is in Britain. Similarly, six
species of fritillary exclusively use violets
and a further 12 British butterflies are
reliant upon only one species of caterpillar
foodplant. Some of the butterflies that rely
on a single or limited range of foodplants
that grow only in specific conditions are
put at serious risk of local extinction by
any changes in habitat that affect their
foodplant. However, others that use
predominantly a single foodplant are Peacock caterpillars feed almost exclusively
unlikely to suffer in this way if that foodplant on Common Nettle, but sometimes on
is common and widespread. Small Nettle and very occasionally on Hop.
17

BUTTERFLY BIOLOGY
Adult food sources (see pages 214–217)

Most adult butterflies need nectar for survival,
although some, including the Black Hairstreak
and Purple Emperor, drink mainly the sugary
honeydew secretions left on leaves by aphids.
The range of nectar plants used by some
common butterflies is huge, whilst other
butterflies use just a few species. The Small
White uses a wide range, but is particularly
attracted to both white and pink flowers. In
contrast, Glanville Fritillary prefers only a few,
usually Thrift and Common Bird’s-foot-trefoil.
A Dark Green Fritillary taking nectar.
Camouflage and defence
As well as the perils of adverse weather,
butterflies fall victim to predators and
parasites throughout their life-cycle.
In response, the caterpillars, chrysalises
and adults of some species have developed
remarkable camouflage to help them
avoid detection. As examples, caterpillars
of the Purple Emperor resemble, in
colour and markings, the leaves of their
foodplant. Brimstone caterpillars lie along the
midrib of a leaf, which they closely resemble,
and are not at all easy to find. As well as A White Admiral chrysalis resembles a
camouflage, some caterpillars have other rolled-up Honeysuckle leaf.
defence mechanisms. Some are avoided by
predators as they are poisonous, some are
distasteful, and others are hairy or spiny and
difficult to swallow. The strategy adopted by
the very conspicuous Swallowtail caterpillar, if
threatened, is to erect a ‘horn’ on its head,
called its osmeterium, which emits an
unpleasant smell.
In some species, such as the Green-veined
White, the chrysalis matches the colour of
its surroundings, ranging from green to pale
brown. Other species have chrysalises that
look like dead leaves, buds, seedpods and even The underside of an Orange-tip
bird droppings. All are a challenge to locate for matches the dappled appearance of a
even the most determined butterfly enthusiast. favoured nectar plant.
18

BUTTERFLY BIOLOGY
Adult butterflies tend to be far more conspicuous than all the other life-cycle stages.
They have to balance the demands of defending territories, looking for mates and
egg-laying with the threat of predation. Almost always, females are less conspicuous
than males. For example, female blues are in fact brown rather than blue. Also, the
females of certain species, such as some skippers and fritillaries, often stay out of sight
among ground vegetation for long periods. Many species have ‘eye’ spots on their
wings that deceive predators into thinking that the butterfly is bigger than it actually is.
The Peacock has the largest such ‘eyes’ of British and Irish butterflies and, if a predator
approaches, will open and close its wings rapidly to reveal these ‘eyes’, while making a
scraping sound by rubbing its forewings and hindwings together.
Living with ants

The life-cycle of a number of butterflies (particularly the blues) is linked inextricably with
certain species of ants. For example, Chalkhill Blue caterpillars emit sweet liquids from
a gland that attracts the ants day and night. The ants’ attendance helps the caterpillar’s
chances of survival, probably because they keep predators and parasites away.
The Large Blue is a species that has been studied extensively in connection with its
managed return from extinction in Britain. It is unable to survive without a particular
species of ant, Sabulet’s Red Ant Myrmica sabuleti. When the caterpillar is just a few
millimetres long it drops from its foodplant to the ground and waits to be discovered by
an ant. Once this has happened, the caterpillar releases a droplet of sweet liquid that
the ant drinks before recruiting other worker ants into a feeding frenzy. After a period
of up to four hours, the caterpillar then adopts a posture that mimics an ant grub. This
encourages the ant to pick up the tiny caterpillar in its jaws and carry it into the ants’ nest,
where it is deposited among the ant grubs. Such a practice does not benefit the ants in
the long-term, as the caterpillar spends the next few months feeding on ant grubs in the
nest.
A red ant obtaining sweet secretions from a gland at the rear of a Chalkhill Blue caterpillar.
19

BUTTERFLY BIOLOGY
Living through the winter

In some species, adult butterflies hibernate, but the majority overwinter as a caterpillar,
chrysalis or egg. Surviving the winter, in whatever stage, is a stern test. The entire
population of most species exists in one stage only at this time of year. An exception
is the Speckled Wood which overwinters either as a chrysalis or as a caterpillar, the
chrysalis dormant and the caterpillar resting at the base of its foodplant (grasses),
feeding if the temperature rises above about 6 °C.
Eggs that overwinter have thicker shells than those that do not. In some species,
the overwintering egg actually contains a fully formed caterpillar, hibernating in safety
before emerging in the spring.
The caterpillars of some butterflies spin a chamber of silken threads around
vegetation, such as blades of grass or the leaves of the foodplant, in which they pass
the winter.
For species that overwinter as a chrysalis, these are often situated close to the
ground, in leaf-litter or in thick vegetation, where the climatic conditions may be less
extreme. Large and Small Whites are two species that overwinter as chrysalises and
these can sometimes be found on walls and under window ledges. Butterflies that
go through the winter as adults, such as Brimstone, Peacock and Small Tortoiseshell,
feed avidly prior to hibernation, so that they build up enough fat reserves to last them
through the winter.
Brimstones hibernate from August through to the first warm days of spring
in February or March. They hide in thick patches of Holly, Ivy and sometimes
Bramble. Peacocks favour sheds and dark crevices, while Small Tortoiseshells will
often enter inhabited dwellings to find their home for the winter. During the winter,
adverse weather such as a prolonged freeze, damp spell or flooding can destroy a
large proportion of a hibernating colony.
Small Tortoiseshells hibernating in a garage.
20

BUTTERFLY BIOLOGY
Migration
Although the majority of Britain and Ireland’s butterflies are resident, and many rarely
move more than a few hundred metres from where they first emerged, a number are
highly migratory . It is rare, for example, for Red Admirals to hibernate successfully in
Britain, so the butterflies we see each summer are the offspring of migrants that have
crossed the English Channel from continental Europe earlier in the season . Similarly, our
populations of Clouded Yellows and Painted Ladies are dependent upon migrants
from the continent, as neither species is thought to overwinter successfully in Britain .
Although the migration is principally northerly, there is also a noticeable southward
movement undertaken by such butterflies as Red Admirals and Painted Ladies in the
autumn . How many manage to return to mainland Europe is unknown .
Some butterflies only reach Britain or Ireland as rare migrants (see pages 172–202) .
The best-known example is the Monarch, a migrant from North America that is now
resident in Madeira, the Canary Islands and along the Mediterranean coast . But several
other species, such as the Long-tailed Blue and Camberwell Beauty, may wander to
Britain, often wind-assisted, from just across the English Channel .
There are also some extreme rarities (see page 172) that have been recorded as
vagrants, usually as a result of unusual weather conditions combined with a good year
for the species .
A Swallowtail encountered away from its East Anglian stronghold is more than
likely to be of the continental subspecies gorganus, which is larger, paler and has
less intense black markings than the British subspecies britannicus.
21

Where to look for butterflies
Some of our butterflies wander from place to place. Different species have
These are the species that are encountered most different needs
readily, such as Brimstone, the whites, Orange-tip, The conditions required to
Holly Blue, Red Admiral, Small Tortoiseshell, Peacock, complete the life-cycle vary from
Comma and Meadow Brown. You may find these species to species. One essential
anywhere. An average-sized garden, with the right factor is a supply of the caterpillar
foodplant growing in a suitable
plants (see opposite) will attract a dozen or more
position.
different species during the year. Always keep a
look out, as species will occasionally turn up in the Small Tortoiseshells (page 136)
need large patches of Common
most unlikely places. In areas of extensive arable Nettle and a rich supply of nectar
farming there will not be many butterflies unless plants, a combination that can
wide hedgerows remain, but elsewhere butterflies be found anywhere in Britain or
have evolved to occupy almost every wild and Ireland and hence this is a widely
semi-natural habitat in Britain and Ireland. The key distributed species.
to finding many species is knowing which habitat Brimstones (page 78) require
or habitats they prefer because, unlike those listed Alder Buckthorn or Buckthorn
above, most of the other species are colonial and (which are widespread in
southern Britain), nectar plants
very fussy about where they live. and thickets of Ivy or Holly for
hibernation. Its distribution
closely matches that of its
Living in colonies foodplant.
Many butterflies are found in the same area year More complex, however, is the
after year as long as suitable conditions remain. Large Blue (page 158), which
Some, such as the Marsh Fritillary and Silver-spotted needs rough grassland in which
Wild Thyme grows and the ant
Skipper, may appear common, often being found Myrmica sabuleti occurs. Also,
in large numbers. But they may be absent from there must be an entrance to an
other nearby areas and are rare because they have ants’ nest within 2 m of a Wild
very few remaining sites. Numbers also fluctuate Thyme plant. Furthermore, the
from year to year, depending on breeding success grass must be less than 4 cm tall
otherwise the habitat becomes
and winter survival rates. If there is a catastrophic unsuitable for the ant on which it
event, such as a major change in land use, a colony depends.
may disappear. Even if the site can be restored to its
former condition, it will not necessarily be recolonized naturally if the nearest remaining
colony is too far away. If local extinctions become widespread, as happened with the
Large Copper and Large Blue, these species could eventually be lost to Britain or Ireland
forever. Only painstaking work and extremely careful habitat management has enabled
the Large Blue to be reintroduced after it became extinct in Britain in 1979.
Recognizing and understanding the fragile and complex nature of butterfly colonies
and populations is essential for their future well-being. In the individual species accounts
in this book, details are given of each butterfly’s preferred habitat. In some cases the
information is quite precise, and specific locations are mentioned. This is necessary for
some of the rarer species because they have limited distributions. For example, you will
22

WHERE TO LOOK FOR BUTTERFLIES
only find a Chequered Skipper in Western Scotland. Glanville Fritillaries fly only on the
Isle of Wight. To see a Mountain Ringlet, you must visit the Lake District or Scotland and
go to the right place and at the right time.
The species accounts also provide guidance on timings and locations. The table on
page 31 summarizes some of the most reliable places to see the scarcer and more
localized species. Additional information on good butterfly sites to visit is available from
a variety of sources, both printed and online; detais of some the most useful are included
in the Further reading section on page 250.
GARDENING FOR BUTTERFLIES

More than 20 different species of butterfly
– a third of the breeding species – are found
regularly in gardens somewhere in Britain or
Ireland. These range from the Red Admiral and
Orange-tip that generally just wander through
rural gardens, to species like the Holly Blue and
Small Tortoiseshell that often breed.
It is possible to attract a variety of butterflies
to even the smallest urban garden by providing
a few attractive nectar plants. However, careful
planting of large gardens with both nectar-
providing plants and suitable flowers, grasses
and trees upon which butterflies can lay their
eggs will attract a considerable variety of
species, and help in their conservation. Details
of favoured caterpillar foodplants and adult
food sources can be found on pages 206–217.
When planning a butterfly garden,
remember that they need sun, warmth and
shelter. Whilst no butterfly garden is complete
without buddleias, many other species will also
attract butterflies, including Aubretia, Sweet-
William, violets, French Marigolds, Lobelia,
Honesty, Lavender, Marjoram and Valerian.
In wild areas, Bramble, Blackthorn, Bugle, Wild
Privet, Ivy, Common Nettle, dandelions, thistles As well as nectar plants for the adults,
and willows can all be important. do not forget their caterpillars: an
If you would like further advice, a good place area of coarse grasses (top) including
Cock’s-foot for browns; patches of
to begin is Butterfly Conservation’s website at Common Bird’s-foot-trefoil (centre)
www.butterfly-conservation.org, where you in short grass for Common Blue; and
will find a helpful section on gardening for stands of Common Nettle (bottom)
butterflies. for Small Tortoiseshell and Peacock.
23

Butterfly habitats
Butterflies have evolved to occupy almost every wild and semi-natural habitat in Britain
and Ireland; they are usually very rare in extensive areas of intensive arable farming,
plantations of exotic trees, and inhospitable places such as exposed mountains. The key
to finding many species of butterflies is knowing which habitat or habitats they prefer.
A summary of the favoured habitats of all regularly occurring species is on page 30.
Gardens and parks

Near Strumpshaw, Norfolk. Gardens and parks are favoured by many species, with a third of
Britain and Ireland’s butterflies being recorded regularly in gardens (but not usually the same
garden). Although the majority of butterflies use these habitats only for feeding, some will also
breed in gardens if suitable foodplants are available.
24

BUTTERFLY HABITATS
Hedgerows and farmland

Totternhoe, Bedfordshire. Mixed farmland can be a productive place to find a wide variety
of butterflies. Hedgerows and banks provide a favoured habitat for Orange-tip, Ringlet,
Gatekeeper, skippers and Small Copper, while hay meadows may hold Meadow Brown,
Common Blue and perhaps Clouded Yellow, which is generally the only butterfly to be found
in extensive fields of Lucerne or clover. Many butterflies favour areas that are lightly grazed
by livestock, and so a number of butterfly reserves are managed in this way. Unfortunately,
intensive arable farms have little attraction for butterflies, unless they contain good, wide
hedgerows and flowery margins. However, roadside verges and areas of rough grassland or
meadows can be suitable. The best hedgerows are those that are not flailed every year, have
a variety of different shrubs and are adjacent to flower-rich meadows. Such a combination of
foodplants and nectar sources is attractive to many species, particularly if managed sensitively.
25

BUTTERFLY HABITATS
Downland
Mill Hill, West Sussex. Some of our rarest and most attractive butterflies, such as the
Chalkhill Blue, Adonis Blue and Silver-spotted Skipper, are to be found on the downs of
southern England. Usually their foodplants flourish best on chalk, while the south-facing slopes
provide shelter and warmth, making them attractive to sun-loving species that are on the
northern edge of their European range. Many areas of downland were lost in the 20th century
when they were ploughed and cereal crops grown. Whilst ploughing is invariably destructive,
habitats can also be lost when traditional grazing ceases. Scrub then develops, shading out
the foodplants that grow in the sward. Downland butterflies are at their most conspicuous
on warm, still days, when different species will patrol their territories, perch on exposed
branches or bask in the sunshine. If it is windy, most species stay near the ground among
vegetation. Butterflies, sometimes of more than one species, often gather in the early evening
to roost in groups; early next morning they bask in the sun for a few minutes before flying off.
26

BUTTERFLY HABITATS
Woodland
Alice Holt Forest, Surrey. A wide variety of butterflies flourish in coppiced or managed
woodland, although they soon disappear from areas where the canopy is allowed to cover over
and exclude sunshine. Several species, such as the Silver-washed Fritillary, White Admiral,
Wood White and Purple Emperor, are restricted to woodland, but they need sunny rides and
open areas to survive. These are good places to see patrolling males and watch for butterflies
settling on their foodplants. Several of the hairstreaks are also woodland inhabitants. The best
woodlands are those that have a mosaic of habitats, including forest clearings, rides and mature
trees. Look out for patches of Bramble, which provide an important nectar source for woodland
species, particularly Silver-washed Fritillary and White Admiral. Canopy-dwelling butterflies,
for example Purple Hairstreak, that feed mainly on aphid honeydew and do not descend
regularly, are best observed with binoculars.
27

BUTTERFLY HABITATS
Wetland and fenland

Strumpshaw Fen, Norfolk. In Britain, only the magnificent Swallowtail breeds in fenland.
This is the largest British butterfly and confined to the Norfolk Broads, where its food plant, Milk-
parsley, grows in abundance. Sadly, the only other marshland species, the Large Copper, is
now extinct.
Coastal dunes and cliffs

Penhale Dunes, Cornwall. Butterflies often thrive in coastal dunes and cliffs because these
habitats have largely been unaffected by man’s activities. Glanville Fritillary is restricted
to the southern cliffs of the Isle of Wight, while several species, such as Common Blue, Dark
Green Fritillary, Wall and Grayling, all favour coastal dunes. The Grayling is a heath and dune
specialist and may be encountered in any dry area where there is exposed ground.
28

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
CHAPTER II.
REMOVAL FROM GRANDMOTHER’S.
Author’s early home—Its charms—Author’s ignorance of “old master”—His

gradual perception of the truth concerning him—His relations to Col.
Edward Lloyd—Author’s removal to “old master’s” home—His journey
thence—His separation from his grandmother—His grief.
LIVING thus with my grandmother, whose kindness and love stood in

place of my mother’s, it was some time before I knew myself to be a
slave. I knew many other things before I knew that. Her little cabin
had to me the attractions of a palace. Its fence-railed floor—which
was equally floor and bedstead—up stairs, and its clay floor down
stairs, its dirt and straw chimney, and windowless sides, and that
most curious piece of workmanship, the ladder stairway, and the
hole so strangely dug in front of the fire-place, beneath which
grandmamma placed her sweet potatoes, to keep them from frost in
winter, were full of interest to my childish observation. The squirrels,
as they skipped the fences, climbed the trees, or gathered their nuts,
were an unceasing delight to me. There, too, right at the side of the
hut, stood the old well, with its stately and skyward-pointing beam,
so aptly placed between the limbs of what had once been a tree, and
so nicely balanced, that I could move it up and down with only one
hand, and could get a drink myself without calling for help. Nor were
these all the attractions of the place. At a little distance stood Mr.
Lee’s mill, where the people came in large numbers to get their corn
ground. I can never tell the many things thought and felt, as I sat on
the bank and watched that mill, and the turning of its ponderous
wheel. The mill-pond, too, had its charms; and with my pin-hook and
thread line I could get amusing nibbles if I could catch no fish.
It was not long, however, before I began to learn the sad fact that
this house of my childhood belonged not to my dear old
grandmother, but to some one I had never seen, and who lived a
great distance off. I learned, too, the sadder fact, that not only the
home and lot, but that grandmother herself and all the little children
around her belonged to a mysterious personage, called by
grandmother, with every mark of reverence, “Old Master.” Thus early
did clouds and shadows begin to fall upon my path.
I learned that this old master, whose name seemed ever to be
mentioned with fear and shuddering, only allowed the little children
to live with grandmother for a limited time, and that as soon as they
were big enough they were promptly taken away to live with the said
old master. These were distressing revelations indeed. My
grandmother was all the world to me, and the thought of being
separated from her was a most unwelcome suggestion to my
affections and hopes. This mysterious old master was really a man
of some consequence. He owned several farms in Tuckahoe, was
the chief clerk and butler on the home plantation of Colonel Lloyd,
had overseers as well as slaves on his own farms, and gave
directions to the overseers on the farms owned by Colonel Lloyd.
Captain Aaron Anthony, for such is the name and title of my old
master, lived on Colonel Lloyd’s plantation, which was situated on
the Wye river, and which was one of the largest, most fertile, and
best appointed in the State.
About this plantation and this old master I was most eager to
know everything which could be known; and, unhappily for me, all
the information I could get concerning him increased my dread of
being separated from my grandmother and grandfather. I wished it
was possible I could remain small all my life, knowing that the sooner
I grew large the shorter would be my time to remain with them.
Everything about the cabin became doubly dear, and I was sure
there could be no other spot equal to it on earth. But the time came
when I must go, and my grandmother, knowing my fears, in pity for
them, kindly kept me ignorant of the dreaded moment up to the
morning (a beautiful summer morning) when we were to start, and,
indeed, during the whole journey, which, child as I was, I remember
as well as if it were yesterday, she kept the unwelcome truth hidden
from me. The distance from Tuckahoe to Colonel Lloyd’s, where my
old master lived, was full twelve miles, and the walk was quite a
severe test of the endurance of my young legs. The journey would
have proved too severe for me, but that my dear old grandmother
(blessings on her memory) afforded occasional relief by “toteing” me
on her shoulder. Advanced in years as she was, as was evident from
the more than one gray hair which peeped from between the ample
and graceful folds of her newly and smoothly ironed bandana turban,
grandmother was yet a woman of power and spirit. She was
remarkably straight in figure, elastic and muscular in movement. I
seemed hardly to be a burden to her. She would have “toted” me
farther, but I felt myself too much of a man to allow it. Yet while I
walked I was not independent of her. She often found me holding her
skirts lest something should come out of the woods and eat me up.
Several old logs and stumps imposed upon me, and got themselves
taken for enormous animals. I could plainly see their legs, eyes,
ears, and teeth, till I got close enough to see that the eyes were
knots, washed white with rain, and the legs were broken limbs, and
the ears and teeth only such because of the point from which they
were seen.
As the day advanced the heat increased, and it was not until the
afternoon that we reached the much dreaded end of the journey.
Here I found myself in the midst of a group of children of all sizes
and of many colors, black, brown, copper colored, and nearly white. I
had not seen so many children before. As a new comer I was an
object of special interest. After laughing and yelling around me and
playing all sorts of wild tricks they asked me to go out and play with
them. This I refused to do. Grandmamma looked sad, and I could not
help feeling that our being there boded no good to me. She was
soon to lose another object of affection, as she had lost many
before. Affectionately patting me on the head she told me to be a
good boy and go out to play with the children. They are “kin to you,”
she said, “go and play with them.” She pointed out to me my brother
Perry, my sisters, Sarah and Eliza. I had never seen them before,
and though I had sometimes heard of them and felt a curious interest
in them, I really did not understand what they were to me or I to
them. Brothers and sisters we were by blood, but slavery had made
us strangers. They were already initiated into the mysteries of old
master’s domicile, and they seemed to look upon me with a certain
degree of compassion. I really wanted to play with them, but they
were strangers to me, and I was full of fear that my grandmother
might leave for home without taking me with her. Entreated to do so,
however, and that, too, by my dear grandmother, I went to the back
part of the house to play with them and the other children. Play,
however, I did not, but stood with my back against the wall
witnessing the playing of the others. At last, while standing there,
one of the children, who had been in the kitchen, ran up to me in a
sort of roguish glee, exclaiming, “Fed, Fed, grandmamma gone!” I
could not believe it. Yet, fearing the worst, I ran into the kitchen to
see for myself, and lo! she was indeed gone, and was now far away
and “clean” out of sight. I need not tell all that happened now. Almost
heart-broken at the discovery, I fell upon the ground and wept a
boy’s bitter tears, refusing to be comforted. My brother gave me
peaches and pears to quiet me, but I promptly threw them on the
ground. I had never been deceived before, and something of
resentment at this, mingled with my grief at parting with my
grandmother.
It was now late in the afternoon. The day had been an exciting
and wearisome one, and, I know not where, but I suppose I sobbed
myself to sleep, and its balm was never more welcome to any
wounded soul than to mine. The reader may be surprised that I
relate so minutely an incident apparently so trivial and which must
have occurred when I was less than seven years old, but as I wish to
give a faithful history of my experience in slavery, I cannot withhold a
circumstance which at the time affected me so deeply, and which I
still remember so vividly. Besides, this was my first introduction to
the realities of the slave system.
CHAPTER III.
TROUBLES OF CHILDHOOD.
Col. Lloyd’s plantation—Aunt Katy—Her cruelty and ill-nature—Capt.

Anthony’s partiality to Aunt Katy—Allowance of food—Author’s hunger—
Unexpected rescue by his mother—The reproof of Aunt Katy—Sleep—A
slave-mother’s love—Author’s inheritance—His mother’s acquirements—
Her death.
ONCE established on the home plantation of Col. Lloyd—I was with

the children there, left to the tender mercies of Aunt Katy, a slave
woman who was to my master what he was to Col. Lloyd. Disposing
of us in classes or sizes, he left to Aunt Katy all the minor details
concerning our management. She was a woman who never allowed
herself to act greatly within the limits of delegated power, no matter
how broad that authority might be. Ambitious of old master’s favor,
ill-tempered and cruel by nature, she found in her present position an
ample field for the exercise of her ill-omened qualities. She had a
strong hold upon old master, for she was a first-rate cook, and very
industrious. She was therefore greatly favored by him—and as one
mark of his favor she was the only mother who was permitted to
retain her children around her, and even to these, her own children,
she was often fiendish in her brutality. Cruel, however, as she
sometimes was to her own children, she was not destitute of
maternal feeling, and in her instinct to satisfy their demands for food,
she was often guilty of starving me and the other children. Want of
food was my chief trouble during my first summer here. Captain
Anthony, instead of allowing a given quantity of food to each slave,
committed the allowance for all to Aunt Katy, to be divided by her,
after cooking, amongst us. The allowance consisted of coarse corn
meal, not very abundant, and which by passing through Aunt Katy’s
hands, became more slender still for some of us. I have often been
so pinched with hunger, as to dispute with old “Nep,” the dog, for the
crumbs which fell from the kitchen table. Many times have I followed
with eager step, the waiting-girl when she shook the table-cloth, to
get the crumbs and small bones flung out for the dogs and cats. It
was a great thing to have the privilege of dipping a piece of bread
into the water in which meat had been boiled—and the skin taken
from the rusty bacon was a positive luxury. With this description of
the domestic arrangements of my new home, I may here recount a
circumstance which is deeply impressed on my memory, as affording
a bright gleam of a slave-mother’s love, and the earnestness of a
mother’s care. I had offended Aunt Katy. I do not remember in what
way, for my offences were numerous in that quarter, greatly
depending upon her moods as to their heinousness, and she had
adopted her usual mode of punishing me: namely, making me go all
day without food. For the first hour or two after dinner time, I
succeeded pretty well in keeping up my spirits; but as the day wore
away, I found it quite impossible to do so any longer. Sundown
came, but no bread; and in its stead came the threat from Aunt Katy,
with a scowl well suited to its terrible import, that she would starve
the life out of me. Brandishing her knife, she chopped off the heavy
slices of bread for the other children, and put the loaf away,
muttering all the while her savage designs upon myself. Against this
disappointment, for I was expecting that her heart would relent at
last, I made an extra effort to maintain my dignity, but when I saw the
other children around me with satisfied faces, I could stand it no
longer. I went out behind the kitchen wall and cried like a fine fellow.
When wearied with this, I returned to the kitchen, sat by the fire and
brooded over my hard lot. I was too hungry to sleep. While I sat in
the corner, I caught sight of an ear of Indian corn upon an upper
shelf. I watched my chance and got it; and shelling off a few grains, I
put it back again. These grains I quickly put into the hot ashes to
roast. I did this at the risk of getting a brutal thumping, for Aunt Katy
could beat as well as starve me. My corn was not long in roasting,
and I eagerly pulled it from the ashes, and placed it upon a stool in a
clever little pile. I began to help myself, when who but my own dear
mother should come in. The scene which followed is beyond my
power to describe. The friendless and hungry boy, in his extremest
need, found himself in the strong protecting arms of his mother. I
have before spoken of my mother’s dignified and impressive manner.
I shall never forget the indescribable expression of her countenance
when I told her that Aunt Katy had said she would starve the life out
of me. There was deep and tender pity in her glance at me, and a
fiery indignation at Aunt Katy at the same moment, and while she
took the corn from me, and gave in its stead a large ginger cake, she
read Aunt Katy a lecture which was never forgotten. That night I
learned as I had never learned before, that I was not only a child, but
somebody’s child. I was grander upon my mother’s knee than a king
upon his throne. But my triumph was short. I dropped off to sleep,
and waked in the morning to find my mother gone and myself at the
mercy again of the virago in my master’s kitchen, whose fiery wrath
was my constant dread.
The Last Time he saw his Mother.
My mother had walked twelve miles to see me, and had the
same distance to travel over again before the morning sunrise. I do
not remember ever seeing her again. Her death soon ended the little
communication that had existed between us, and with it, I believe, a
life full of weariness and heartfelt sorrow. To me it has ever been a
grief that I knew my mother so little, and have so few of her words
treasured in my remembrance. I have since learned that she was the
only one of all the colored people of Tuckahoe who could read. How
she acquired this knowledge I know not, for Tuckahoe was the last
place in the world where she would have been likely to find facilities
for learning. I can therefore fondly and proudly ascribe to her, an
earnest love of knowledge. That a field-hand should learn to read in
any slave State is remarkable, but the achievements of my mother,
considering the place and circumstances, was very extraordinary. In
view of this fact, I am happy to attribute any love of letters I may
have, not to my presumed Anglo-Saxon paternity, but to the native
genius of my sable, unprotected, and uncultivated mother—a woman
who belonged to a race whose mental endowments are still
disparaged and despised.
CHAPTER IV.
A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE SLAVE
PLANTATION.
Home Plantation of Colonel Lloyd—Its Isolation—Its Industries—The Slave

Rule—Power of Overseers—Author finds some Enjoyment—Natural
Scenery—Sloop “Sally Lloyd”—Wind Mill—Slave Quarter—“Old Master’s”
House—Stables, Store Houses, etc., etc.—The Great House—Its
Surroundings—Lloyd—Burial-Place—Superstition of Slaves—Colonel
Lloyd’s Wealth—Negro Politeness—Doctor Copper—Captain Anthony—
His Family—Master Daniel Lloyd—His Brothers—Social Etiquette.
IT was generally supposed that slavery in the State of Maryland

existed in its mildest form, and that it was totally divested of those
harsh and terrible peculiarities which characterized the slave system
in the Southern and South Western States of the American Union.
The ground of this opinion was the contiguity of the free States, and
the influence of their moral, religious, and humane sentiments.
Public opinion was, indeed, a measurable restraint upon the cruelty
and barbarity of masters, overseers, and slave-drivers, whenever
and wherever it could reach them; but there were certain secluded
and out of the way places, even in the State of Maryland, fifty years
ago, seldom visited by a single ray of healthy public sentiment,
where slavery, wrapt in its own congenial darkness, could and did
develop all its malign and shocking characteristics, where it could be
indecent without shame, cruel without shuddering, and murderous
without apprehension or fear of exposure, or punishment. Just such
a secluded, dark, and out of the way place, was the home plantation
of Colonel Edward Lloyd, in Talbot county, eastern shore of
Maryland. It was far away from all the great thoroughfares of travel
and commerce, and proximate to no town or village. There was
neither school-house nor town-house in its neighborhood. The
school-house was unnecessary, for there were no children to go to
school. The children and grandchildren of Col. Lloyd were taught in
the house by a private tutor (a Mr. Page from Greenfield,
Massachusetts, a tall, gaunt, sapling of a man, remarkably dignified,
thoughtful, and reticent, and who did not speak a dozen words to a
slave in a whole year). The overseer’s children went off somewhere
in the State to school, and therefore could bring no foreign or
dangerous influence from abroad to embarrass the natural operation
of the slave system of the place. Not even the commonest
mechanics, from whom there might have been an occasional
outburst of honest and telling indignation at cruelty and wrong on
other plantations, were white men here. Its whole public was made
up of and divided into three classes, slaveholders, slaves, and
overseers. Its blacksmiths, wheelwrights, shoemakers, weavers, and
coopers, were slaves. Not even commerce, selfish and indifferent to
moral considerations as it usually is, was permitted within its
secluded precincts. Whether with a view of guarding against the
escape of its secrets, I know not, but it is a fact, that every leaf and
grain of the products of this plantation and those of the neighboring
farms, belonging to Col. Lloyd, were transported to Baltimore in his
own vessels, every man and boy on board of which, except the
captain, were owned by him as his property. In return, everything
brought to the plantation came through the same channel. To make
this isolation more apparent it may be stated that the adjoining
estates to Col. Lloyd’s were owned and occupied by friends of his,
who were as deeply interested as himself in maintaining the slave
system in all its rigor. These were the Tilgmans, the Goldboroughs,
the Lockermans, the Pacas, the Skinners, Gibsons, and others of
lesser affluence and standing.
The fact is, public opinion in such a quarter, the reader must see,
was not likely to be very efficient in protecting the slave from cruelty.
To be a restraint upon abuses of this nature, opinion must emanate
from humane and virtuous communities, and to no such opinion or
influence was Col. Lloyd’s plantation exposed. It was a little nation
by itself, having its own language, its own rules, regulations, and
customs. The troubles and controversies arising here were not
settled by the civil power of the State. The overseer was the
important dignitary. He was generally accuser, judge, jury, advocate,
and executioner. The criminal was always dumb—and no slave was
allowed to testify, other than against his brother slave.
There were, of course, no conflicting rights of property, for all the
people were the property of one man, and they could themselves
own no property. Religion and politics were largely excluded. One
class of the population was too high to be reached by the common
preacher, and the other class was too low in condition and ignorance
to be much cared for by religious teachers, and yet some religious
ideas did enter this dark corner.
This, however, is not the only view which the place presented.
Though civilization was in many respects shut out, nature could not
be. Though separated from the rest of the world, though public
opinion, as I have said, could seldom penetrate its dark domain,
though the whole place was stamped with its own peculiar iron-like
individuality, and though crimes, high-handed and atrocious, could
be committed there with strange and shocking impunity, it was to
outward seeming a most strikingly interesting place, full of life,
activity, and spirit, and presented a very favorable contrast to the
indolent monotony and languor of Tuckahoe. It resembled in some
respects descriptions I have since read of the old baronial domains
of Europe. Keen as was my regret, and great as was my sorrow, at
leaving my old home, I was not long in adapting myself to this my
new one. A man’s troubles are always half disposed of when he
finds endurance the only alternative. I found myself here; there was
no getting away; and naught remained for me but to make the best
of it. Here were plenty of children to play with, and plenty of pleasant
resorts for boys of my age and older. The little tendrils of affection so
rudely broken from the darling objects in and around my
grandmother’s home, gradually began to extend and twine
themselves around the new surroundings. Here for the first time I
saw a large wind-mill, with its wide-sweeping white wings, a
commanding object to a child’s eye. This was situated on what was
called Long Point—a tract of land dividing Miles river from the Wye. I
spent many hours here watching the wings of this wondrous mill. In
the river, or what was called the “Swash,” at a short distance from
the shore, quietly lying at anchor, with her small row boat dancing at
her stern, was a large sloop, the Sally Lloyd, called by that name in
honor of the favorite daughter of the Colonel. These two objects, the
sloop and mill, as I remember, awakened thoughts, ideas, and
wondering. Then here were a great many houses, human habitations
full of the mysteries of life at every stage of it. There was the little red
house up the road, occupied by Mr. Seveir, the overseer; a little
nearer to my old master’s stood a long, low, rough building literally
alive with slaves of all ages, sexes, conditions, sizes, and colors.
This was called the long quarter. Perched upon a hill east of our
house, was a tall dilapidated old brick building, the architectural
dimensions of which proclaimed its creation for a different purpose,
now occupied by slaves, in a similar manner to the long quarters.
Besides these, there were numerous other slave houses and huts,
scattered around in the neighborhood, every nook and corner of
which, were completely occupied.
Old master’s house, a long brick building, plain but substantial,
was centrally located, and was an independent establishment.
Besides these houses there were barns, stables, store houses,
tobacco-houses, blacksmith shops, wheelwright shops, cooper
shops; but above all there stood the grandest building my young
eyes had ever beheld, called by everyone on the plantation the great
house. This was occupied by Col. Lloyd and his family. It was
surrounded by numerous and variously shaped out-buildings. There
were kitchens, wash-houses, dairies, summer-houses, green-
houses, hen-houses, turkey-houses, pigeon-houses, and arbors of
many sizes and devices, all neatly painted or whitewashed—
interspersed with grand old trees, ornamental and primitive, which
afforded delightful shade in summer and imparted to the scene a
high degree of stately beauty. The great house itself was a large
white wooden building with wings on three sides of it. In front a broad
portico extended the entire length of the building, supported by a
long range of columns, which gave to the Colonel’s home an air of
great dignity and grandeur. It was a treat to my young and gradually
opening mind to behold this elaborate exhibition of wealth, power,
and beauty.
The carriage entrance to the house was by a large gate, more
than a quarter of a mile distant. The intermediate space was a
beautiful lawn, very neatly kept and cared for. It was dotted thickly
over with trees and flowers. The road or lane from the gate to the
great house was richly paved with white pebbles from the beach,
and in its course formed a complete circle around the lawn. Outside
this select enclosure were parks, as about the residences of the
English nobility, where rabbits, deer, and other wild game might be
seen peering and playing about, with “none to molest them or make
them afraid.” The tops of the stately poplars were often covered with
red-winged blackbirds, making all nature vocal with the joyous life
and beauty of their wild, warbling notes. These all belonged to me as
well as to Col. Edward Lloyd, and, whether they did or not, I greatly
enjoyed them. Not far from the great house were the stately
mansions of the dead Lloyds—a place of somber aspect. Vast
tombs, embowered beneath the weeping willow and the fir tree, told
of the generations of the family, as well as their wealth. Superstition
was rife among the slaves about this family burying-ground. Strange
sights had been seen there by some of the older slaves, and I was
often compelled to hear stories of shrouded ghosts, riding on great
black horses, and of balls of fire which had been seen to fly there at
midnight, and of startling and dreadful sounds that had been
repeatedly heard. Slaves knew enough of the Orthodox theology at
the time, to consign all bad slaveholders to hell, and they often
fancied such persons wishing themselves back again to wield the
lash. Tales of sights and sounds strange and terrible, connected with
the huge black tombs, were a great security to the grounds about
them, for few of the slaves had the courage to approach them during
the day time. It was a dark, gloomy and forbidding place, and it was
difficult to feel that the spirits of the sleeping dust there deposited
reigned with the blest in the realms of eternal peace.
Here was transacted the business of twenty or thirty different
farms, which, with the slaves upon them, numbering, in all, not less
than a thousand, all belonged to Col. Lloyd. Each farm was under
the management of an overseer, whose word was law.
Mr. Lloyd at this time was very rich. His slaves alone, numbering
as I have said not less than a thousand, were an immense fortune,
and though scarcely a month passed without the sale of one or more
lots to the Georgia traders, there was no apparent diminution in the
number of his human stock. The selling of any to the State of
Georgia was a sore and mournful event to those left behind, as well
as to the victims themselves.
The reader has already been informed of the handicrafts carried
on here by the slaves. “Uncle” Toney was the blacksmith, “Uncle”
Harry the Cartwright, and “Uncle” Abel was the shoemaker, and
these had assistants in their several departments. These mechanics
were called “Uncles” by all the younger slaves, not because they
really sustained that relationship to any, but according to plantation
etiquette as a mark of respect, due from the younger to the older
slaves. Strange and even ridiculous as it may seem, among a people
so uncultivated and with so many stern trials to look in the face,
there is not to be found among any people a more rigid enforcement
of the law of respect to elders than is maintained among them. I set
this down as partly constitutional with the colored race and partly
conventional. There is no better material in the world for making a
gentleman than is furnished in the African.
Among other slave notabilities, I found here one called by
everybody, white and colored, “Uncle” Isaac Copper. It was seldom
that a slave, however venerable, was honored with a surname in
Maryland, and so completely has the south shaped the manners of
the north in this respect that their right to such honor is tardily
admitted even now. It goes sadly against the grain to address and
treat a negro as one would address and treat a white man. But once
in a while, even in a slave state, a negro had a surname fastened to
him by common consent. This was the case with “Uncle” Isaac
Copper. When the “Uncle” was dropped, he was called Doctor
Copper. He was both our Doctor of Medicine and our Doctor of
Divinity. Where he took his degree I am unable to say, but he was
too well established in his profession to permit question as to his
native skill, or attainments. One qualification he certainly had. He
was a confirmed cripple, wholly unable to work, and was worth
nothing for sale in the market. Though lame, he was no sluggard. He
made his crutches do him good service, and was always on the alert
looking up the sick, and such as were supposed to need his aid and
counsel. His remedial prescriptions embraced four articles. For
diseases of the body, epsom salts and castor oil; for those of the
soul, the “Lord’s prayer,” and a few stout hickory switches.
I was early sent to Doctor Isaac Copper, with twenty or thirty
other children, to learn the Lord’s prayer. The old man was seated on
a huge three-legged oaken stool, armed with several large hickory
switches, and from the point where he sat, lame as he was, he could
reach every boy in the room. After standing a while to learn what was
expected of us, he commanded us to kneel down. This done, he told
us to say everything he said. “Our Father”—this we repeated after
him with promptness and uniformity—“who art in Heaven,” was less
promptly and uniformly repeated, and the old gentleman paused in
the prayer to give us a short lecture, and to use his switches on our
backs.
Everybody in the South seemed to want the privilege of whipping
somebody else. Uncle Isaac, though a good old man, shared the
common passion of his time and country. I cannot say I was much
edified by attendance upon his ministry. There was even at that time
something a little inconsistent and laughable, in my mind, in the
blending of prayer with punishment. I was not long in my new home
before I found that the dread I had conceived of Captain Anthony
was in a measure groundless. Instead of leaping out from some
hiding place and destroying me, he hardly seemed to notice my
presence. He probably thought as little of my arrival there, as of an
additional pig to his stock. He was the chief agent of his employer.
The overseers of all the farms composing the Lloyd estate, were in
some sort under him. The Colonel himself seldom addressed an
overseer, or allowed himself to be addressed by one. To Captain
Anthony, therefore, was committed the headship of all the farms. He
carried the keys of all the storehouses, weighed and measured the
allowances of each slave, at the end of each month; superintended
the storing of all goods brought to the store-house; dealt out the raw
material to the different handicraftsmen, shipped the grain, tobacco,
and all other saleable produce of the numerous farms to Baltimore,
and had a general oversight of all the workshops of the place. In
addition to all this he was frequently called abroad to Easton and
elsewhere in the discharge of his numerous duties as chief agent of
the estate.
The family of Captain Anthony consisted of two sons—Andrew
and Richard, his daughter Lucretia and her newly married husband,
Captain Thomas Auld. In the kitchen were Aunt Katy, Aunt Esther,
and ten or a dozen children, most of them older than myself. Capt.
Anthony was not considered a rich slaveholder, though he was pretty
well off in the world. He owned about thirty slaves and three farms in
the Tuckahoe district. The more valuable part of his property was in
slaves, of whom he sold one every year, which brought him in seven
or eight hundred dollars, besides his yearly salary and other revenue
from his lands.
I have been often asked during the earlier part of my free life at
the north, how I happened to have so little of the slave accent in my
speech. The mystery is in some measure explained by my
association with Daniel Lloyd, the youngest son of Col. Edward
Lloyd. The law of compensation holds here as well as elsewhere.
While this lad could not associate with ignorance without sharing its
shade, he could not give his black playmates his company without
giving them his superior intelligence as well. Without knowing this, or
caring about it at the time, I, for some cause or other, was attracted
to him and was much his companion.
I had little to do with the older brothers of Daniel—Edward and
Murray. They were grown up and were fine looking men. Edward
was especially esteemed by the slave children and by me among the
rest, not that he ever said anything to us or for us which could be
called particularly kind. It was enough for us that he never looked or
acted scornfully toward us. The idea of rank and station was rigidly
maintained on this estate. The family of Captain Anthony never
visited the great house, and the Lloyds never came to our house.
Equal non-intercourse was observed between Captain Anthony’s
family and the family of Mr. Seveir, the overseer.
Such, kind readers, was the community and such the place in
which my earliest and most lasting impressions of the workings of
slavery were received—of which impressions you will learn more in
the after coming chapters of this book.
CHAPTER V.
A SLAVEHOLDER’S CHARACTER.
Increasing acquaintance with old Master—Evils of unresisted passion—

Apparent tenderness—A man of trouble—Custom of muttering to himself
—Brutal outrage—A drunken overseer—Slaveholder’s impatience—
Wisdom of appeal—A base and selfish attempt to break up a courtship.
ALTHOUGH my old master, Captain Anthony, gave me, at the first of

my coming to him from my grandmother’s, very little attention, and
although that little was of a remarkably mild and gentle description, a
few months only were sufficient to convince me that mildness and
gentleness were not the prevailing or governing traits of his
character. These excellent qualities were displayed only
occasionally. He could, when it suited him, appear to be literally
insensible to the claims of humanity. He could not only be deaf to the
appeals of the helpless against the aggressor, but he could himself
commit outrages deep, dark, and nameless. Yet he was not by
nature worse than other men. Had he been brought up in a free
state, surrounded by the full restraints of civilized society—restraints
which are necessary to the freedom of all its members, alike and
equally, Capt. Anthony might have been as humane a man as are
members of such society generally. A man’s character always takes
its hue, more or less, from the form and color of things about him.
The slaveholder, as well as the slave, was the victim of the slave
system. Under the whole heavens there could be no relation more
unfavorable to the development of honorable character than that
sustained by the slaveholder to the slave. Reason is imprisoned here
and passions run wild. Could the reader have seen Captain Anthony
gently leading me by the hand, as he sometimes did, patting me on
the head, speaking to me in soft, caressing tones and calling me his
little Indian boy, he would have deemed him a kind-hearted old man,
and really almost fatherly to the slave boy. But the pleasant moods of
a slaveholder are transient and fitful. They neither come often nor
remain long. The temper of the old man was subject to special trials,
but since these trials were never borne patiently, they added little to
his natural stock of patience. Aside from his troubles with his slaves
and those of Mr. Lloyd’s, he made the impression upon me of being
an unhappy man. Even to my child’s eye he wore a troubled and at
times a haggard aspect. His strange movements excited my curiosity
and awakened my compassion. He seldom walked alone without
muttering to himself, and he occasionally stormed about as if defying
an army of invisible foes. Most of his leisure was spent in walking
around, cursing and gesticulating as if possessed by a demon. He
was evidently a wretched man, at war with his own soul and all the
world around him. To be overheard by the children disturbed him
very little. He made no more of our presence than that of the ducks
and geese he met on the green. But when his gestures were most
violent, ending with a threatening shake of the head and a sharp
snap of his middle finger and thumb, I deemed it wise to keep at a
safe distance from him.
One of the first circumstances that opened my eyes, to the
cruelties and wickedness of slavery and its hardening influences
upon my old master, was his refusal to interpose his authority to
protect and shield a young woman, a cousin of mine, who had been
most cruelly abused and beaten by his overseer in Tuckahoe. This
overseer, a Mr. Plummer, was like most of his class, little less than a
human brute; and in addition to his general profligacy and repulsive
coarseness, he was a miserable drunkard, a man not fit to have the
management of a drove of mules. In one of his moments of drunken
madness he committed the outrage which brought the young woman
in question down to my old master’s for protection. The poor girl, on
her arrival at our house, presented a most pitiable appearance. She
had left in haste and without preparation, and probably without the
knowledge of Mr. Plummer. She had traveled twelve miles, bare-
footed, bare-necked, and bare-headed. Her neck and shoulders
were covered with scars newly made, and not content with marring
her neck and shoulders with the cowhide, the cowardly wretch had

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First published 2002 by WILDGuides Ltd.

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available

Library of Congress Control Number 2020941057

Production and design by WILDGuides Ltd., Old Basing, Hampshire UK.

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David Newland, Robert Still and Andy Swash

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A Ringlet basks in late July sunshine.

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A male Orange-tip nectars on

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How butterflies and moths differ

Dingy Skipper (the British butterfly An Orange-tip, showing its clubbed

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Some moths, such as this Scarlet Tiger, Six-spot

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Common Blues mating;

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CATERPILLAR MATING PAIR

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At the latter stages of

A sight not yet

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This tattered individual is barely recognizable as an

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search for virgin females. Males have 1 adult female

Caterpillar foodplants (see pages 206–213)

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Adult food sources (see pages 214–217)

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Living with ants

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Living through the winter

Small Tortoiseshells hibernating in a garage.

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GARDENING FOR BUTTERFLIES

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Gardens and parks

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Hedgerows and farmland

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