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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry, Fourth edition
Coursebook with CD-ROM
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Coursebook Fourth edition

Richard Harwood and Ian Lodge
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry, Fourth edition matches the
requirements of the 2016 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry syllabus
(0620). It is endorsed by Cambridge International Examinations
9780521757843 Cambers & Sibley: IGCSE Physics Cover. C M Y K
for use with their examination.

The Coursebook has been revised ensuring that it is up to date
and comprehensive in its coverage with supplementary
material clearly marked. A Workbook and Teacher’s Resource
are also available. Cambridge IGCSE®
Chemistry
The Coursebook contains:
• total coverage of the syllabus
• language accessible to students of a wide range of abilities
• a clear indication of the chapter content at the beginning of
each chapter
• activities to help students develop practical and investigative skills
• study tips throughout to aid with understanding
• highlighted definition boxes
Coursebook
• a specific chapter relating to the development of practical and
investigative skills
• in-chapter questions and end-of-chapter questions, including exam-
style questions to test students’ knowledge
• summaries at the end of each chapter
• a glossary of key chemical terms.
The accompanying CD-ROM contains:
• advice on how to revise for and approach examinations Fourth edition
• self-assessment check lists for making drawings, constructing and
completing results tables, drawing graphs, and designing experiments
• revision check lists for each chapter
• answers to the end-of-chapter questions, including the
exam-style questions
• model exam papers and mark schemes
• multiple-choice self tests and answers
• expanded notes on the activities from the Coursebook with full
teacher/technician notes for the activities
Harwood and Lodge

• a series of animations to aid understanding.
Other components of IGCSE Chemistry, Fourth edition:
Workbook ISBN 978-1-107-61499-4
Teacher’s resource ISBN 978-1-107-61501-4
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Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

Cambridge IGCSE®
Chemistry
Coursebook
Fourth edition

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Contents
Introduction v 5.4 Acid reactions in everyday life 127
5.5 Alkalis and bases 129
1 Planet Earth 1 5.6 Characteristic reactions of acids 131
1.1 Natural cycles and resources 2 5.7 Acids and alkalis in chemical analysis 134
1.2 The atmosphere 5 5.8 Salts 136
1.3 Seas and rivers 11 5.9 Preparing soluble salts 138
1.4 The Earth’s crust 14 5.10 Preparing insoluble salts 141
5.11 Strong and weak acids and alkalis 143
2 The nature of matter 21

2.1 The states of matter 22 6 Quantitative chemistry 151
2.2 Separating and purifying substances 27 6.1 Chemical analysis and formulae 152
2.3 Atoms and molecules 34 6.2 The mole and chemical formulae 158
2.4 The structure of the atom 41 6.3 The mole and chemical equations 161
2.5 Electron arrangements in atoms 47 6.4 Calculations involving gases 165
6.5 Moles and solution chemistry 166
3 Elements and compounds 55
3.1 The Periodic Table – classifying the elements 56 7 How far? How fast? 174
3.2 Trends in groups 60 7.1 Energy changes in chemical reactions 175
3.3 Trends across a period 63 7.2 Rates of reaction 181
3.4 Chemical bonding in elements and 7.3 Catalysts 187
compounds 65 7.4 Photochemical reactions 193
3.5 The chemical formulae of elements and 7.5 Reversible reactions and chemical equilibria 194
compounds 75
3.6 Metals, alloys and crystals 78 8 Patterns and properties of metals 206
8.1 The alkali metals 207
4 Chemical reactions 89 8.2 Aluminium 210
4.1 Chemical reactions and equations 90 8.3 The transition elements 212
4.2 Equations for chemical reactions 91 8.4 The reactivity of metals 215
4.3 Types of chemical reaction 94 8.5 Electrical cells and energy 221
4.4 A closer look at reactions, particularly
redox reactions 100 9 Industrial inorganic chemistry 226
4.5 Electrolysis 102 9.1 The extraction of metals by carbon reduction 227
4.6 A closer look at electrode reactions 113 9.2 The extraction of metals by electrolysis 234
9.3 Ammonia and fertilisers 235
5 Acids, bases and salts 119 9.4 Sulfur and sulfuric acid 238
5.1 What is an acid? 120 9.5 The chlor–alkali industry 241
5.2 Acid and alkali solutions 124 9.6 Limestone 242
5.3 Metal oxides and non-metal oxides 125 9.7 The economics of the chemical industry 245
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Contents iii

10 Organic chemistry 252 Answers to questions 326
10.1 The unique properties of carbon 253
10.2 Alkanes 254 Glossary 336
10.3 Alkenes 257
10.4 Hydrocarbon structure and isomerism 259 Appendix: The Periodic Table 346
10.5 Chemical reactions of the alkanes 262
10.6 Chemical reactions of the alkenes 263 Index 347
10.7 Alcohols 265
10.8 The reactions of ethanol 267 Acknowledgements 356
10.9 Organic acids and esters 269
Terms and conditions of use for
11 Petrochemicals and polymers 275 the CD-ROM 357
11.1 Petroleum 276
11.2 Alternative fuels and energy sources 282 CD-ROM
11.3 Addition polymerisation 284 Activities
11.4 Condensation polymerisation 287 Notes on Activities for teachers/technicians
Self-assessment checklists
Answers to end-of-chapter questions
12 Chemical analysis and Study and revision skills
investigation 296 Revision checklists
12.1 Inorganic analysis 297 Self-assessment tests
12.2 Organic analysis 304 Model papers and mark schemes
12.3 Experimental design and investigation 305 Syllabus Matching grids
12.4 How practical work is assessed 310 Animations
iv Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

Introduction
Chemistry is a laboratory science: its subject material and understanding of the ideas involved. At the end of each
theories are based on experimental observation. However, section there are short questions to help you check that
its scope reaches out beyond the laboratory into every you have followed the ideas covered. The answers to these
aspect of our lives – to our understanding of the nature short questions are provided at the end of the book to help
of our planet, the environment we live in, the resources you with this. Included in the text are a series of study tips
available to us and the factors that affect our health. and key definitions. These highlight important areas of
This book thoroughly covers the Cambridge learning and useful approaches to a particular topic.
International Examinations (CIE) Chemistry syllabus Each chapter finishes with a summary of Core and
and includes features which are aimed at helping you Supplement material to help you particularly with your
grasp the concepts and detail involved. The areas that revision. This is followed by a selection of end-of-chapter
cover the Core and Supplement material of the syllabus questions which are there to help you become familiar
S are clearly marked (the Supplement material having a with the style of question set in each examination.
purple bar like the one here in the margin) so that you Answering questions is a great way to get to grips with
can see which topics will be tested on each exam paper each of the topics. However, it is not the only way! The
that you will take. The topic summaries, questions and Student CD-ROM provides information on revision skills
end-of-chapter questions are also clearly marked so that and resources available on the internet to help with your
you can pick out, study and revise the material relevant study of chemistry. A copy of the syllabus is provided on
to the ‘core’ and ‘extended’ papers. the CD-ROM, which shows where the different topics are
The first chapter of the book serves to set chemistry covered in the book – and you can use this interactively
in its broader context and as such contains material that as a checklist during revision. ‘Mind-mapping’ ideas and
‘sets the scene’ as well as syllabus material. At various other revision strategies are discussed on the CD-ROM,
points in this and other chapters there is material that and we hope that you can find ideas that will help you
provides and develops some of the context in which study in the most personally effective way.
chemical ideas are important. These are areas such as: An important feature which appears both in the book
◆ the importance of chemistry to life, and the nature and on the Student CD-ROM is the glossary. The terms
of the universe (Chapter 1) included in the glossary are highlighted in the text in
◆ renewable and non-renewable resources (Chapter 1) dark red bold. Do use this resource in addition to the
◆ our need to develop alternative energy sources text in order to help you understand the meaning of
(Chapter 11). chemical terms. But more than that, it is important that
The introduction to each chapter aims to highlight some you can express your ideas clearly in an exam – that is
of the more novel aspects of chemistry – from unusual why we have included so many practice questions in the
alloys and the visualisation of the bonding in molecules book and in the practice tests that appear on the CD-
to the analytical laboratory on the surface of Mars. ROM. It is also why we have tried to cover the ideas in
each chapter thoroughly in our wording. The information
boxes and ‘key definitions’ placed throughout the
Features of the book and the chapters are there to help you learn how to summarise
Student CD-ROM your knowledge in an effective and clear way. Chemistry,
The book is divided into broad chapters covering and science in general, can often use certain words in a
important areas of the syllabus. These chapters are then very precise way, so it is important to read carefully and
divided into different sections to help you manage your get used to writing down your answers clearly.
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Introduction v

Practical work observations and making deductions from your
We began by saying that chemistry was a practical results. Included there are methods that you can
science and, in this edition, we have included Activities use to assess (by yourself, and with your teacher)
throughout the chapters, which we hope will encourage how well you are developing your data handling and
your enjoyment of the practical aspect of the subject. presentation skills.
Worksheets for these practicals are included on the Chemistry is an important, exciting and challenging
Student CD-ROM. In addition, we have aimed to help subject that impacts on every aspect of our lives. As we
your preparation for the practical element of the exam face the challenges of the future, the chemical ‘angle’
in various ways: on things will figure in our thinking, whatever future
◆ Chapter 12 of the book gives a summary of the course we personally take in our careers. We hope that
different ways that practical work is assessed and this book will help you enjoy chemistry, give you some
some exemplar questions. understanding of the ideas involved and help you be
◆ There are practice ‘alternative to practical’ papers successful in the IGCSE course.
(Paper 6) on the Student CD-ROM.
◆ The separate Student Workbook contains exercises Richard Harwood
involving practice at the key skills of writing up your Ian Lodge
vi Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

1 Planet Earth
In this chapter, you will find out about:
◆ the water cycle ◆ ‘greenhouse gases’ and climate change

S ◆ the carbon cycle ◆ water treatment and sewage treatment
◆ the nitrogen cycle ◆ the pollution of water
◆ the composition and uses of the gases in ◆ metal ores and limestone
the air ◆ fossil fuels and the problems they
S ◆ the separation of air into its components cause
◆ the sources of air pollution ◆ alternative sources of energy
◆ the problems of air pollution, and their ◆ hydrogen as a fuel
solution S ◆ the hydrogen fuel cell.
A brief history of the Earth unremarkable. It is the chemicals which make up the
Earth and the ways in which they interact with each
other that make life on Earth possible.
At the start, the Earth was a ball of molten rock.
The surface solidified to a solid crust as it cooled
and contracted, and cracks appeared. Volcanoes shot
molten rock and gases from this surface and the
first atmosphere (mainly carbon dioxide and water
vapour) was formed.
Condensing water vapour fell back to the
surface and, over many millions of years, plant
life developed in these warm, shallow seas. The
plants used carbon dioxide in photosynthesis and,
crucially, put oxygen into the atmosphere. Once
sufficient oxygen was present, animal life began
to evolve. Nitrogen entered the atmosphere from
bacteria. Because nitrogen is an unreactive gas,
it was not removed and it has built up to a large
Figure 1.1 A satellite image over Africa: one view of the ‘blue marble’. percentage of the atmosphere.
The development of plant and animal life
The Earth is a ball of rock orbiting a star along over many millions of years has led to the Earth’s
with a group of other planets (Figure 1.1). The present balance of chemicals. The activity of humans
star is one of many billions of stars in a galaxy is now altering this chemical balance and we
which, in turn, is one of many billion galaxies in a are rapidly using up many of the Earth’s natural
constantly expanding Universe. As such, the Earth is resources.
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Planet Earth 1

◆ As it cools, it changes back into liquid water and
Studyy tip
p
forms clouds (tiny water droplets).
This chapter provides a context for the chemistry ◆ As the water droplets stick together, rain clouds are
that you study. As such, it makes some general formed and the water falls back to the surface as
comments about the origins of the Earth and the rain, snow or hail.
nature of the natural resource cycles that occur. ◆ Water then either flows back to the sea or is taken
The list at the start of this chapter is similar to in by plants, which put it back into the atmosphere
those given at the beginning of each chapter. It through their leaves.
gives you an idea of the material in the chapter ◆ We use the water by trapping it on its way back to
that is contained in the syllabus and that can the sea.
therefore be examined.
The carbon cycle
S
Carbon is only the twelfth most common element in
the Earth, making up less than 1% of the crust. It is,
1.1 Natural cycles and resources however, very important to us. Without carbon, life
There are a number of crucial cycles built into the would not exist. The way in which carbon moves around
nature of the resources of our planet. in the carbon cycle is vital to all life (Figure 1.3).
The source of the carbon in the cycle is carbon dioxide
The water cycle
in the atmosphere. Only about 0.04% of the atmosphere
The Earth is sometimes referred to as the ‘blue marble’
is carbon dioxide.
because of the predominance of water on the surface
Carbon dioxide leaves the atmosphere in the
and the swirling cloud formations seen in satellite
following ways:
images. The Earth is distinctive in the solar system in
◆ Green plants take carbon dioxide and water,
that its surface temperature is such that all three states
combining them together to form glucose and
of water exist on the surface. There is a distinct ‘water
oxygen. This process uses energy from the Sun and
cycle’ taking place on the Earth’s surface (Figure 1.2).
is called photosynthesis. The word equation for the
◆ The energy to drive this cycle comes from the Sun.
reaction is:
◆ Water evaporates from the sea and from other areas
of water, such as lakes, and enters the atmosphere. carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
PRECIPITATION
(rain and snow etc.)
EVAPORATION RUN-OFF
from sea and land over surface
TRANSPIRATION
from plant leaves
LAKES AND
RESERVOIRS
PERCOLATION
through ground
STREAMS
SEAS AND
AND RIVERS
OCEANS
Figure 1.2 The water cycle.
2 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

S
CARBON DIOXIDE IN
THE ATMOSPHERE
heating in
dissolves industry
burning
respiration, fossil fuels
burning
and decay
oil and CHALK and

GREEN PLANTS natural gas LIMESTONE
photosynthesis
concentration
COAL in shells
decay and sedimentation

decay and pressure
respiration
pressure
and decay
feeding
ANIMALS MARINE
CREATURES
Figure 1.3 The carbon cycle.
◆ Carbon dioxide dissolves in water (mainly seawater), ◆ Wood can be burnt. This combustion produces S
where it is used by animals and plants. Plants use carbon dioxide:
it in photosynthesis; animals use it to make their
carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
shells.
This is what happens to the carbon once it has been ◆ Fossilised plants and animals form fossil fuels (coal,
captured from the atmosphere: oil and gas); these produce carbon dioxide when
◆ The plants are eaten by animals. they are burnt.
◆ Animals and plants die and rot away, or they are ◆ Limestone produces carbon dioxide when it is
buried and slowly (over millions of years) are heated in industry and when it moves back below
fossilised. the Earth’s crust.
◆ Tiny sea creatures die and their bodies fall to the The problem we face is balancing the amount of
bottom of the sea where they slowly (over millions carbon dioxide being added to the atmosphere with
of years) change to limestone. the amount being taken out by plants and the oceans
These are the ways in which carbon dioxide is put back (Figure 1.4, overleaf).
into the atmosphere:
◆ Animals and plants ‘breathe out’ carbon dioxide The nitrogen cycle
when they respire. The process of respiration Nitrogen is essential for plant growth and therefore
uses oxygen from the air and releases carbon for the life of animals (Figure 1.5, overleaf). There is
dioxide: plenty of nitrogen in the atmosphere (78%) but it is
unreactive and so it is difficult to get it into the soil
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
for plants to use.
◆ When plants and animals decay after death, carbon Plants generally get their nitrogen from nitrates in
dioxide is produced. the soil and animals get theirs from eating plants.

S from the atmosphere which the plants can then use.
OXYGEN IN THE AIR
This process is called nitrogen fixation.
During thunderstorms, the very high temperature
Photosynthesis in plants Respiration and combustion of the lightning provides enough energy to cause
releases oxygen remove oxygen atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen to react with water in
into the air. from the air.
the atmosphere to form nitric acid. When this falls with
rain, it forms nitrates in the soil. Nitrogen is also taken
from the air by the chemical industry when fertiliser is
made by the Haber process.
Taken together, these processes form the nitrogen
cycle (Figure 1.5).
These three major cycles – of water, carbon and
nitrogen – together with the rock cycle interlink
Photosynthesis in plants Respiration and combustion and, between them, provide us with the resources
removes carbon dioxide release carbon dioxide
from the air. into the air. we need.
CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE AIR The Earth’s resources

In human terms, resources are materials we get from
Figure 1.4 Maintaining the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air. the environment to meet our needs. Some are the basic
material resources we and other organisms need to
When plants and animals die and decay, bacteria keep alive; others are materials from which we obtain
help the decomposition and nitrogen is returned to energy, or substances useful for our civilised way of
the soil. life. Chemistry helps us to understand how the basic
There are also bacteria that live in the roots of some resources sustain our life. It also provides the methods
plants (e.g. beans and clover) that can ‘fix’ nitrogen of extraction and use of other resources.
NITROGEN IN THE ATMOSPHERE
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in soil
bacteria and legumes Haber lightning
process and rain
feeding
PLANTS
ANIMALS AMMONIA AND
AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS
(FERTILISERS)
excretion
plants take death of plants
up nitrates and animals bacteria
for growth
NITRATES IN THE SOIL
Figure 1.5 The nitrogen cycle.

Material resources can be broadly subdivided into
Questions
renewable, potentially renewable and non-renewable
resources, based on our short human timescale. 1.1 How does the Sun keep the water cycle working?
1.2 How does the Sun keep the carbon cycle working?
◆ Non-renewable resources are those that exist in 1.3 How could the Sun be the source of our energy
a fixed quantity in the Earth’s crust – for example, in the future?
metallic and non-metallic minerals and fossil 1.4 Write the word equations for: S
fuels. They were formed over millions of years a photosynthesis
and are being used up much faster than they are b the complete combustion of carbon in air
being formed. c respiration.
◆ Renewable resources are those that essentially
will never run out (are inexhaustible) – for
example, wind, tides and direct solar energy.
◆ Potentially renewable resources can be renewed, 1.2 The atmosphere
but they will run out if we use them more quickly
Uses of the gases of the air
than they can be renewed. Examples include fresh
Clean air has the following approximate composition:
water and air, fertile soil, and plant and animal
nitrogen 78%, oxygen 21%, argon 0.9% and ‘other gases’
biomass.
(including carbon dioxide, water vapour, neon and
other noble gases) 0.1% (Figure 1.6, overleaf).
The biggest environmental concern is the depletion Carbon dioxide is an important part of the air but
of non-renewable resources. Once they are used up, makes up only about 0.04% of it. The carbon dioxide which
we will have to manage without them. Metal ores, is used by humans is not usually obtained from the air.
especially those of iron, aluminium and copper, are Nitrogen is used in the manufacture of ammonia
becoming scarcer. The ores that still exist are often of and fertilisers in the Haber process. Liquid nitrogen
low quality, making the process of extraction costly. is used in cryogenics (the storing of embryos and
Fossil fuels are another concern. New deposits of oil are other types of living tissue at very low temperatures).
being discovered but the speed at which we are using Nitrogen is also sometimes used where an unreactive
the oil we have is increasing. A time will come when gas is needed to keep air away from certain products;
all the oil, and eventually all the coal, will run out. for example, it is used to fill bags of crisps (chips) to
Phosphate minerals, essential for the manufacture of ensure that the crisps do not get crushed or go rancid as
fertilisers, are also becoming scarcer. a result of contact with oxygen in the air.
A number of these problems can be reduced by The biggest single use of oxygen is in the production
recycling some of the substances we use: recycling of steel from cast iron. It is also used in oxyacetylene
metals helps conserve metal ores and recycling plastics torches to produce the high-temperature flames needed
helps conserve the petroleum from which they are to cut and weld metals. In hospitals, oxygen in cylinders
made. All recycling helps save energy, which comes is used to help the breathing of sick people.
mainly from fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels are a bigger problem. We will always
need energy. A partial solution is to make more use of
our renewable resources. Wind power, solar power and Activity 1.1
water power from rivers, tides and waves can all be used Estimating the amount of oxygen
to generate electricity. in air
An increasing problem is the way in which our This is a demonstration of the reduction in
potentially renewable resources are being affected by volume when air is passed over heated copper.
overuse and pollution. The next three sections give A worksheet is included on the CD-ROM.
more detail on these problems.

EARLY VOLCANIC ATMOSPHERE
methane reacted with early oxygen carbon dioxide ammonia steam

CH4 CO2 NH3 H 2O
CO2 dissolved in oceans,

then concentrated condensed as
into the shells of sea the Earth
creatures as cooled down
plants
calcium carbonate (photosynthesis) reacted with oxygen
+
denitrifying bacteria
in the soil
sedimentary rocks
such as limestone some carbon
or chalk trapped as oceans
fossil fuels
oxygen nitrogen
O2 N2
(21%) (78%)
OUR ATMOSPHERE NOW
Figure 1.6 The development of the Earth’s atmosphere.
because they glow with different colours when

Studyy tip
p
electricity flows through them.
If you are asked for a use of oxygen, ‘breathing’ is Before any of the gases in the air can be used separately, S
not considered to be a correct answer because it is they have to be separated from the air in the atmosphere.
air rather than oxygen that we breathe. You need The method used is fractional distillation, which works
to give a use of pure oxygen. because the gases have different boiling points (Table 1.1).
Studyy tip
p
Argon and other noble gases are used in different types Remember to be careful with temperatures below
of lighting. Argon is used to ‘fill’ light bulbs to prevent 0 °C (with a negative sign). The boiling point of
the tungsten filament burning away (Figure 1.7). It does nitrogen (−196 °C) is a lower temperature than
not react with tungsten even at very high temperatures. −183 °C (the boiling point of oxygen).
The other noble gases are used in advertising signs

S
Boiling Proportion in
Gas mixture / %
point / °C
carbon dioxide −32 0.04
(sublimes)
xenon −108 —(a)
krypton −153 —(a)
oxygen −183 21
argon −186 0.9
nitrogen −196 78
neon −246 —(a)
helium −249 —(a)
(a)
All the other gases in the air make up 0.06% of the total.
Table 1.1 The boiling points of the gases in air.
Most countries produce electricity by burning coal

or oil. Both these fuels are contaminated with sulfur,
which produces sulfur dioxide when it burns:
Figure 1.7 Filament light bulbs contain argon which does not react with the
hot tungsten filament. sulfur + oxygen → sulfur dioxide
S + O2 → SO2
S Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) (for example, nitrogen
The process of fractional distillation involves dioxide, NO2) are also produced when air is heated in
two stages. furnaces. These gases dissolve in rainwater to produce
◆ First the air must be cooled until it turns into
‘acid rain’ (Figure 1.8, overleaf).
a liquid (liquefies).
◆ Then the liquid air is allowed to warm up again.
There are numerous effects of acid rain.
The various gases boil off one at a time at different
◆ Limestone buildings, statues, etc., are worn away.
temperatures.
◆ Lakes are acidified, and metal ions (for example,
nitrogen
Al3+ ions) that are leached (washed) out of the
t
(b.p. –196 ºC) soil damage the gills of fish, which may die.
firs
ils ◆ Nutrients are leached out of the soil and from
bo
air
cool and allow to boils argon leaves. Trees are deprived of these nutrients.
liquid air
compress warm up second (b.p. –186 ºC)
bo
Aluminium ions are freed from clays as
ils
th
ird aluminium sulfate, which damages tree roots.
oxygen The tree is unable to draw up enough water
(b.p. –183 ºC)
through the damaged roots, and it dies.
The wind can carry acid rain clouds away from the
Pollution of the air industrialised areas, causing the pollution to fall on
Many gases are accidentally or deliberately released into other countries.
the air. Some are harmless but many create problems One way to remedy the effects of acid rain is to
for the environment. The main source of ‘problem’ gases add lime to lakes and the surrounding land to decrease
is the burning of fossil fuels. the acidity. The best solution, however, is to prevent

sulfur dioxide, chemical reactions in the
nitrogen oxides air and in the clouds
nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons
effects on trees
acid and buildings
rain
run-off
effects on effects on water chemistry

soil chemistry and water biology
Figure 1.8 The formation of acid rain.
the acidic gases from being released in the first place. Another pollution problem arising from motor vehicles
‘Scrubbers’ are fitted to power station furnaces. In is caused by tetraethyl lead in petrol (leaded petrol).
these devices, the acidic gases are passed through an Burning this type of petrol releases the toxic metal lead
alkaline substance such as lime. This removes the acids, into the environment (Figure 1.9). The use of lead in petrol
making the escaping gases much less harmful. In many has decreased significantly over the last 20 years. In 2011,
countries, though, acidic gases from power stations are the United Nations announced the successful, worldwide,
still a serious problem. phasing out of leaded petrol for road vehicles. There are
Petrol (gasoline) and diesel for use in road transport only a handful of countries where it is still available.
have most of their sulfur removed when they are The dangers of these pollutants are as follows.
refined. Sulfur dioxide is not a serious problem with ◆ Nitrogen dioxide causes acid rain and can combine
motor vehicles but the other contents of vehicle exhaust with other gases in very hot weather to cause
fumes (Figure 1.9) can cause problems. Nitrogen photochemical smog. This contains low-level ozone
dioxide, for example, is still produced. The high and is likely to cause breathing problems, especially
temperature inside the engine’s cylinders causes the in people with asthma.
nitrogen and oxygen in the air to react together: ◆ Carbon monoxide is a highly toxic gas. It combines
with the haemoglobin in blood and stops it from
nitrogen + oxygen → nitrogen dioxide
carrying oxygen. Even very small amounts of carbon
N2 + 2O2 → 2NO2
monoxide can cause dizziness and headaches. Larger
Because of the lack of oxygen in the enclosed space of quantities cause death.
an engine, the fuel does not usually burn completely ◆ Lead is a neurotoxic metal and can cause learning
and carbon monoxide (CO) is formed. difficulties in children, even in small quantities.
The body cannot easily get rid of lead, so small
amounts can build up to dangerous levels over time.
There are solutions to some of these problems.
Catalytic converters can be attached to the exhaust S
systems of cars (Figure 1.10). These convert carbon
monoxide and nitrogen dioxide into carbon dioxide
and nitrogen. Unfortunately, if there is lead in the
petrol being used, the catalyst becomes poisoned
Figure 1.9 Fumes from a car exhaust. and will no longer work. This means that in countries

S
exhaust gases: unburnt fuel, carbon monoxide
and nitrogen oxides, with carbon dioxide,
water and nitrogen exhaust gases: carbon dioxide,
water and nitrogen catalytic converter
Figure 1.10 A catalytic converter changes harmful exhaust gases into safer gases.
where leaded petrol is still being used, catalytic Global warming and the ‘greenhouse effect’
converters cannot be used either. There are two gases in Figure 1.11, carbon dioxide
and methane, which are not in the list of pollutants
Studyy tip
p given so far. These, together with water vapour and
oxides of nitrogen, are causing global warming due
Try to keep these different atmospheric pollution
to the ‘greenhouse effect’. The Earth is warmed by
problems clear and distinct in your mind rather
the Sun but this heat would quickly escape if it were
than letting them merge together into one
not for our atmosphere. It is always colder on a clear
(confused?) problem. They each have distinct
night because there are no clouds to keep the heat in.
causes and clear consequences.
Some gases are better at keeping heat in than others;
if there is too much of these gases in the atmosphere,
Figure 1.11 summarises the effects of the main the Earth gets warmer and this causes problems
pollutants of the air. (Figure 1.12).
Some energy is
global warming Energy radiated radiated back into
by the Sun space as light
and heat.
Some energy is energy
acid rain absorbed in the radiated
atmosphere. by the Sun
photochemical smog
EARTH
unburnt hydrocarbon fuels, HC
oxides of nitrogen, NOx
carbon monoxide, CO
carbon dioxide, CO2

sulfur dioxide, SO2
methane, CH4
Burning fossil fuels, forest fires, industry and

human activities produce various ’greenhouse
gases‘. As these increase, more and more of the
Sun’s energy is trapped. The Earth warms up.
Figure 1.11 A summary of various atmospheric pollution problems caused Figure 1.12 The greenhouse effect.
by human activity.

Some of the problems global warming will cause are organic waste so that the methane could be collected and
listed below. burnt as fuel would help solve the problem.
◆ Glaciers and polar ice will melt. This will cause a rise The warming of the Arctic region in recent years
in sea level, and low-lying land will be flooded. has heightened our awareness of a further source of
◆ The surface temperature of the Earth will increase. methane, known to scientists as ‘fire ice’ because it can
Deserts will spread and millions of people will have ignite spontaneously. Melting of the Arctic ice and the
less water. consequent release of the large amount of the gas stored
◆ Severe weather events will increase in frequency, in the permafrost could have a huge economic and
and hurricanes and flooding will become more damaging environmental impact.
common.
◆ In some areas it may become easier to grow food
Questions
crops but in others it will certainly become more
difficult. 1.5 Which gases contribute most significantly to
Carbon dioxide and methane are the two main problem acid rain?
gases; methane is around 20 times more effective at 1.6 How do the gases responsible for acid rain get
stopping heat escaping than carbon dioxide is. into the atmosphere?
Carbon dioxide enters the air through respiration 1.7 What are the problems caused by acid rain?
and burning and it is removed by plants during 1.8 What is photochemical smog and why is
photosynthesis. Burning more fuel and cutting down it a problem?
the forests increase the problem. Burning less fossil fuel 1.9 How does carbon monoxide stop the blood
and planting more trees would help to solve it. from carrying oxygen?
Methane is produced by animals such as cows: it is 1.10 Why are light bulbs filled with argon?
a by-product of digesting their food. It emerges from 1.11 How does methane get into the air?
both ends of the cow (but mostly from the mouth). 1.12 What is the ‘greenhouse effect’?
Intriguingly, termites are also significant contributors 1.13 What does a catalytic converter do to the S
to the methane in the atmosphere (Figure 1.13a). In exhaust gases from a car?
addition, it is produced by the decay of food and other 1.14 Why is it possible to separate the gases in the
dead organic matter. It is produced in large quantities by air by fractional distillation?
rice paddy fields (Figure 1.13b) and landfill sites. Treating
a b
Figure 1.13 a A termite mound in Northern Territory, Australia – termites produce methane from digestion in their guts. b Terraced rice fields in Bali, Indonesia.
Rice is the staple diet of about half the world’s population.

1.3 Seas and rivers The water purification process is designed to remove the
There is plenty of water on the Earth but most of it is last two of these. At its simplest, water treatment involves
in seas and oceans and the salts dissolved in it make it filtering the water to remove solid particles and adding
unsuitable for many uses. The amount of fresh water chlorine to kill any bacteria that could cause disease.
(less than 3% of the total) is still sufficient but it is not Figure 1.15 (page 13) shows a modern water
always in the places where it is needed. Figure 1.14 treatment process. The main difference from the simple
shows how the Earth’s water is distributed. treatment is in the use of ozone to remove pesticides
You will see from the diagram that less than and some other dissolved substances which can cause
a teaspoon of water out of every 100 dm3 is easily health problems. The water is still not totally pure as it
available for human use. This would be enough but it contains some dissolved solids. Some of these, such as
is not equally distributed around the world: rainforests calcium salts, can aid health, whereas others, such as
can have more than 11 metres of rainfall in a year and nitrate fertilisers, can be harmful.
desert areas less than one centimetre. There are places In some parts of the world, seawater is made
on Earth where it hasn’t rained for more than ten years. drinkable by desalination (taking the salt out). This can
Water is essential to life but it can also carry disease. be done by distillation or by forcing the water through
Polluted water kills many millions of people every special membranes using high pressures (reverse
year. It is important that the water we drink is treated osmosis). Desalination is particularly important in
to make it safe, and even more important that sewage countries such as Saudi Arabia.
(human and animal waste) is treated before being Our water supply is very important. Not only is it
allowed back into rivers used for drinking water. used in the home, as shown in Figure 1.16 (page 13),
but it is also used in large quantities by industry. Most
Water treatment of the water used by industry is utilised as a solvent for
Water from rivers and lakes, and from underground, other substances, to cool down reactions or to transfer
can contain dissolved salts, solid particles and bacteria. heat from one part of a factory to another.
atmospheric
rivers water vapour
0.0001% 0.001%
biota
0.0001%
ground-
water lakes
0.592% 0.007%
oceans
97.41% 0.013%
2.59%
ice caps soil
and glaciers moisture
1.984% 0.005%
All water Fresh water Readily accessible

fresh water
100 dm3 3 dm3 3 cm3
Figure 1.14 The availability of water on Earth.

Activity 1.2 4 Allow to cool and let any solids settle.
Chemicals from seawater 5 Pour the clear liquid into a 100 cm3 beaker,
leaving the solids behind.
Skills 6 Add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid
AO3.1 Using techniques, apparatus and materials to the solids left behind and observe what
AO3.3 Observing, measuring and recording happens.
AO3.4 Interpreting and evaluating observations and data 7 Put the 100 cm3 beaker on the tripod and gauze
and heat the liquid until another solid appears.
Wear eye protection throughout. This will occur when about 30–40 cm3 of liquid
Take care with hot apparatus and solutions. remains.
8 Carefully filter the liquid into a conical flask.
The sea is mainly water but there are lots of other 9 Wash out the 100 cm3 beaker and pour the
things in it too. The most common substance in filtrate into the beaker.
seawater is sodium chloride, or common salt. 10 Boil the liquid again until there is almost
Other substances in it include calcium sulfate, none left.
magnesium sulfate and tiny amounts of metals 11 Let it cool and note what you observe.
such as copper and iron.
The role of the oceans in the carbon cycle: exchanging
carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and ocean
3.5% dissolved 2.6% sodium chloride
minerals 0.3% magnesium chloride
0.2% magnesium sulfate 1 Pour 100 cm3 of seawater into one beaker and
0.1% calcium sulfate 100 cm3 of fresh (tap) water into another.
100 dm3
96.5% water 0.1% potassium chloride
seawater
0.01% potassium bromide 2 Add several drops of Universal Indicator to
small amounts of most
other elements each so that the colour is clearly visible.
3 Next, using a straw, blow gently and
consistently into the water samples – first the
This experiment is designed to show that seawater seawater, then the fresh water. In each case,
contains a mixture of different salts. time how long it takes the indicator to become
yellow. Record the results.
beaker
seawater
Questions
gauze A1 What evidence is there that seawater is a
tripod mixture of salts?
A2 What gas is likely to have been given off when
hydrochloric acid is added to the solids first
Bunsen burner collected?
A3 What does this tell you about the identity of
these solids?
beaker with first solids
A4 Search the internet to try to find information
about the solubilities of sodium chloride and
1 Place 200 cm3 of seawater in a 250 cm3 beaker. calcium sulfate – two common compounds
2 Heat and boil the seawater. present in seawater. Use this information to
3 Stop heating when about 60–70 cm3 of liquid predict the possible identity of the final solid
remains. Solid will be precipitated during this left at the end of your experiment.
evaporation process.

river
precipitators
river water to clear solid
pumping storage reservoir
particles rapid gravity
station
sand filters
pump
treated with a small
screens for straining amount of ozone to
floating rubbish disinfect the water
main ozone
pumps
chlorine
microstrainers
activated carbon the main dose

granules absorb of ozone to
a small amount some of the break down
of chlorine is used chemicals pesticides and
to disinfect water other materials
drinking water
service reservoir
Figure 1.15 Purifying water for the domestic and industrial supply.
◆ Industry sometimes discharges toxic and harmful

toilet
personal substances into rivers.
washing
◆ Untreated sewage and other animal waste can be
released into rivers, especially in areas where there
65 dm3
are no sewers. Release of untreated sewage into
55 dm3 washing
clothes
rivers can lower oxygen levels by chemical reaction
dish- and cause the spread of harmful bacteria, increasing
washing gardening cooking
the risk of disease.
drinking ◆ The use of water for cooling by industry can result in
20 dm3
15 dm3 warm water being discharged into rivers. Warm water
12 dm3 10 dm3
3 dm3
can dissolve less oxygen than cold water, so animals
living in the water may be left with insufficient oxygen.
Figure 1.16 The main uses of water in a UK home. The numbers show how All of these, and others, lead to problems in rivers and lakes.
much water is used on average per person for each activity every day.
Questions
Pollution of the water supply
Issues concerning the pollution of water include the 1.15 Why is water filtered before other treatments?
following: 1.16 Why is chlorine added to water?
◆ Nitrate fertilisers can be washed into streams 1.17 Why is distillation of seawater an expensive
and rivers from farmland. These nitrates are way of making drinking water?
not removed by water treatment and can cause 1.18 What is the main danger of letting untreated
health problems for old people and for young sewage into rivers?
children. They also cause waterways to become 1.19 Why are nitrates from fertilisers dangerous in
overloaded with nutrients, causing plant and the water supply?
algal growth.

1.4 The Earth’s crust The limestone cycle
The Earth’s crust is the top layer of solid rock of the Limestone is an important resource from which a useful
planet. As the Earth’s crust moves, rock is constantly range of compounds can be made. Figure 1.17 shows
being taken down into the molten rock beneath some of the important uses of limestone and the related
the surface. This rock is changed and sometimes compounds quicklime and slaked lime. The reactions
decomposed before it rises back to the surface and involved in producing these compounds can be imitated
cools. These processes give rise to different types of rock in the laboratory (Figure 1.18).
and we extract some of those near the surface by mining A piece of calcium carbonate can be heated
and quarrying for human use. The decomposition strongly for some time to produce lime (quicklime,
also produces gases, mainly carbon dioxide and water calcium oxide). The piece of lime is allowed to cool
vapour, which, together with molten rock, still escape and then a few drops of water are added. The solid
from the Earth’s crust through volcanoes. flakes and expands, crumbling into ‘slaked lime’. This
This rock cycle is powered by energy produced by reaction is strongly exothermic. If more water is added,
radioactive decay and heat from the Earth’s core. It is an alkaline solution (limewater) is obtained. The cycle
a very slow process – the plates of the Earth’s crust are can be completed by bubbling carbon dioxide into the
moving only a few centimetres each year. solution. A white precipitate of calcium carbonate is
The crust varies in thickness from 5 km below some formed. We can complete what is sometimes referred
parts of the ocean to around 50 km in some parts of the to as the limestone cycle (Figure 1.19).
land mass. Since the distance from the Earth’s surface to
its core is over 6000 km, the crust is a very thin surface
layer. The crust is where the majority of the chemicals
Activity 1.3
that we use come from.
Thermal decomposition of calcium
Metal ores are rocks that have a relatively high
carbonate
This activity illustrates some of the chemistry of
concentration of a mineral containing a certain metal.
limestone (calcium carbonate) and other materials
For more details of ores and methods of obtaining
made from it. The experiment demonstrates the
metals from them, see Chapters 8 and 9.
‘limestone cycle’.
Rocks can be used for building and for the
extraction of useful chemicals other than metals. A worksheet is included on the CD-ROM.
The most useful of these is limestone.
LIMESTONE
Figure 1.17 Some of the uses of limestone (calcium carbonate).

pieces of limestone
(calcium carbonate)
dropper with water
Nothing happens
with limestone.
limestone
dropper
with water
wire support
steam
Bunsen flame cool
quicklime
Slaked lime is
Limestone changes into
heatproof formed from
quicklime (calcium oxide).
mat quicklime.
Figure 1.18 The formation of quicklime and slaked lime in the laboratory.
calcium
carbonate
Add carbon dioxide (limestone)
heat
(this is the test for CO2).
carbon dioxide
given off
calcium hydroxide calcium oxide

solution (lime or
(limewater) quicklime)
Add more water Add a little water.

and filter. calcium
hydroxide
(slaked lime)
Figure 1.19 The limestone cycle.
More detail on the importance of limestone and the many other useful substances. For more detail of fossil
chemicals derived from it can be found in Section 9.6. fuels and their uses see Chapter 11.
This includes the method of making lime industrially. If these resources were used not as fuels but
only as a source of the chemicals we need, there
The problem of fossil fuels wouldn’t be a problem. They are, however, mostly
The major fossil fuels are coal, petroleum (or crude used as fuels and they are a limited, non-renewable
oil) and natural gas. These are important sources of resource.
energy but are also very important as sources of raw In 2007, it was estimated that the fossil fuel supplies
materials for making plastics, drugs, detergents and we currently know about would last a further 43 years

in the case of petroleum, 167 years for natural gas and Hydrogen is one possible fuel for the future, either
417 years for coal. as a substance to burn or for use in fuel cells.
As more countries become industrialised, energy
use in the world is increasing at an even faster rate than Hydrogen as a fuel
the population. Table 1.2 shows the sources of energy Hydrogen gas has attractions as a fuel. All it produces
drawn on in the years 2006 and 2011. on burning is water. When hydrogen burns, it produces
The figures show how relatively little energy more energy per gram than any other fuel (Figure 1.21).
is obtained from sources other than fossil fuels, A future ‘hydrogen economy’ has been talked about,
with the figure for coal showing a notable increase but there are problems of storage and transport. The
between 2006 and 2011. Hydroelectric power (6.4%) gas itself is difficult to store and transport because of its
and nuclear energy (4.9%) do make a contribution, low density. The first vehicles to run on hydrogen were
although the figure for nuclear energy has fallen in the rockets of the US space programme. Hydrogen is
this time. In 2011, only 1.6% of energy came from not cheap. The main method of obtaining it on a large
solar power, wind power and wave power combined. scale is by the electrolysis of water. However, this is
Clearly change is necessary (Figure 1.20). The Sun not very economical. It is possible that cheap surplus
is the greatest provider of energy to the Earth. The electricity from nuclear power may make electrolysis
amount of solar energy falling on the Earth’s surface is more economical. Others have suggested the use of
immensely vast. In one year it is about twice as much electricity from solar power.
as will ever be obtained from all of the the Earth’s Despite these difficulties, prototype hydrogen-
non-renewable resources combined. powered cars have been tried. Nissan and Mazda in
Japan, and BMW and Daimler–Benz in Germany,
are among those who have built and tested cars. The
Percentage of energy
Japanese prototype burns the hydrogen in the engine,
Energy source from this source / %
while the German–Swiss–British venture uses the
for 2006 for 2011 hydrogen in a fuel cell. Electricity from this cell then
petroleum 36.8 33.1 powers an electric motor (Figure 1.22). Using a fuel
cell operating an electric motor, hydrogen has an
coal 26.6 30.3
natural gas 22.9 23.7
hydroelectric power 6.3 6.4 160
nuclear energy 6.0 4.9 140 143

hydrogen gas, H2
renewables (solar, wind, etc.) 1.4 1.6

120
Energy produced by burning / kJ/g
Table 1.2 The sources of energy used worldwide in 2006 and 2011.
carbohydrates, e.g. glucose, C6H12O6
100
petrol (octane), C8H18
methane gas, CH4
Solar Hydroelectric 80
energy power (HEP)
carbon monoxide gas, CO
coal (carbon), C
ethanol, C2H5OH
methanol, CH3OH
60
56
Biomass and RENEWABLE Geothermal 48
ENERGY 40
biogas energy
RESOURCES 33 30
20 23
16
Wind Wave power and 10
power tidal barrages 0
Figure 1.21 The energy produced on burning one gram of various fuels, to
Figure 1.20 Renewable energy resources suitable for development to produce water and carbon dioxide. Hydrogen produces more energy per gram
reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. than any other fuel.

efficiency of 60% compared with 35% for a petrol
Advantages Disadvantages
engine. The ‘hydrogen economy’ may have life in it
yet! The advantages and disadvantages are summarised ◆ renewable if produced ◆ non-renewable if
in Table 1.3. using solar energy generated using nuclear
◆ lower flammability energy or energy from
than gasoline (petrol) fossil fuels
◆ virtually emission- ◆ large fuel tank required
S a free ◆ as yet there are very few
electric motor in car
◆ zero emissions of CO2 ‘filling stations’, where
◆ non-toxic a car could be topped
up with hydrogen
electrons
◆ engine redesign needed
or a fuel cell system
◆ currently expensive
Table 1.3 The advantages and disadvantages of hydrogen as a fuel for

motor vehicles.
hydrogen oxygen
(H2) in (O2) in
H+ ions
Activity 1.4
Hydrogen power – communicating
NEGATIVE ELECTRODE
POSITIVE ELECTRODE
polymer membrane)
the benefits
(a moist, porous
Groups of students are to design a flyer, leaflet

ELECTROLYTE
H2 out O2 out
or web page to be used as publicity by a car
dealership outlining the issues and benefits of
hydrogen-powered cars. Use the internet to
find information.
platinum catalyst water out
A worksheet is included on the CD-ROM.
b
S
Activity 1.5
Using solar and hydrogen power
This demonstration connects a small solar panel
to a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell.
In this mode, the cell acts as an electrolyser and
can decompose distilled water into its elements.
The experiment can then be reversed and the
gases collected can be used to power the fuel cell
to drive a small electric fan.
A worksheet is included on the CD-ROM.
Figure 1.22 a How a car runs on a hydrogen fuel cell. The car is powered
by electrons released at the negative electrode. Inside the fuel cell, hydrogen
Hydrogen fuel cells
ions move to the positive electrode, where they react with oxygen to form
water. b These hydrogen-powered minicabs are part of a development project Research has found a much more efficient way of
at the University of Birmingham in the UK. changing chemical energy into electrical energy by

S using a fuel cell. A hydrogen fuel cell can be used to decays, producing methane gas (by a process known as
power a car. Such a cell operates continuously, with no anaerobic decay). Methane is much more harmful to
need for recharging. The cell supplies energy as long as the environment than the carbon dioxide produced by
the reactants are fed in to the electrodes. The overall burning it, as methane is a more powerful greenhouse gas.
reaction of the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell is:
Questions
hydrogen + oxygen → water
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g) 1.20 What makes an ore different from any other
type of rock?
Land pollution 1.21 What is the difference between lime and
Cities throughout the world are covered in litter. Some slaked lime?
make an effort to control it but it is always there. Most of 1.22 What useful chemicals can be made from
our waste material is buried and this can lead to problems. petroleum?
Toxic and radioactive waste can make the land unusable 1.23 Name four types of ‘alternative energy’.
and many countries strictly control what can be buried and 1.24 What makes a gas a ‘greenhouse gas’?
where. Companies are required, by law, to treat their waste 1.25 Give an advantage of using hydrogen as a fuel.
products to make them as harmless as possible. 1.26 What is the essential reaction taking place S
Domestic waste should be recycled whenever in a hydrogen fuel cell? Give the word and
possible. Waste that cannot be treated in this way should balanced chemical equations for the reaction.
be burned to create energy. If it is left in landfill sites, it
Summary
You should know:

◆ that there are important natural cycles that involve the movement of resources within the Earth’s ecology,
two of these being the water cycle and the nitrogen cycle
S ◆ that there is a third important natural cycle, the carbon cycle, which involves the key processes of
photosynthesis and respiration
◆ that the air is composed predominantly of nitrogen and oxygen, but that other gases have major roles to
play too
◆ about the major atmospheric pollution problems that are changing the nature of our world, including
global climate change and acid rain
◆ that global warming is caused by an increase in the atmosphere of certain ‘greenhouse gases’ such as
carbon dioxide and methane
◆ how the gases of the air can be separated by the fractional distillation of liquid air, and that the separated
gases have their own uses
◆ how the availability of clean fresh water is one of the major problems in the world
◆ how mineral ores and crude oil provide sources of metals and chemicals for industrial use
◆ that limestone, one of these mineral resources, has a range of uses, from the making of cement and
concrete to the extraction of iron in the blast furnace
◆ how we are currently highly dependent on fossil fuels as the source of our energy supply
◆ that hydrogen is one possible new energy source that is currently under development – it is seen as an
environmentally clean fuel because the only product of its combustion is water
S ◆ how the hydrogen fuel cell is based on the production of electrical power using the combustion reaction
for hydrogen and can be used to power cars.

End-of-chapter questions
1 The water cycle and the carbon cycle are both of vital importance to life. Explain how they both depend on
energy from the Sun.
2 Water is present in the atmosphere, in the seas and in ice and snow.
a Describe a chemical test for water. Give the test and the positive result. [2]
b State one use of water in industry. [1]
c Water is a good solvent. What do you understand by the term solvent? [1]
d Water vapour in the atmosphere reacts with sulfur dioxide, SO2, to produce acid rain.
i State one source of sulfur dioxide. [1]
ii State two adverse effects of acid rain. [2]
iii Calculate the relative molecular mass of sulfur dioxide. [1]
e Water from lakes and rivers can be treated to make the water safer to drink.
Describe two of the steps in water purification. For each of these steps, give an
explanation of its purpose. [4]
f Water is formed when hydrogen burns in air. State the percentage of oxygen present in the air. [1]
[Cambridge IGCSE® Chemistry 0620/21, Question 3(a–e & f(i)), June 2011]
S 3 The diagram below shows part of the water cycle.
cloud
H2O(I) H2O(g)
Sun
rain
land
H2O(I) sea
a i State the name of each of the following changes of state.
H2O(l) → H2O(g)
H2O(g) → H2O(l) [2]
ii Which one of the above changes of state is exothermic? Explain your choice. [1]
b The rain drains into rivers and then into reservoirs. Describe how water is treated before it enters
the water supply. [2]
c Explain how acid rain is formed. [4]
[Cambridge IGCSE® Chemistry 0620/31, Question 1(a, b & c(i)), June 2012]
4 Two important greenhouse gases are methane and carbon dioxide.

a Methane is 20 times more effective as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. The methane
in the atmosphere comes from both natural and industrial sources.
i Describe two natural sources of methane. [2]
ii Although methane can persist in the atmosphere for up to 15 years, it is eventually removed
by oxidation. What are the products of this oxidation? [2]
b How do the processes of respiration, combustion and photosynthesis determine the percentage
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere? [4]
[Cambridge IGCSE® Chemistry 0620/31, Question 2, November 2011]

S 5 Fuel cells are used in spacecraft to produce electrical energy.
hydrogen
anode
electrolyte
oxygen
cathode
a How is oxygen obtained from liquid air? [2]

b Hydrogen and oxygen react to form water.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
i Give an example of bond breaking in the above reaction. [1]

ii Give an example of bond forming in the above reaction. [1]
iii Is the change given in part i exothermic or endothermic? [1]
c i Give two reasons why hydrogen may be considered to be the ideal fuel for the future. [2]
ii Suggest a reason why hydrogen is not widely used at the moment. [1]
[Cambridge IGCSE® Chemistry 0620/32, Question 5, June 2010]
6 The diagram shows part of the carbon cycle. This includes some of the processes that determine the percentage
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere
combustion respiration
photosynthesis
a Carbon dioxide is one greenhouse gas. Name another one. [1]

b Explain the term respiration and how this process increases the percentage of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere. [3]
c Explain why the combustion of waste crop material should not alter the percentage of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. [2]
d In 1960, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was 0.032% and in 2008 it was 0.038%.
Suggest an explanation for this increase. [2]
[Cambridge IGCSE® Chemistry 0620/31, Question 7, November 2010]

2 The nature of matter
In this chapter, you will find out about:
◆ the three states of matter, and changes of state ◆ the kinetic theory and changes of state
◆ separating and purifying substances ◆ diffusion
◆ filtration S ◆ Brownian motion
◆ use of a separating funnel ◆ atomic structure and subatomic particles
◆ evaporation and crystallisation ◆ proton (atomic) number and nucleon
◆ distillation (mass) number
◆ paper chromatography ◆ isotopes
◆ criteria of purity ◆ relative atomic mass
◆ elements and compounds ◆ uses of radioactivity
◆ atomic theory ◆ the arrangement of electrons in atoms.
Lord of the rings the planet. The particles can be of widely varying
Saturn is perhaps the most beautiful of the planets sizes. The rings resemble a snowstorm, in which
of the Solar System. It has fascinated astronomers tiny snowflakes are mixed with snowballs up to
because of its mysterious rings (Figure 2.1). The the size of a house. The ice that surrounds one of
Pioneer, Voyager and Cassini–Huygens space-probes the most spectacular planets of our solar system
sent back a great deal of information on the nature is made of water – the same substance (with the
of the rings and the mass of Saturn itself. same formula) that covers so much of the Earth’s
Each ring is made up of a stream of icy surface.
particles, following each other nose-to-tail around The planet of Saturn is made of gases,
mainly hydrogen and helium. Deep in the centre
of these lightweight gases is a small rocky core,
surrounded by a liquid layer of the gases. The
hydrogen is liquid because of the high pressure in
the inner regions of the planet nearest the core. The
liquid hydrogen behaves with metallic properties.
Study of Saturn’s physical structure emphasises
how substances that we know on Earth can exist in
unusual physical states in different environments.
How do changing conditions affect the
Figure 2.1 Saturn and its rings silhouetted against the Sun:
a photograph taken by the Cassini probe. The rings are made of ice appearance, properties and behaviour of different
and dust. substances?
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 2: The nature of matter 21
2.1 The states of matter Gases are easy to ‘squash’ – they are easily compressed.
There are many different kinds of matter. The word Liquids, on the other hand, are only slightly
is used to cover all the substances and materials of compressible, and the volume of a solid is unaffected
which the Universe is composed. Samples of all of by changing the pressure.
these materials have two properties in common:
they each occupy space (they have volume) and they Changes in physical state
have mass. Large changes in temperature and pressure can cause
Chemistry is the study of how matter behaves, and changes that are more dramatic than expansion or
of how one kind of substance can be changed into contraction. They can cause a substance to change its
another. Whichever chemical substance we study, we physical state. The changes between the three states
find it can exist in three different forms (or physical of matter are shown in Figure 2.2. At atmospheric
states) depending on the conditions. These three pressure, these changes can be brought about by raising
different states of matter are known as solid, liquid and or lowering the temperature of the substance.
gas. Changing temperature and/or pressure can change
the state in which a substance exists. Melting and freezing
The different physical states have certain general The temperature at which a pure substance turns
characteristics that are true whatever chemical to a liquid is called the melting point (m.p.). This
substance is being considered. These are summarised always happens at one particular temperature for
in Table 2.1. each pure substance (Figure 2.3). The process is
reversed at precisely the same temperature if a liquid
is cooled down. It is then called the freezing point
Key definition
(f.p.). The melting point and freezing point of any
matter – anything that has mass and takes up given substance are both the same temperature. For
space. There are three physical states: solid, example, the melting and freezing of pure water take
liquid and gas. place at 0 °C.
Gallium is a metal that has a melting point just
above room temperature. Because of this it will melt in
The three physical states show differences in the way a person’s hand (Figure 2.4).
they respond to changes in temperature and pressure.
All three show an increase in volume (an expansion) Sublimation
when the temperature is increased, and a decrease A few solids, such as carbon dioxide (‘dry ice’), do not
in volume (a contraction) when the temperature is melt when they are heated at normal pressures. Instead,
lowered. The effect is much bigger for a gas than for they turn directly into gas. This change of state is called
either a solid or a liquid. sublimation: the solid sublimes. Like melting, this also
The volume of a gas at a fixed temperature can happens at one particular temperature for each pure
easily be reduced by increasing the pressure on the gas. solid. Iodine is another solid that sublimes. It produces
Physical state Volume Density Shape Fluidity

solid has a fixed volume high has a definite shape does not flow
moderate no definite shape – takes generally flows
liquid has a fixed volume
to high the shape of the container easily(a)
no fixed volume – expands to no definite shape – takes
gas low flows easily(a)
fill the container the shape of the container
(a)
Liquids and gases are called fluids.
Table 2.1 Differences in the properties of the three states of matter.

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of Germinal, 271;
of Prairial, 272;
of Vendémiaire, 281.
Intendants, position of, 7-10;

decline of, 47;
fall of, 62.
Isnard, 184, 266.
Issy l'Evêque, priest of, 138.
J.
Jacobin Club, origin of, 105,106;

organisation of, 142-145;
attitude of, in summer of 1791, 150-154;
protests against war, 167;
share of, in elections of 1792, 182, 183;
under the Terror, 213;
parties at, in 1793-94, 241-246;
under Robespierre, 255, 259;
close of, 263, 265.
Jacobins, rise of the, 129-154;

theory of the, 137-140, 209;
numbers and organisation of the, 142-147, 199;
leaders of the, 143, 229-235;
in the Constituent, 105, 149-153;
in the Legislative, 163, 164;
opposed to war, 166, 167;
attitude of, towards Prison Massacres, 178, 179;
in the Convention, 182-183;
attitude of, on question of Louis' death, 191;
struggle with Girondists, 189-206;
Government of, 212-216;
principles applied, 218-229;
character of, 187, 216, 217, 229-235, 283;
schisms and struggles among, 237-260, 262-273.
Jansenists, the, 103.
Javogues, 217, 231.
Jemappes, Battle of, 180.
Jeunes Gens, the, 264, 272, 279.
Jeunesse Dorée, the, 264.
Jews, attacks on the, 61.
Joseph, Emperor, 42, 156-158.
Jourdan, 206, 274, 275.
Journal de Paris, the, 106.
Journal des Débats, 108.
Journal des Etats-Généraux, Mirabeau's journal, 107.
Journal Général de la Cour et de la Ville, Reactionary journal, 112.
K.
Kellermann, 255.
King. See Louis XVI.
Kléber, 274, 276.

Kosciusko, 277.
L.
Labourers. See Peasants and Artisans.
Laclos, 113, 144.
Lacombe, Proconsul in Bordeaux, 217;

Rose, 186.
Lacretelle, 264.
Lacroix, 237.
Lafayette, and the National Guard, 67, 68, 118, 153;

on 5th October, 70;
Marat and, 111;
Orleans and, 114;
character and views of, 116-118;
Mirabeau and, 73, 121, 122;
party of, 131, 135, 150, 153, 163;
at Massacre of Champ de Mars, 151;
not elected Mayor, 165;
policy of, in spring and summer, 1792, 166-173;
flight of, 177.
Lakanal, 216.
Lally-Tollendal, 100.
La Marck, 121, 123.
Lameths, the, in the Constituent, 104;

party of, 131, 135, 150.
Landes, District of the, 217.
Languedoc, one of the Pays d'État, 6.
Lanjuinais, 103, 184, 266.
Laon, distress in, 270.
Laplanche, 231.
Lebon, 143, 217, 232, 273.
Lecarpentier, 216.
Lecointre, 237, 263.
Legendre, 237, 263, 265.
Legislative Assembly, meeting of, 163;

parties in, 163, 164;
policy of, 165, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 178, 179.
Le Mans, Battle of, 276.
Leopold II, succeeds Emperor Joseph, 157, 158;

policy of, 159-163;
death of, 168.
Lepelletier Section, the, 281.
Lindet, 214, 215, 234, 273.
Linguet, 107.
Local Government, new system of, 75-79.
Locke, 110
Loire, war on the, 205.
London, Journalism in, 107.
Longwy, surrender of, 177.
Louis XI, 5.
Louis XIV, 14.
Louis XVI, Court of, 44;

emancipates serfs, 44;
charities of, 44, 45;
character of, 45;
early reforms of, 45-47;
States-General and, 53, 55, 57, 58, 67;
visit to Paris, 67;
on 5th and 6th October, 69, 70;
Constituent Assembly and, 73, 74, 87, 150, 152;
flight to Varennes, 149;
army under, 81;
deposition demanded, 150;
Legislative Assembly and, 165-173;
Lafayette and, 70, 172;
the Allies and, 173, 174;
Girondists and, 167, 171, 174, 175, 191;
dethroned, 175;
executed, 191, 194.
Loustallot, 108, 109.
Louvet, 184, 266.
Lyons, troubles at, 61, 134, 141;

declares against Jacobin Government, 205, 216, 217;
trade of, ruined by Revolution, 224;
distress in, 225, 270.
M.
Maignet, 217, 258.
Mallet du Pan, 107, 112, 173, 174.
Malmesbury, 277.
Malouet in Constituent Assembly, 64, 100, 101, 152;

his estimate of the Jacobins, 143;
Louis and, 173.
Manfredini, 42.
Marat, editor of Ami du Peuple, 109;

early career and character of, 109-111;
in July, 1791, 150, 151;
protests against war, 167;
approves, September Massacres, 178;
in the Convention, 182, 190, 197, 210;
assassination of, 206.
Maréchaussée, the, 8.
Maret, 108.
Marie Antoinette, character of, 48;

political influence of, 48, 58, 125, 162, 165, 186;
execution of, 207.
Marseilles, disorder in, 141;

declares against Jacobin Government, 205;
under the Terror, 216, 217, 225;
reaction at, 279.
Massacre, of Champ de Mars, 151;
of September, in the prisons, 178.
Masséna, 274.
Maury, 99.
Maximum, the, established, 198, 222, 223;

repealed, 266-270.
Mayence, emigrants at, 159;

retaken by Allies, 205.
Mercure, Constitutional journal, 106, 112.
Méricourt, Théroigne de, 186.
Merlin, of Douai, 105, 263;

of Thionville, 263, 274.
Mesmerists, the, 42.
Messidor, 228.
Métayers, position of the, 20, 21, 132.
Middle classes, under Ancien Régime, 16, 17, 18, 43;

gainers by Revolution, 132;
cease to support Revolution, 202, 203;
Jacobin measures against, 222, 223;
in the Reaction, 264.
Milhaud, 274.
Militia, the, 22, 23.

Mirabeau, Comte de, in the Constituent Assembly, 57, 63, 64, 65,
72, 73,
74, 84, 89, 90, 91, 92, 103, 106, 122, 123;
as journalist, 107;
political aims, 118, 119, 120;
Lafayette and, 121, 122;
notes for the Court, 123-127;
pensioned by the Court, 127, 128;
character of, 128;
death of, 128, 147;
Marquis de, 44;
Vicomte de, 99.
Molleville, Bertrand de, 166.
Momoro, 237; Sophie, 186.
Monasteries, abolition of the, 84, 85.
Monciel, Terrier de, 172, 173.
Moniteur, the, 107, 108.
Monsieur. See Provence.
Montaubon, religious troubles at, 141.
Montesquieu, 31, 32.
Montmartre, relief works at, 69.
Montmorin, 122, 126, 166, 173.
Montreuil-sur-Mer, distress at, 270.
Moreau, 274.
Morelly, 36.
Mounier, 50, 100, 101.
Mountain, the, 197, 198;

after Thermidor, 262, 263, 271.
See Jacobins.
Municipality of Paris. See Commune.
Muscadins, the, 220, 264.
Mysticism, revival of, in eighteenth century, 42.
N.
Nancy, mutiny at, 82;

distress at, 270, 271.
Nantes, Vendéans at, 206;

Carrier at, 217;
decline of commerce at, 224.
Napoleon, at the capture of the Tuileries, 175.

See Bonaparte.
Narbonne, 166, 167.
National Agents, 213.
National Assembly, title taken by Commons, 57.

See Constituent Assembly.
National Debt. See Finance.
National Guard, creation of the, 62, 76, 78;

Lafayette and the, 67, 68, 118, 153, 172;
action of the, 136, 140, 141, 179;
reorganised as battalions of the Sections, 199;
under Hanriot, 204, 205, 212, 256, 260;
changes in the, after Thermidor, 262, 271, 273;
on 13th Vendémiaire, 281.
Necker, reforming ministry of, 14, 42, 46;

fall of, 47, 48;
recall of, 51;
vacillation of, 53, 56;
dismissed again, 58;
finance of, 88, 89;
failure of, 114, 115;
Madame, 185.
Neerwinden, defeat of Dumouriez at, 194.
Newton, 110.
Ney, 274.
Nice, French successes at, 194.
Nîmes, religious troubles at, 141.
Nivôse, 227.
Noailles, Vicomte de, 104.
Nobles, under the Ancien Régime, 11-14, 44;

in States-General, 56, 57.
Notables, of 1787, 49;

of 1788, 53.
Notre Dame, Goddess of Reason installed in, 227.

O.
Orange, tribunal of, 258;

Prince of, 277.
Orateur du Peuple, Fréron's journal, 263.
Orleans, high court at, 80;

Duke of, 12, 14, 69, 112-114, 150, 207.
P.
Pache, minister of war, 190, 192, 193;

Mayor of Paris, 193, 212, 236;
proscription of, 273.
Palais Royal, meetings in, 60, 69, 113, 264.
Panckoucke, 106, 107.
Panis, 178, 212, 273.
Paris, excitement and distress in, 26, 51, 58, 59, 60, 67, 68, 69,
133,
136, 171, 173;
influence of, on finance of Constituent Assembly, 89, 95;
clubs in, 105, 106, 144;
numbers of Jacobins in, 143;
government of, 145-147;
Prison Massacres in, 175-179;
agitation against Louis, 171, 173, 191;
the Girondists and, 193, 196-205;
under the Terror, 222-228, 242, 260;
Reaction in, 263, 264, 271, 272, 273, 279, 281.
Paris, Parlement of, 49, 50.
Parlements, the local, 6, 7, 79.
Parties, in Constituent Assembly, 98-105;

in Legislative Assembly, 163, 164;
in Convention, 183, 184, 237, 240, 259, 262, 263, 273, 279.
Patriote Français, Brissot's journal, 108.
Payan, 256.
Pays d'Élection, provincial assemblies created in, 46.
Pays d'État, the, 6.
Peasantry, condition of, under Ancien Régime, 19-27;

outbreak of, in 1789, 58-62;
disappointed with the Revolution, 132, 133, 136, 137, 139, 141;
under the Terror, 217, 219, 220, 223, 224, 225;
in the Reaction, 270, 282.
Père Duchesne, Hébert's journal, 231.
Pétion, in Constituent Assembly, 105, 106, 153;

Mayor of Paris, 165, 179, 184, 190.
Petit Gautier. See Journal Général de la Cour et de la Ville.
Philippe Egalité. See Orleans.
Philippeaux, 237, 245.
Philosophers, the, in eighteenth century, 28-36.
Physiocrats, the, 36.

Picardy, distress in, 270.
Pichegru, 271, 274, 275, 276.
Pillnitz, conference of, 159-162.
Pitt, policy of, 42, 156, 157, 194;

Robespierre on, 252.
See England.
Pluviôse, 228.
Point du Jour, Barère's paper, 108.
Poland, influence of, on European politics, 157-159, 277;

Kosciusko's revolt in, 277.
Police of Paris, under Ancien Régime, 60;

during Revolution, 199, 200, 202.
Poll-tax, 12, 24, 95.
Pombal, 42.
Pope, the, alienated by Constituent Assembly, 86, 87;

rule of, at Avignon, 141.
Prairial, 228.
See Insurrection.
Press, the, controlled by Church, 15, 33;

new power of, 106-112;
during the Reaction, 263.
Prieur (of the Côte-d'Or), 214, 215.

Prieur (of the Marne), 214, 215.
Provence, Comte de, policy of, 115, 116;

Mirabeau and, 126;
Emigrants and, 161, 165, 279.
Provincial Assemblies, in 1787, 46.
Prudhomme, 106, 107.
Prussia, policy of, 156-162, 276-278.

See Allies.
Q.
Queen. See Marie Antoinette.
Quesnai, 36.
Quiberon, Emigrants at, 279.
R.
Rabaut de St. Etienne, 103.
Reason, worship of, 186, 227, 237.
Representatives on mission, 195, 213, 215-217, 274.
Republic, talk of, 150;

proclamation of, 189.
Réveil du Peuple, Reactionary song, 264.
Révolutions de France et de Brabant, Desmoulins' paper, 109.

Révolutions de Paris, Democratic paper, 107, 108.
Revolutionary Army, the, 199, 212, 233.
Revolutionary Government, the, 212-217.
Revolutionary Tribunal, the, established, 195;

reorganised, 212, 257, 258;
abolished, 273.
Rewbell, 105, 274.
Reynaud, 217.
Rhine, war on the, 194, 276, 277.
Richard, 274.
Richelieu, policy of, 5.
Rights of Man, declaration of the, 66.
Robespierre, in the Constituent Assembly, 105, 106, 147-153;

the typical Jacobin, 41, 143, 147;
policy and position of, in 1791, 147-153;
opposes war, 167;
action on the 20th June, 172;
elected to the Convention, 182;
attacks of Girondists on, 190;
in Committee of Public Safety, 213, 214, 220, 221, 226, 228, 229,
230, 234;
attacks the Commune, 241-246;
deserts Danton, 247;
ascendency of, 248-260;
character of, 148, 248-255;
review of his career, 249-255;
power of, in 1794, 255, 256;
his belief in the Terror, 255-257;
his action when in power, 257, 258;
his fall, 259, 260.
Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Duc de, 100.
Rohan, Cardinal de, 16.
Roland, Minister of the Interior, 167;

dismissal of, 171;
return of, to office, 175;
and September Massacres, 179;
carries dissolution of Insurrectionary Commune, 189;
resignation of, 192;
Madame, 164, 171, 184, 185, 207.
Romme, 263, 273.
Ronsin, 232, 236, 243.
Rosicrucians, the, 42.
Rouen, Archbishop of, 15, 99;

rising at, 61;
Mirabeau advises the King to retire to, 121;
distress at, 225.
Rousseau, influence of, 31, 34, 36-41.

See Contrat Social.
Rühl, 212, 273.
Russia, policy of, 156-159, 277, 278.

See Catherine and Allies.
S.
Sabran, Madame de, 185.
Sainte-Amaranthe, Mme de, 185.
Santerre, 172.
Sardinia, policy of, 160.
Saverne, Cardinal de Rohan's palace at, 16.
Savoy, war in, 194.
Sections, organisation of the Parisian, 145-147, 199, 200, 212, 213,

242;
insurrections prepared in the, 174, 175, 198, 201, 203, 204, 205,
260, 281;
committees in the, 146, 195, 200, 212, 213;
battalions of the, 199;
police of the, 146, 199, 200;
reaction in the, 264, 271.
Seigneur, rights of. See Feudal.
Sémonville, 126.
Sentinelle du Peuple, Democratic paper, 107.
Serfdom, extinction of, 20, 44.
Sergent, 178.
Servan, 170, 171, 254.
Sieyès, Abbé, writings of, 51;

in the Constituent Assembly, 84, 102;
the Girondists and, 164;
in the Convention, 211;
during the Reaction, 263, 280.
Social Compact. See Contrat Social.
Socialism, beginnings of, 36, 218-226.
Soho, Marat in, 110.
Soubrany, 263, 273.
Soult, 274.
Spain, policy of, 156, 160, 278.
St. André, Jean Bon, 214, 234, 273.
St. Antoine, Faubourg, insurrection of, 174;

disarmed, 273.
St. Domingo, trouble in, 71.
St. Etienne, Terror at, 217.
St. Hurugues, Marquis de, 113.
St. Just, among the Jacobin leaders, 143;

in Committee of Public Safety and Convention, 213, 214, 220,
221,
222, 226, 229, 234, 241;
on mission, 216, 274;
relations with Danton and Robespierre, 245, 246, 255, 256, 257,
259, 260.
Staël, Madame de, 166, 185.

States-General, elections to the, 31-54;
opening of the, 55-57.
See Constituent Assembly.
Strasbourg, Bishop of, 16;

rising at, 61;
plots at, 161;
decline of trade in, 224;
working men imprisoned in, 225.
Subdelegates, powers of, 9, 47.
Suvórof, 277.
Sweden, policy of, 156, 160.

See Gustavus.
Swedenborgians, the, 42.
T.
Taille, the, 23, 24.
Talleyrand, 102, 106.
Tallien, on mission, 216;

in Thermidor, 259;
during the Reaction, 263, 264;
Madame, 186.
Talma, Madame, 185.
Talon, 126.
Tarascon, Reaction at, 279.

Target, 103.
Taxes, under Ancien Régime, 23-25;

of the Constituent Assembly, 93-96;
resistance to, 139, 196, 267;
on the rich, 198, 220.
See Finance.
Tennis Court Oath, the, 57.
Tenures, of the Ancien Régime, 19-21.
Terror, establishment of the, 170, 195, 206, 212;

government of the, 212-217;
principles of the, 218-230;
character of the leaders of the, 230-235, 283;
Danton and the, 238, 240, 242;
Robespierre and the, 256, 257, 258, 261;
end of the, 261, 262, 273.
Thermidor, 228;
insurrection of, 259, 260.
Thermidorians, the, 263, 279.
Thibeaudeau, 263.
Thouret, 103, 126.
Three Hundred, the, 145.
Thugut, 276.
Thuriot, 263, 271.
Tiers-État, importance of the, 51, 52, 53;

constitutes itself the National Assembly, 57.
Toulon, declares against Jacobin government, 205, 216, 217;
capture of, 244.
Toulouse, Archbishop of, 15, 49;

distress in, 134.
Trèves, Emigrants at, 159.
Trianon, the Queen at, 44.
Tronchet, 103.
Troyes, Bishop of, 15;

rising at, 61;
distress in, 270.
Tuileries, attacks on, 172, 175.
Turgot, observations of, 23, 26;

contributes to Encyclopaedia, 34;
one of the economists, 36;
Comptroller-General, 45;
fall of, 47.
Turkey, critical position of, 157.
Turreau, 'Hellish Columns' of, 278.
V.
Vacheron, 231.
Vadier, in Constituent Assembly, 105;

in Committee of General Security, 212, 232;
fall of, 265, 271.
Valenciennes, captured, 205.
Valmy, Battle of, 180.
Varennes, Louis' flight to, 149.
Vaucluse, Terror in the, 217.
Vendée, la, nobles of, 13;

rising in, 199, 205, 206, 276, 278, 279.
Vendémiaire, 227;
insurrection of, 281.
Ventôse, 228.
Verdun, surrender of, 177, 178.
Vergniaud, in the Legislative, 164;

in the Convention, 183, 184;
on the execution of the King, 191;
death of, 207.
Versailles, King's Council at, 7, 9;

Court at, 12, 13;
States General at, 55-58, 63-67;
Parisian mob at, 69;
suggested meeting of Convention at, 201.
Veto, debates on the, 67.
Victor, 274.
Vieux Cordelier, Desmoulins' paper, 242-245.
Vincent, 236, 243.

Vingtièmes, the, 12, 24.
Vizille, Assembly of, 50.
Volney, 107.
Voltaire, 31-33, 110.
W.
War, desired by Girondists, 164;

opposed by Jacobins, 166, 167;
declared against Austria, 168;
effects of, 168, 169, 170, 181, 224;
progress of, 170, 173, 177, 180, 181, 194, 205, 206, 235, 273-
279;
in La Vendée, 199, 205, 206, 276, 278, 279.
Warsaw, Polish revolt at, 277.
Wattignies, Battle of, 206.
Westermann, 237.
West Indies, trade of, affected, 224.
Women, part played by, in the Revolution, 184-186.
Worms, Emigrants at, 161.
Y.
Young, Arthur, observations of, 19, 43, 224.

Ysabeau, 216.
THE END.
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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry

Coursebook 4th edition Richard

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Cambridge IGCSE Arabic as a First Language Coursebook

Cambridge IGCSE Biology Coursebook with Digital Access

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry with CD Bryan Earl

Cambridge IGCSE Biology Workbook with Digital Access 2

Cambridge IGCSE Core Mathematics 4th edition Ric

Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Coursebook Fourth edition

for use with their examination.

Harwood and Lodge

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

isbn 978-1-107-61503-8 Paperback with CD-ROM for Windows® and Mac®

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

2 The nature of matter 21

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Contents iii

iv Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Introduction v

vi Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

◆ the water cycle ◆ ‘greenhouse gases’ and climate change

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Planet Earth 1

WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Figure 1.2 The water cycle.

2 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

oil and CHALK and

decay and sedimentation

Figure 1.3 The carbon cycle.

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Planet Earth 3

CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE AIR The Earth’s resources

NITROGEN IN THE ATMOSPHERE

NITRATES IN THE SOIL

Figure 1.5 The nitrogen cycle.

4 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Planet Earth 5

methane reacted with early oxygen carbon dioxide ammonia steam

CO2 dissolved in oceans,

Figure 1.6 The development of the Earth’s atmosphere.

because they glow with different colours when

6 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

Most countries produce electricity by burning coal

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Planet Earth 7

effects on effects on water chemistry

Figure 1.8 The formation of acid rain.

8 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

carbon dioxide, CO2

Burning fossil fuels, forest fires, industry and

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Planet Earth 9

10 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

All water Fresh water Readily accessible

100 dm3 3 dm3 3 cm3

Figure 1.14 The availability of water on Earth.

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Planet Earth 11

12 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014

activated carbon the main dose

◆ Industry sometimes discharges toxic and harmful

Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014 Chapter 1: Planet Earth 13

Figure 1.17 Some of the uses of limestone (calcium carbonate).

14 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Original material © Cambridge University Press 2014