EGHS1140 - Health Safety and Environment - Course Handout

EGHS1140 Health Safety and Environment
EGHS1140
HEALTH SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT
ii University of Technology and Applied Sciences

EGHS 1140 Health Safety and Environment 2 Credit Hours

Prerequisites None Co - Requisites None
To provide an understanding and awareness of workplace hazards, risks,
Goal
and industrial safety and to impart necessary skills and competence
Objectives Outcomes
The course learning objectives are Upon completion of the course, the student will
enabling the students to: be able to:
1. Understand the importance of HSE in 1. Identify safety hazards present in various
various engineering specializations engineering industries and take precautionary
2. Acquire knowledge in workplace measures
hazards, risks, and industrial safety 2. Select and use personal protective equipment
3. Acquaint themselves with the use of required in various environment and working
appropriate PPE and safety equipment conditions in compliance with Omani
4. Understand the importance of regulations and OSHA standards
compliance with safety standards 3. Handle hazardous chemicals in compliance
5. Gain knowledge of basic First Aid with the Material Safety Data Sheet and
procedures identify various classes of fire to decide on
6. Understand the adverse effects of suitable extinguishing methods
industrial wastes on environment 4. Apply the safety regulations and standard
7. Understand relevant aspects of Omani operating procedures concerning start up and
and international legislation shut down operations of process equipment
concerning HSE 5. Work safely in various laboratories and
workshops to perform emergency and First
Aid procedures
6. Understand the implications of safety
violations due to human error and behavioural
safety
7. Conduct accident reporting and
investigations, preparation of the Risk
Assessment Observation Sheet and adapt
Omani standards for environmental safety
and industrial effluents
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iv University of Technology and Applied Sciences

CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 General Introduction to Safety ........................................................................................ 1
1.2 Need of Safety ................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Occupational Safety and Health ...................................................................................... 3
1.4 Process and Production Safety ........................................................................................ 4
1.5 Material Safety ................................................................................................................ 4
1.6 Fire Safety ....................................................................................................................... 5
1.7 Electrical Safety .............................................................................................................. 5
1.8 Building and Structural Safety ........................................................................................ 5
1.9 Environmental Safety ...................................................................................................... 5
1.10 Safety Signs and Colour Coding ................................................................................. 6
1.11 Important Terms Glossary ........................................................................................... 8
1.12 Summary...................................................................................................................... 9
1.13 Practical Activities and Tasks for Students ............................................................... 10
1.14 Examples ................................................................................................................... 10
1.15 Assessments ............................................................................................................... 10
2 VARIOUS SAFETY HAZARDS AND PREVENTIONS .................................................. 11
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Basic Approaches of Safety Managers.......................................................................... 11
2.3 Work Equipment ........................................................................................................... 12
2.4 Manual Handling ........................................................................................................... 13
2.5 Mechanical Handling .................................................................................................... 15
2.6 Working at Height ......................................................................................................... 16
2.7 Transport Safety ............................................................................................................ 18
2.8 Classifications and Handling of Dangerous Substances ............................................... 19
2.9 Chemical and Biological Safety .................................................................................... 20
2.10 Electricity and Electrical Equipment ......................................................................... 21
2.11 Fire Safety.................................................................................................................. 22
2.12 Construction Safety ................................................................................................... 22
2.13 Demolition ................................................................................................................. 23
2.14 Workplace Health and Safety Issues ......................................................................... 24
2.15 Summary.................................................................................................................... 25
2.17 Assessments ............................................................................................................... 26
3 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT ....................................................................... 27
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 27
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3.2 Safety Helmets .............................................................................................................. 28

3.3 Safety Shoes .................................................................................................................. 30
3.4 Ear Plug/Ear Muff ......................................................................................................... 30
3.5 Nitrile Gloves, Cotton Gloves, Lather/ Welding Gloves .............................................. 31
3.6 Safety Harness ............................................................................................................... 33
3.7 Safety Spectacles, Goggles and Face Shields ............................................................... 33
3.8 Coveralls........................................................................................................................ 35
3.9 Heat / Flame Resistance Suit ......................................................................................... 35
3.10 Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) ........................................................... 35
3.11 Summary.................................................................................................................... 36
3.13 Assessments ............................................................................................................... 36
4 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET AND FIRE SAFETY ............................................ 37
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 37
4.2 Basic Principles for Handling Hazardous Chemicals ................................................... 37
4.3 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) ............................................................................. 38
4.4 Fire Safety ..................................................................................................................... 43
4.4.1 Fire Triangle........................................................................................................... 43
4.4.2 Classification of Fire .............................................................................................. 44
4.4.3 Fire Extinguishers and Firefighting Methods ........................................................ 45
4.4.4 Other Precautions, Preventions and Protection Practices ...................................... 46
4.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 46
4.6 Practical Activities and Tasks for Students ................................................................... 46
4.7 Assessments .................................................................................................................. 46
5 START-UP AND SHUT-DOWN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT ....................................... 47
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 47
5.2 Pre-Startup Safety Review ............................................................................................ 47
5.3 Start-up Operations of Process Equipment ................................................................... 48
5.4 Shut-down Operations of Process Equipment ............................................................... 48
5.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 49
5.7 Assessments .................................................................................................................. 49
6 FIRST AID AND HANDLING EMERGENCIES .............................................................. 51
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 51
6.2 Emergency Preparedness and Response ....................................................................... 51
6.2.1 Workplace Emergency ........................................................................................... 51
6.3 First Aid......................................................................................................................... 52
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6.3.1 Unconscious/Unresponsive .................................................................................... 52

6.3.2 Cardiac Arrest ........................................................................................................ 53
6.3.3 Burns ...................................................................................................................... 53
6.3.4 Broken Bones or Fracture ...................................................................................... 54
6.3.5 Nose Bleeds ........................................................................................................... 54
6.3.6 Bleeding ................................................................................................................. 54
6.3.7 Sprain ..................................................................................................................... 55
6.3.8 Wasp/Bee Stings .................................................................................................... 55
6.3.9 Chocking ................................................................................................................ 56
6.4 Safety in Laboratories and Workshops ......................................................................... 56
6.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 57
6.7 Assessments .................................................................................................................. 57
7 HUMAN ERROR AND BEHAVIOURAL SAFETY ........................................................ 59
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 59
7.2 Human Error and Behavioural Safety ........................................................................... 59
7.2.1 Understanding Human Failure ............................................................................... 59
7.3 Behavioural Safety ........................................................................................................ 60
7.4 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 61
7.6 Assessments .................................................................................................................. 61
8 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIONS, REPORTING AND RISK ASSESSMENTS .............. 63
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 63
8.2 Accident/Incident Reporting ......................................................................................... 63
8.3 Risk Assessment............................................................................................................ 64
8.3.1 Risk Assessment Matrix ........................................................................................ 64
8.3.2 Risk Assessment Observation Sheet ...................................................................... 65
8.3.3 Accident, Frequency and Severity Rate ................................................................. 65
8.4 Other Risk Analysis Techniques ................................................................................... 66
8.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 66
8.7 Assessments .................................................................................................................. 66
9 ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY AND INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS ................................. 67
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 67
9.2 Responsibilities of HSE Manager ................................................................................. 67
9.3 Omani Standards for Environmental Protection ........................................................... 67
9.4 Industrial Effluent Treatment ........................................................................................ 68
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9.5 ISO 14000 ..................................................................................................................... 70

9.6 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 70
9.8 Assessments .................................................................................................................. 70
10 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 71
11 APPENDIX I: SAMPLE ACCIDENT REPORT ................................................................ 73
12 APPENDIX II: RISK ASSESSMENT OBSERVATION SHEET ...................................... 79
viii University of Technology and Applied Sciences

CHAPTER 1
1 INTRODUCTION
Course Learning Objectives/Outcomes
Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to:
Understand the importance and need of safety in different engineering industries and
comprehend various important terms related to HSE.
1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO SAFETY

Healthy employees and goodwill related to industrial safety is highly essential for any
successful business and manufacturing enterprises. Safety is a highly important topic for various
types of industries aimed at the realization of accident free work environment which boosts the
employee morale especially while working in hazardous conditions. Further Health and Safety is
a buzzword in contemporary fields of academics and industrial operations and is considered more
importantly than just the bottom-line of production and profits.
Statistics related to industrial accidents that result in substantial loss of production time,
which also results in injuries that involves temporary or permanent disablement and even deaths
are being reported year after year. Such accidents are also resulting in damage to machineries,
equipment, infrastructure, and other resources that adversely affects the profits and growth of the
company as well. Hence it is essential to identify the causes of industrial accidents, examine and
analyze it and take necessary steps in controlling and eliminating them.
1.2 NEED OF SAFETY

An accident is caused due to the presence of an unsafe condition and an unsafe act in the
form of inappropriate behaviour. Accidents occurs when both unsafe condition and unsafe acts
coincides and are coupled at one point of time.
Some of the examples of unsafe conditions are as below:
▪ Defective fittings
▪ Faulty equipment
▪ Inadequate maintenance
▪ Damaged electrical fitting and cables
▪ Use of defective tools
▪ Visibility issues and blind spots on gangways ad aisles
▪ Poor layout design
▪ Improper guarding of machineries and rotating equipment
▪ Defective lifting machines and slings
▪ Unguarded pits and floor platforms

▪ Inadequacy of warnings
▪ Poor housekeeping
Some examples of unsafe acts are as below:
▪ Performing a task without being authorized
▪ Ignoring the warnings and safety precautions
▪ Misuse or not using safety devices
▪ Maintenance without lockout / tag out or avoidance of the same
▪ Improper material handling
▪ Waiting or taking rest below the lifting equipment, hung loads and working areas
▪ Over speeding while working
▪ Improper use or not using the personal protective equipment like helmet shoes etc.
▪ Taking shortcuts while working
▪ Poor housekeeping
▪ Usage of defective equipment
Damages resulting from accidents and mishaps have several direct and indirect
consequences. Production stoppages, machine downtime and loss of critical infrastructure have
direct impact on the cost of production. Further there are several indirect consequences such as
panic created among workers, loss of time of nearby machines, medical treatment expenses, cost
of compensation, legal complications, social and public damages, damage of goodwill etc.
Considering these facts adequate safety measures are to be taken not just for the cost
considerations alone but also considering the moral and social responsibility of the enterprises.
In order to prevent the accidents specific attempts are to be taken to eliminate the unsafe
conditions of the working environment and avoidance of unsafe acts
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Unsafe Condition Unsafe Act Near Miss Accident

Figure 1.1 Example of rusty lifting gear - Unsafe Condition, Unsafe Act, Near Miss and
Accidents (Courtesy: Institution of Safety Engineers, India)
Domino Theory of causation of accidents as developed by H W Heinrich states that all
accidents whether inside or outside workplace are resulting from a chain of events and generally
88% of such mishaps results from unsafe acts, 10% occurring due to unsafe conditions and just
2% are resulted due to natural calamities.
Needs of safety if generally considered in four broad areas: Social, Management, Legal and
Humanitarian. Social need is to eliminate or mitigate the damages that might result in terms of
loss of earning capacity, sufferings and other similar intangible consequences. Management need
addresses the huge cost that result from accidents directly and indirectly that includes damage of
equipment, medical expenses, compensation to the affected etc. Legal need is due to the statutes
and laws by various governmental regulatory agencies in terms of decrees related to factories,
building and constructions, Health and Safety compliance for employee safety, protection of
environment etc. Humanitarian need is basically intended the prevention of occurrence of
accidents as all of us are duty bound to ensure the safety of our fellow beings.
1.3 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

Occupational health is primarily intended to enable the individual operating in a workplace
to undertake their occupation so as to get minimum exposure to the unhealthy conditions and least
possible harm to their health due to the long period of work in specific work environment.
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International Labour Organization (ILO) and World Health Organization (WHO) have proposed
a common policy on occupational health with three distinct objectives.
▪ Maintenance of workers’ health and their capacity
▪ Improvement of working condition and work environment conducive to safety and health
of people involved
▪ Development of workplace so as to promote work cultures that aligns health and safety,
increased efficiency, and positive social climate
These objectives would be reflected on the value systems of the organization, practices of
the managerial systems, training policies and the personnel policies of the undertaking. Lasting
effects on a person due to the exposure to unsafe chemicals, radiations, noise, inhalation of
anesthetics, asbestos, intimidating work environment etc. are addressed in the preview of
occupational health.
1.4 PROCESS AND PRODUCTION SAFETY

Process safety is a major factor in most of the process industries and Oil and Gas industries
in particular. Robust processes are highly necessary due to the presence of potential risk elements
in both the upstream and downstream industries as well. Process safety framework integrates
various considerations like handling of hazardous substances, effective principles of design,
robustness in operating and maintenance practices with an objective of prevention and control of
incidents, release of energy and hazardous materials. Process safety also focusses on prevention
of fires, explosions, accidents resulting from handling of chemicals as in the case of refineries
and other oil and gas installations: offshore and on shore. It also protects personnel working in
environments where toxic materials and harmful chemicals are released.
Major risk incidents that affects process safety can be avoided by focusing on Asset
Integrity Management for the entire life cycle of existing and new assets. Effective and good
practices in operating areas are provided as guidelines in the Asset Integrity Management system
and is produced from useful contributions of the workforce itself. Production safety on the other
hand implies in developing a production system where accidents, work induced illness, injuries
and fatalities are prevented generally in any manufacturing enterprises.
1.5 MATERIAL SAFETY

Material safety focusses on receiving, storage, supply and handling of materials in general
and hazardous chemicals and agents in particular. A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a
comprehensive document where all the potential hazards that may be related to the specific
material and also states how it can be safely identified, stored and handled. It also provides

information related to harmful effects and symptoms of overexposure to it and the possible
emergency handling procedures.
1.6 FIRE SAFETY

Fire safety deals with commonly occurring types of fires, safe practices to be followed to
prevent the occurrence fire, reduce the magnitude of destruction caused from fire, possible
methods of controlling the fire from being spread uncontrollably, development of fire safety
plans, training on fire safety and dealing with fire hazards, fire drills, fire codes, professional
qualifications and certifications for fire fighters etc.
1.7 ELECTRICAL SAFETY

Electrical safety discusses various topics including hazards of electricity, science of
electrical hazards, list of various electrical safety equipment, safe procedures while working with
electricity, grounding of electrical equipment, electrical maintenance, legal and regulatory
standards and requirements, rescue and first aid in case of electrical accidents and human factors
in electrical safety.
1.8 BUILDING AND STRUCTURAL SAFETY

Building and structural safety encompasses mainly three areas:
▪ Structural integrity and robustness of the building and other installations like elevators,
HVAC systems, escalators, gas lines, electric cables, and circuit breakers etc. for the entire
life of the building, building codes
▪ Prevention of accidents from falls from higher altitudes, structural safety that prevents and
reduces damage from natural effects like earthquakes, cyclones, flooding etc.
▪ Construction safety to protect the construction workers which includes working at height,
handling of heavy material, usage of power tools, moving machineries like cranes,
winches, hoists etc. codes and standards related to scaffoldings, effects of noise, dust,
vibrations and temperature, potential chance of electrocutions while working under power
lines and heavy equipment and other similar considerations.
1.9 ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY

Environmental safety study, analyze and implement practical solutions for protecting the
environment and assuring sustainability of environment and maintain a healthy occupation of the
population. It deals with direct and indirect impact on environment as a result of industrial
operations so as to make sure that such activities do not cause any damage to the environment as
whole and its inhabitants in particular. Further environmental management standards included in

ISO 14000 is also discussed for the assurance of sustainable developmental requirements so as to
oversee the industrial operations without harming anyone.
1.10 SAFETY SIGNS AND COLOUR CODING

Basic theme of colour codes for safety signs are available in the OSHA standard 29 CFR
1910.144. Red and yellow colour marks physical hazards.
+ Yellow Danger (Hurt You/Kills You)
+ Red Prohibited (Cannot Do)
+ Blue Mandatory (Must Do)
+ Green Emergency (Safety First)
+ Red Fire (Fire Equipment)
Some of the examples of safety signs are as below:

Meaning: Warning, Be Aware, Be Careful
Other Examples: Danger 22kV
Mind your step
Caution slippery floor
Evacuation site ahead
Crane movement ahead

Meaning: Never, Do Not, No

Other Examples: No entry
No unauthorized persons
No smoking
Do not operate
No parking
Meaning: You Must Obey, Do This

Other Examples: Safety helmets must be worn
Wear face mask
Pedestrians only
Ear protection must be worn
Hearing protection must be worn
Meaning: First Aid, Follow, This Way, Escape Route

Other Examples: First Aid Box
Emergency stop
Assembly point
Push bar to open
Fire exit
Meaning: Fire Alarm, Fire Extinguisher, Fire Equipment

Other Examples: Fire alarm control panel
For fire use only
Gas shut off valve

1.11 IMPORTANT TERMS GLOSSARY

Safety: Freedom from undesirable risk of injury or damage or control over hazards and hazardous
conditions.
Hazard: Act, Source and Situation that might lead to injury, ill health, death, damage to property
or a combination of all these.
Risk: Combination of the probability and severity of a hazardous or harmful event happening.
Risk can be quantified as the product of probability of occurrence of an event and severity of the
damage or destruction resulting from that event.
Accident: It is an event that has occurred unintentionally and is resulting in a damage, injury or
fatality or combination of these.
Incident: It is an event that has occurred unintentionally and may not result in damage, injury or
fatality.
Near Miss: It is an unplanned event that did not result in damage, injury or fatality but could have
done so. This might shake up the employees affect the morale of the people around even though
they are not injured.
Reportable Injury: If a person has encountered a sustained injury and is unable to report to his
work within 48 hours of the accident, it is a reportable injury.
Non-Compliance: Any deviation from the accepted practices, operating procedures, standards,
management requirements etc. that could directly or indirectly result in damage, injury, illness,
fatality, damage of capital assets, loss of property or combination of these.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration: OSHA is one of the largest regulatory
agencies, established to assure the safety and healthy working condition of industrial workers and
personnel by means of enforcing standards, providing training, outreach programs and other
assistance. Contributions from OSHA in terms of workplace safety, inspections, certification of
safety professionals etc. have made remarkable contributions in reducing accidents and injuries
and has been accepted by major countries around the world.
ISO 14000: It is an environmental management system that covers of necessary requirements of
accomplishing sustainable environment objectives while performing the entire business from
manufacturing, distribution, product disposal and treatment of effluents.
Safety Audit: It is an assessment health and safety program to ensure the compliance of safe
practices as documented and is carried out for specific locations and centers by a trained and
authorized professional.

PPE: Personal Protective Equipment is an equipment worn by the operator and other personnel
present in the workplace with an objective to minimize the exposure to hazards and reduce the
effects of injuries that might occur.
HAZMAT: They are hazardous materials that may pose risk to health or environment such as
toxic chemicals, nuclear waste, fuels etc.
1.12 SUMMARY
To conclude the introduction to safety a significant observation can be made that Safety,
Productivity and Quality are the three major pillars of any manufacturing or business enterprises
and they are linked inseparably. There are several instances in the history and also in the recent
past where severe adversities have resulted as a result of compromise on safety and preference to
productivity over safety. The most important resource of an organization is its human resource
and organizational development can be achieved only by focusing on the wellbeing and safety of
its personnel. Also, safety improves both productivity and quality as it frees up the employees
and allow them to focus on their work and they will be motivated as they realize their employers
are concerned for their safety and wellbeing. No success or achievements are worth above the
interests of the people, society, and country. Safe organizations will never face large scale
disruptions.
This course is about you and the people around you inside and outside workplace returning
home safe everyday
Figure 1.2 Safe and happy family

1.13 PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES AND TASKS FOR STUDENTS

☞ Exhibit videos on fatalities of major industrial accidents and discuss the causes and
learnings.
☞ Discuss on various case studies that are related to major industrial accidents that had
occurred in the past in different segments around the world, in GCC, in Oman: Fire,
radiation, gas leaks, collapse of buildings, exposure to harmful chemicals, mining
accidents etc. and write reports of possible causes, failures of the management, unsafe
conditions, behavioural aspects of employees, unsafe acts, lessons learned, statistics in
terms of damage and fatality.
☞ Ask the students to identify and make a report on safety signs in different contexts
1.14 EXAMPLES
1) Kleen Energy Power Plant, Middletown, CT (February 7, 2010) Gas blow procedure
resulted in the killing of 7 and injuring 50 others
2) Union Carbide India limited, Bhopal (December 3, 1984) gas leakage tragedy, immediate
loss is 2500 people 8000 more due to diseases and 500 000 injuries
3) Chernobyl nuclear power 26th April 1986.
4) Fire accidents in ORPIC (March 11, 2013 Sohar and December 4, 2014 Mina Al Fahal)
5) Chlorine gas leak accident in Jordan’s Aqaada seaport (June 27, 2022) killing 10 people
and 251 injured.
6) Fire accident in the port of Beirut, Lebanon, (August 4, 2020) killing 218, 7000 injuries
and leaving 300,00 homeless
1.15 ASSESSMENTS
Quizzes, Short Tests, Reports as agreed by the departmental assessment plan: Questions
could include but not limited to need of safety, examples of unsafe acts, examples of unsafe
conditions, objectives of OSHA, areas of safety, defining the important terms from the glossary.

CHAPTER 2
2 VARIOUS SAFETY HAZARDS AND PREVENTIONS
Course Learning Outcomes
Identify safety hazards present in various Engineering industries and take precautionary measures
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Hazards that involve risk are present in every walk of our work life. But it will result in
undesirable effects only when it is not prevented. For instance, everyone knows what might
happen if a person falls from a higher altitude while working on a scaffolding and is a matter of
presence of a hazard. But if the worker is using an appropriate fall protection equipment, PPE and
the scaffolding is properly guarded, the accident that might result from this hazard could be
prevented. Similarly, all the hazards that are presented in various workplaces and engineering
industries can be prevented.
2.2 BASIC APPROACHES OF SAFETY MANAGERS

Health and Safety managers basically adopt four types of approaches while dealing with
such situations: Enforcement Approach, Psychological Approach, Engineering Approach and
Analytical Approach. Enforcement Approach is taken in accordance with the standards and
regulations set by OSHA and other locally authorized agencies. It is a simple and direct approach
where managers make it mandatory to all for following certain practices with commanding words
like “always do this”, “never do that” etc. Putting of personal protective equipment, driving with
seat belt ON, driving within the speed limit etc. are examples of it. At times they enforce penalties
for breaking the rules.
Psychological approach is primarily by rewarding for safe behaviour. This approach is
familiarized in many ways, like display of warnings, exhibiting sign boards, giant display in front
of the main entrance showing the number of days without accidents and other positive statistics,
safety meetings, picnics and short pleasure trips celebrating successes, departmental awards etc.
The support from the top management is required for the success of this approach and it is
specifically influencing the new entrants in the workplace as they watch and adopt the practices
of senior workers and managers.
Engineering approach has emerged as a preferred approach over these years and is focusing
on reviewing and redesigning a process with a view to “engineer out” the hazard. The defense
lines include: Engineering Controls and PPE which removes or suppresses hazards. Factor of

safety while designing a system eliminating the causes of hazards, substituting the processes,
providing guarding to the exposure of hazard, installation of barriers, installing exhaust
ventilation, adequate lightings in workplace, appropriate design of aisles and gangways, offering
thoughtful human interface with machineries and equipment etc. are part of this approach.
Analytical approach is basically analyzing the historical statistics of accidents and incidents
reported, calculation of probability of occurrences of mishaps, epidemiological studies,
toxicological studies, Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA), Event Tree Analysis (ETA),
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA), classifications of hazards, risk assessment etc.
The main objective of this chapter is to present elimination of hazards and preventions of
accidents in different workplaces and contexts of various engineering industries and in the
contexts of work equipment, mechanical handling, manual handling, working at height, transport
safety, classification of dangerous substances, chemical and biological safety, electricity and
electrical equipment, construction safety, demolition, workplace health and safety issues.
2.3 WORK EQUIPMENT

Hazards due to work equipment results from to types of causes; equipment and machinery
hazards and non-equipment hazards. Equipment and machinery hazards include impact, contact,
traps, entanglement, ejection of parts etc. Non-equipment hazards include exposure to chemicals,
electrical failure, exposure to temperature, pressure, noise, vibration and radiation. The major
principles adopted with respect to work equipment safety are as below.
▪ Work equipment must be suitable for the specific circumstances of use
▪ Energy to drive the equipment must be capable of safe supply, removal or emergency
stoppages
▪ Work equipment must be maintained in the appropriate condition
▪ Equipment must be installed, located and utilized such that the risk is minimized
▪ Adequate information, instructions must be provided along with the equipment and the
operators must be trained in handling them
▪ Periodic inspections must be carried out on work equipment by authorized and competent
persons
▪ Checklists to operate the equipment must be provided near them
▪ Procure the work equipment from suppliers who adopt safety policies that offers intrinsic
safety and legal compliance
▪ Work equipment layout must be designed by taking considerations of spacing, lighting,
cables and safe access to the place of location

▪ Machine guarding must be in place to avoid traps, impact, entanglement, ejection and
contact
▪ Equipment must be designed by considering the ergonomic aspects and human
interactions
Figure 2.1 Machine safety guarding
2.4 MANUAL HANDLING

Manual handling of loads at work places is a major reason for various workplace injuries.
Strains and sprains of muscles and the lower back and disc injuries is one of the main types of
injury. Other types include fractures, cuts, bruises, amputation etc. further ligament/tendon
injuries, nerve injuries and hernias are also observed to be causing due to manual handling of
loads in the form of lifting, pushing, pulling and carrying.
Manual handling assessments must be carried out before exposing the workers to these
conditions by subjecting to different queries: Is there a risk of injury, can it be done by an alternate
method, would it be possible to mechanize/automate the process, does it need unusual strength
etc. The major principles adopted with respect to manual handling safety are as below.
▪ Proper foot positioning
▪ Securing the appropriate grip
▪ Bent the knees and straighten the back comfortably
▪ Keep the arms close to the body
▪ Keep the chin tucked in
▪ Use back belts if required to handle heavy loads and long duration handling
▪ Use mechanical handling devices wherever possible
The load that could be handled depends on the frequency of lifting, vertical distance from
the body, distance that one moves while lifting, and easiness in holding, twisting the back etc. It

is permissible to handle 51 pounds (23.13 kg) as per the OSHA standards for an 18-year-old and
this varies with gender and physical conditions of people of different countries.
Figure 2.2 Correct method of manual handling
Figure 2.3 Appropriate sequence in lifting and carrying the load

Figure 2.4 Manual handling risk limits (Courtesy: www.hse.gov.uk)
2.5 MECHANICAL HANDLING

Mechanical handling has reduced significantly the physical injury caused by manual
handling. Nevertheless, there are certain other sources of potential hazards and risks in
mechanical handling. Different types of cranes, forklifts, conveyors industrial trucks that are
powered etc. are the major mechanical handling equipment. collision, overturning, overloading,
structural damage, accidents resulting from the poor visibility of operators, breakage of slings,
damage of hooks etc. are some of the main types of accidents caused in mechanical handling.
Figure 2.5 Mechanical handling and risk elements

The major principles adopted with respect to mechanical handling to ensure safe operation
are as below:
▪ Testing of cranes at the time of commissioning for the maximum capacity
▪ Testing of all handling equipment daily before operation

▪ Testing of brakes by raising the load to a metre height and holding it there at the beginning
of the work daily
▪ Periodic inspection of slings, wire ropes, shackles, eyebolts and hooks
▪ Periodic maintenance of the equipment must be done and a history shall be maintained
▪ Engineering controls must be in place on every equipment
o Load and load radius indicators must be in place
o Clear identifications of the control
o Overtravel switches
▪ Passengers must never be allowed in a mechanical equipment to travel on it
▪ Clear visibility must be provided to the operator to coordinate the movement, hook, load
and the controls
▪ Operator must take signals only from the authorized signal man
▪ Operating area must be free from obstacles, overhead cables by locking off and permit to
work systems
▪ Equipment must never be overload
2.6 WORKING AT HEIGHT

Fall from heights is one of the major causes of injuries at workplace and at home as well.
The injuries from fall are fatal most often. Such mishaps can be dealt with two different
approaches: Prevention and Protection. Fall Prevention is accomplished by removing the need of
working at heights by proper work planning and eliminating the need of working at higher
altitudes. Fall protection is using equipment to protect people while working at heights so as to
enable then access equipment. Various access equipment used for this purpose are
Figure 2.6 Various access equipment for working at heights

Figure 2.7 Various access equipment for working at heights

Accidents while working at heights generally results from
▪ Overreaching
▪ Overbalancing
▪ Slippery footwear
▪ Falls from platforms while in transit
▪ Contact with structural elements
▪ Climbing with load
▪ Inappropriate equipment
▪ Failure of base support
▪ Faulty components and failure
▪ Improper maintenance
▪ Structural failures of suspension system
The major principles adopted to ensure the safe working at heights are as below.
▪ Visual inspection of ladders
▪ Use railing wherever possible
▪ Select an appropriate anchor point
▪ Correct positioning of ladders and angle of rest (1unit horizontal at foot:4 units vertical)
▪ No more than one person on a stepladder
▪ Stepladders must not be loaded on sides
▪ Ladders and stepladders must be levelled and stability must be ensured on the base firmly
▪ Platforms of trestles and scaffolds must be fully boarded
▪ Working platforms of trestles must be of suitable width (not less than 600 mm)
▪ Scaffolds must be designed for suitable load bearing capacity
▪ Inspection of scaffolds must be done by a competent and qualified person

▪ Erection of scaffolds must be in accordance with the safety regulations and also the
recommendations of the manufacturer
▪ Suspended cradles must be capable of handling the specific loads
▪ Outriggers must be ensured for powered work platforms
▪ All the equipment must require periodic inspection and maintenance
▪ All the equipment must be required to be fitted with scissor mechanisms, guarding,
protection from trapping, fall arresters
▪ Personnel must be provided with safety harness for fall protection
Figure 2.8 Basic fall safety equipment
2.7 TRANSPORT SAFETY

Equipment that moves within the area of workplace includes forklifts, cars, trucks, self-
propelled machineries. Meticulous planning is required for the safety of people and equipment
while dealing with these. Major accidents in the classification of transport safety are:
o Collision with pedestrians and other vehicles
o Overturning due to speeding, overloading and surface conditions
o Impact of material falling from vehicles
o Contact with other structures
o Entanglement with rotating parts and machineries on the vehicles
The major practices adopted to ensure safety of transportation are as below.
▪ Selection of capable drivers and providing defensive driving training and certifications
▪ Ensuring that the visiting drivers are properly instructed on the safe practices
▪ Suitable traffic controls must be in practiced in workplace
▪ All vehicles must be kept in efficient conditions by maintaining brakes, lights, indicators
and other major systems of vehicles

▪ Special purpose vehicles and drivers only must be utilized for carrying hazardous
chemicals which include fuels, flammable gases, explosives, oxidizing agents, radioactive
materials etc.
2.8 CLASSIFICATIONS AND HANDLING OF DANGEROUS SUBSTANCES

Dangerous materials are having specific physical or chemical properties that could lead to
potential hazard to human safety and health if not controlled properly. They are classified and
identified in terms of the harm they might cause and most of them fall in more than one category.
Generally, they fall in any of the classifications: Flammable or Explosive, Irritant, Harmful,
Toxic, Corrosive, Agents of anoxia, Oxidizing agents, Narcotics and Carcinogens. They are
classified into nine classes depending on the danger present with them.
Class 1: Explosives – explosives are capable of rapid release of huge amount of energy that could
be harmful for people, infrastructure and environment
Class 2: Gases – Gases include flammable, inflammable and toxic which are either compressed
refrigerated or liquified. Most of them are dangerous as they affect the human metabolism or react
with oxygen and would result in the release of toxins and poisonous substances
Class 3: Flammable Liquids – Flammable liquids are combustible at low temperatures and
encounters huge risk of exposing to ignitions
Class 4: Flammable Solids – Flammable solids are dangerous as they are easily combustible while
transporting. Many of the are reactive and are liable to heating up. Three subcategories of
flammable solids are Class 4.1 - Flammable solids that burns and decompose explosively and
emits toxic gases, Class 4.2 – Spontaneous Combustible that react quickly with oxygen, Class 4.3
– dangerous when wet as they react with water producing flammable gases that could be ignited
by the heat. Calcium carbide on contacting with water produces acetylene gas which is easily
combustible is an example of this category.
Class 5: Oxidizing Agents (5.1) and Organic Peroxides (5.2) – They are extremely reactive due
to the high oxygen content and may lead to fire especially in confined spaces. Hydrogen Peroxide
and Lead Nitrate are examples of this category.
Class 6: Toxins and Infectious substances – Toxins are substances causing harm to human health
and they enter our body through breathing, absorption through skins etc. Infectious substances
are containing microorganisms that causes diseases for humans and live stocks
Class 7: Radioactive Material – They emits harmful radiations spontaneously with the release of
energy. They possess huge potential of existence of human life if not handled carefully.

Class 8: Corrosives – They produce chemical effects due to their reactivity and is instrumental in
degradation or deterioration of other materials. They may cause injury to humans as well.
Chlorides, batteries flux etc. are example of corrosives.
Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous goods – Distilled water, asbestos, dry ice marine pollutants
effluents of airbag modules (Sodium Azide), hazardous chemical present in seat belt pretensioners
etc. are examples of dangerous goods in this category.
The major practices adopted to ensure safety while handling dangerous substances are as below.
▪ Labelling and identification of substances
▪ Safe and standard procedures must be adopted in usage, storage, transportation, handling
and disposal for dangerous substances and must strictly follow the regulations of safety
agencies and in compliance with the legal requirements
▪ Appropriate licenses must be obtained while dealing with these substances: Storage,
Export and Import
2.9 CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SAFETY

Chemical and biological hazards may affect several people at the same time including the
operators, nearby personnel on the site and the general public outside. Meticulous planning is
highly essential while handling, transporting, storing, using and disposing the hazardous
chemicals. The stages of control while dealing with chemical safety are: Identification of the
hazard, assessment of the risk, control of the risk, training of the workers, monitoring the
effectiveness of the strategies adopted and proper maintenance of records.
Biological safety is to prevent the harmful effects of pathogenic micro-organisms. Major
biological agents in the contemporary period are Covid – 19, Ebola, Hepatitis B and C, Lassa
fever, Anthrax, Avian flu, Zika virus etc. Some of these are spread because of improper handling
of these viruses in the research organizations and due to human error. Control of Substances
Hazardous to Health regulations (COSHH) recommends the following practices.
▪ Risk assessment
▪ Look for safer agents
▪ Prevention of exposure
▪ Physical controls in workplaces
▪ Use of PPEs
▪ Informing, instructing and training workers
▪ Immunization

2.10 ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

Electric shock occurs when electric current flows through the human body and the fatality
is decided by the distribution and path of the current. Burning, cell wall damage and even death
are the main consequences of electric shock. The main parts of the human body that are affected
by electric shock are skin, nervous system, muscular system, heart, and pulmonary system and it
causes severe injury and death as well.
Main causes of electric safety failures are damaged insulations, inadequacy in over current
protection (Circuit breakers and Fuses), improper earthing, overheated equipment, loose contacts,
usage of circuit components that are not rated for its suitability, unprotected connectors, earth
leakage current, Improper use of extension cords, operating appliances that are not complying
with safety regulations, use of outdated cables and wiring, lack of maintenance and periodic
testing and unsafe work practices.
Table 2.1 Nominal human response to current magnitudes
The common practices adopted to ensure safety while handling Electricity and Electrical
Equipment are as below.
▪ All heavy electric equipment, machinery and wiring must be provided with suitable
earthing
▪ Switching and locking OFF must be practiced while working on electrical circuits and
appliances
▪ Usage of temporary or permanent insulation is mandatory (Rubber mats, cable sheathing)
▪ Usage of suitable fuses to get protection from over currents

▪ Usage of circuit breakers must be ensured and it must be periodically inspected
▪ Devices for earth faults like residual current detectors must be used in necessary
equipment
▪ Trained and competent persons must only be allowed to install maintain and test the
circuits
▪ Electrical tools could be replaced with pneumatic tools wherever possible
▪ Switch off devices must be in accessible places
▪ Lowest possible voltages must be used
▪ Cable, plug, sockets, connecters must be in immaculate conditions
▪ Usage shoes and anti-static shoes wherever it requires
▪ Periodic inspection and checking by a third party is desirable
2.11 FIRE SAFETY

Fire safety is perhaps the oldest of all the safety considerations. It deals with common
practices that is aimed at reducing the destruction caused by various types of fires. Fire safety
would be separately dealt with in subsequent sessions as it should be covered more
comprehensively.
2.12 CONSTRUCTION SAFETY

Construction industry is the oldest of all the types of industries as it caters the need of
housing travel and is directly related to the wellbeing of humans. It employs a sizable portion of
workforce and has been encountering huge number of occupational hazards, accidents and
fatalities. Consequently, specific prevention and protection measures must be enforced for the
safety of the people working in this sector. The major construction site accidents are caused from
relatively few in numbers; fall from height, contact with vehicles in motion, being trapped under
collapsing and overturning structures, struck by falling objects and the main accidents in
construction sites are as below.
o Struck by moving, falling and flying objects
o Fall from height
o Struck by vehicles
o Trapped under collapsing structures
o Overturning
o Contact with electricity
o Falls into deep excavation

o Falls of materials into excavations

o Ground collapses
o Machinery accidents
o Slips and Trips
Figure 2.9 Excavation pit barriers and construction site barricades

The common practices adopted to ensure safety in construction are as below.
▪ Proper planning and interactions of builders, contractors, sub-contractors, workers and the
general public
▪ Addressing the specific problems of the organizations by adopting safe practices
▪ Stipulating the size of work in terms of quantity delivered, batch sizes, time of work etc.
▪ Providing solid guardrails in places of evacuations
▪ Plan the traffic routes properly and ensure that all adheres to the specific route policies
▪ Ensuring the presence of sufficient Oxygen in evacuations and pits
▪ All safety measures must be taken while erecting the scaffolds and working on it
▪ Ensure the ladder safety policies
▪ Fall arresters and safety harness for fall protection must be ensured while working on
heights
▪ Mandatory use of personal protective equipment by all must be ensured
▪ Good protective clothing and washing facilities must be provided to ensure personal
hygiene and occupational safety
▪ Buildings are to be designed and constructed by strictly complying with the codes and
standards as required for each specific construction
2.13 DEMOLITION
Accidents during the demolition process are at times more fatal than the construction phase
and the potential risk involved is more during demolition. The damages of demolition could also

be in the neighboring area and buildings as well. The common practices adopted to ensure safety
during demolition are as below.
▪ Demolition work must be carried out by experienced and specialists in that
▪ The entire work must be under the control of a competent and certified person
▪ Storage, handling, transportation and use of chemical explosives must be done by
following all the regulations of the licensing agencies
▪ Detailed demolition surveys and planning must be done well in advance
▪ The site must be vacant and unauthorized persons must be vacated before the process
▪ Suitable demolition techniques must be employed in specific locations: piecemeal
demolition or deliberate controlled collapse
▪ Demolition method must be stated in detail which include
o Planning the sequence of events and method of dismantling
o Details of pre-weakening of structures that need to be pulled down
o Protection of personnel and public
o Personnel access details
o List of requirements of machineries
o Plans for exclusion of unauthorized public
o Isolation of electric, gas, grain and other services
o Details of hazardous and flammable substances and plan for waste disposal
2.14 WORKPLACE HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES

Workplace health and safety issues are dealt with a wide spectrum of places that starts with
shops, hospitals, hotels, factories, assembly lines, shopping malls to airports that does not include
equipment and processes. Major regulations that enforces health and safety in this generalized
discussion includes lighting, ventilation, temperature, working space, windows, seating, aisles
and gangways for movement, welfare facilities, slips trips and falls, cleanliness.
Lighting: Appropriate and adequate lighting is required for the work place depending on the type
of work. Lighting design of the internal areas needs to be set based on the need of luminance.
General, localized and emergency lighting facilities are also to be ensured based on the standards
and regulations.
Ventilation: Pure and fresh air is the basic requirement of human beings. Presence of excess
Carbon dioxide in crowdy places and pollutants entering from outside or from process equipment.
Mechanical systems must be in place where the natural ventilation in incapable to deliver the air
quality needs depending on the cubic capacity.

Temperature: Extreme temperatures in workplace would result in reduced efficiency, less

attention and finally culminate in health issues. Intervals must be provided to regain the energy
and maintain the body metabolism while working in such environment. Examples of milk
pasteurizing units where the operations are carried out at temperatures as low as 4oC and working
in close proximity of furnaces and heat sources fall in this category.
Working space: Working space must be adequate for long working hours and to ensure proper
mobility of the workers. 3.7 m2 floor area and 11 m3 space must be provided as a minimum
requirement as per the guidelines of International Labour Organization (ILO)
Windows: windows are the main source of lighting and ventilation and it offers a general comfort
to the workers.
Seating: Chairs for people working for long working hours must be suitable with the work
environment and duration. Workers who generally stands during work also must be provided with
eating as they also need to sit at some point of time to get relaxed and remove the lethargy.
Important considerations for seating are back rest, arm rest, foot rest, adjustability of height tilt
and range, sufficient thigh support and supportive upholstery.
Aisles and gangways for movement & slips trips and falls: Broad aisles and gangways and
definite routes for movement of people and material handling equipment will prevent slips trips
and falls.
Welfare facilities: Welfare facilities include toilets, urinals, washing facilities, drinking water,
privacy, clean work environment, rest places, convenient places for nursing and pregnant women,
healthy food, protection from smoke etc.
Cleanliness: Good housekeeping practices must be followed in the workplace as it is essential in
avoiding accidents and boosting employee morale. ‘Clean room’ provisions and superior
housekeeping standards are highly required in pharmaceutical and food processing industries.
2.15 SUMMARY
This chapter has provided how safety hazards could be identified in various engineering
industries and different types of work environments and how accidents can be prevented and
employees can be protected from various potential risks and threats. A proficient health and safety
professional must not be contended with one type of approach alone, rather he must solve complex
safety problems by adopting different approaches and integrating them and capitalizing on the
strengths of the industry.


☞ Practical demonstration of machine guarding, ladders, stepladders, electrical safety
equipment, fuses, hazardous chemical storage and identification and exhibiting different
safety educational videos (Napo series of animated videos is a good exhibit for different
safety issues available at https://www.napofilm.net/en/napos-films/films)
☞ Ask students to identify the safety hazards present in various workplaces in workshops,
machine shops, welding shops, laboratories, construction area, inside the campus, parking
place etc. and to submit a report on possible control measures
Preparations of charts and diagrams related to safety of specific work locations, warning
signs etc.
☞ Preparation of charts to compare and contrast types of dangerous substances
Write a report on identifications of specific hazardous chemical for individual students
and the probable health and safety issues related to that and how to get protected while
working on such situations
☞ Ask the students to prepare a report on harmful effects of manual handling and how to
stay protected by correct handling procedures and to collect the rules of handling in Oman
☞ Ask the student to write reports on common causes for accidents and how to avoid the risk
in case of drilling machine, lathe, grinding machine, gas welding, arc welding etc.
2.17 ASSESSMENTS
could include but not limited to different approaches, causes of accidents, safe practices regarding
to work equipment, working at height, transport, electrical circuits, construction, demolition and
workplace health and safety.

CHAPTER 3
3 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Select and use personal protective equipment required in various environment and working
conditions in compliance with Omani regulations and OSHA Standards
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) are equipment worn by operators and other personnel
in the workplace to reduce the severity of exposure to potential hazards that might lead to
accidents, injury and illnesses. PPE protect the operators from being exposed to physical,
electrical, mechanical, chemical, radiological and other workplace hazards like falls, trips, slips
etc. The main PPE are safety helmet, safety shoes, ear plug, ear plugs/ear muffs, safety helmet
attached with shield, face shield, nitrile gloves cotton gloves lather/ welding gloves, safety harness
apron, safety mask, safety glasses/goggles, coveralls, heat resistance suit, self-contained breathing
apparatus and similar others which are available in OSHA standard 1910.132 for PPE.
Figure 3.1 Personal Protective Equipment (Courtesy: www.mnltap.umn.edu)

PPE are classified on the basis of the type of protection that they offer.
o Head Protection – Hard hats, Safety helmets
o Eye Protection – Safety glasses, Goggles, Face shields, Visors
o Hearing Protection – Ear plugs, Ear muffs
o Respiratory Protection – Masks, Respirators, Self-contained breathing apparatus
o Hand Protection – Gloves, Barrier creams
o Foot Protection – Safety shoes, Boots
o Skin Protection – Coveralls, Full body suits, Heat resistance suits, Apron
o While Working at Heights - Safety harness, Fall arresters
o Other Specific PPE – Sleeve protector, Finger guard for Sewing, Disposable clothing
while working with chemicals and radiations, cold protective clothing for working near
furnaces, Trousers pats and leather jackets for welding etc.
3.2 SAFETY HELMETS

OSHA mandates the requirement of head protection in workplaces and it is the employer’s
responsibility to ensure that the workers head is protected by means of safety helmets and hard
hats as per the regulations of the work environment. Safety helmets used in industrial application
must comply the EN397 standard and OSHA’s safety helmet requirements 29 CFR 1910.135:
general industry workers and 29 CFR 1926.100: construction and demolition workers. Both the
standards make it compulsory to workers to wear the helmets when they are at the risk of falling
objects, contact with electrical hazard, bumping their heads etc. Helmets are colour coded as well
so as to easily identify the person and his responsibility. Main properties of safety helmet are
resistance to penetration, shock absorption, heat, electrical and flammability. They also are
available with face shields.
Helmet colour code is as depicted in the table below and may vary based on the local
industrial standards.
Table 3.1 Colour coding of safety helmets (Courtesy: www.civilology.com)
Color Image For
White Managers, Engineers, Supervisors and Foremen

Color Image For
Blue Electricians, Carpenters and other technical operators

apart from civil workers
Green Safety Officers
Red Fire Fighters
Yellow Labourers
Brown Welders and workers with high heat application
Grey Site Visitors

3.3 SAFETY SHOES

OSHA standards make it mandatory for the workers to wear the safety toe footwear all the
time he is working and the employers are duty bound to provide the safety shoes for their
employees. Safety shoes must have a leather upper part and oil resistant non- skid soles complying
to the OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.136.
Safety shoes protects the feet, especially the toes against the drop or fall of heavy objects.
It will also offer good grip on the floor and prevents slipping. Generally electrical insulation is
also provided on safety shoes. They must be having a compression resistance rating of 75. Safety
shoes or boots provides protection from penetrating or crushing, rolling equipment, electrical
hazards, hazardous materials, venomous snakes etc. They are generally mandatory in most
industries including manufacturing, welding, automotive repairs, machine shop operations,
construction sites, warehouses, landscaping etc.
Figure 3.2 Safety shoes construction and parts
3.4 EAR PLUG/EAR MUFF

Two main types of hearing protection that obstruct passage of sound to the ear drum, middle
ear and inner ear. Ear plugs are generally made from polyurethane foam and are disposable.
Earmuffs are more rigid which covers the outer ear with protective cups consisting of acoustic
seals made up of polyurethane foam and filled with sound absorbing materials.
Excessive noise entering the human system affects the nervous systems, hampers the
functioning of cochlea which in turn causes balancing problems of atmospherics pressure and
inside pressure of the body and tinnitus (ringing in the ears). OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910 .95
and 29 CFR 1910.95 (i) (1) covers the need of hearing protection to all employees exposed to
more than 85 decibels on an 8 hour weighted average.

Figure 3.3 Ear plug, earmuffs, and mandatory safety sign for hearing protection
3.5 NITRILE GLOVES, COTTON GLOVES, LATHER/ WELDING GLOVES

Safety gloves are essential to protect the hands from getting exposed to hazardous chemicals
and dangerous materials and infection and contamination that might occur as a result of that.
Protective gloves are selected on the basis of hazards involved, comfort required, degree of
dexterity, need or ability to grip, temperature protection required etc. Nitrile gloves offers
protection against most of the hazardous chemicals and infectious agents.
Other different types of gloves available are fabric gloves, coated fabric gloves, leather
gloves, plastic gloves, latex gloves, Kevlar gloves, butyl rubber gloves, impact resistant gloves,
puncture resistant gloves, aluminized gloves for working with heat etc. OSHA standard CFR
1910.138 is the standard governing the protection of hands of employees when they are exposed
to hazards. The below provide a comparison of different types of gloves
Table 3.2 Safety gloves comparison chart and selection guide
(Courtesy: https://ehs.berkeley.edu)
Glove Glove material Glove material Glove material
material
Latex Incidental • Good for biological and
water-based materials.
(natural contact
• Not for organic
rubber) solvents and chemicals
• Difficult to detect
puncture holes.
• May cause allergy

Nitrile Incidental • Excellent general use

contact glove. Good for
(disposable solvents, oils, greases,
exam glove) and some acids and
bases.
Extended
• Clear indication of
contact (thicker tears and breaks.
reusable glove) • No allergies.
Butyl rubber Extended • Good for ketones and

esters.
contact
• Poor for gasoline and
halogenated
hydrocarbons.
Neoprene Extended • Good for acids, bases,

alcohols, fuels,
contact
peroxides,
hydrocarbons, and
phenols.
• Poor for halogenated
hydrocarbons.
• Good for most
hazardous chemicals.
Norfoil Extended • Good for most
hazardous chemicals.
contact
Polyvinyl Specific use • Good for acids, bases,

oils, fats, peroxides,
chloride
and amines.
(PVC) • Good resistance to
abrasions.
• Poor for most organic
solvents.

Stainless Specific use • Cut-resistant gloves.

Steel • Good for biological or
Kevlar chemical
contamination
Leather
Cryogenic Specific use • For use with cryogenic

Resistant materials.
Material - • Designed to prevent
Leather frostbite.
3.6 SAFETY HARNESS

Safety harness is a PPE that is provided to safeguard persons working at higher altitudes
for the injury or other fatality that might result from falling from heights. It is made from rope
and braided wire cables. OSHA standard 1910.140 is covering the regulations for safety harness
and fall protection. Safety harness are generally grouped into four classes:
Class 1 - Body belts that is designed to restrict a person in falling from work positions and
stops within 3 feet. This is generally attached to ladders, escape ropes etc.
Class 2 – Seat harness used generally for retrieving persons from deep holes, tanks etc.
Class 3 – Full body harness that is capable of arresting the most dangerous and severe fall.
Class 4 – Suspension belts used to suspend a worker for raising and lowering as in the case
of a boatswain’s chair (normally used in glass pane cleaning of high-rise buildings)
Figure 3.4 Class I, Class II, Class II and Class IV Harnesses
3.7 SAFETY SPECTACLES, GOGGLES AND FACE SHIELDS

Based on the risk assessment different types of eye protection equipment are selected and
is available in different styles. Street safety glasses, prescription glasses are very much different

from industrial safety glasses and can never be considered equivalent. Mainly they are falling in
three categories: Safety spectacles, safety goggles and face shields.
Safety spectacles provide protection against low energy projectiles like metals chips, scraps
etc. Safety goggles offers protection against high energy projectiles and dusts. Face shields offer
protection against high energy projectiles and also different type of radiations. Visors are
alternative equipment for equipment which are comparatively cost effective and also having wire
screen and heat reflecting protections. OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.132 and 1910.133 governs
the regulations for eye protection and sets the standards for safety spectacles, goggles and face
shields.
Standard quality of a safety glass can be identified by running the fingers along the edges
as tempered glass would be completely smooth without any scuffs or ridges. Also printed
kitemark would be found in the corners of the glasses: BS EN14449 for laminated glass and BS
EN12150 for toughened glass. Yet another safety precaution regarding eye protection is to be
taken by those wearing contact lenses, that they should not go near high temperature sources. This
would lead to melting of contact lenses and causing permanent blindness. Also, those wearing
prescription glasses should wear safety glasses over the same.
Figure 3.5 Safety spectacles, safety goggles, face shield and welding face shield

3.8 COVERALLS
There are a lot of protective clothing that provides protection against a wide range of
hazards that include heat, cold, radiation, chemical attack abrasions etc. Protective outer garments
are generally made of PVC material and indoor garments like coveralls and coats are made up of
cotton and polycotton. Persons working in petroleum industries are allowed to wear only fabric
made up of pure cotton due to static electric discharge of other materials. OSHA standard
1910.132 covers the quality standards of skin protection PPE.
Figure 3.6 Different coveralls, aprons and coats for body and skin protection
3.9 HEAT / FLAME RESISTANCE SUIT

The main purpose of heat resistant or Flame-Resistant Clothing (FRC) offers protection
against exposure to hydrocarbon flash fires. So, it is mandatory in refineries, petrochemical
industries etc. OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.269 makes it mandatory for employees exposed to
flames, electric arcs, employees operating over 600 volts etc.
3.10 SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS (SCBA)

SCBA delivers air to the person wearing it from a cylinder which can be controlled by a
valve into the full-face mask. It is used by persons working in heavy presence dust, gases, vapour,
during fire, smoke and tunnels.
Figure 3.7 Self-contained breathing apparatus

3.11 SUMMARY
When it comes to the industrial safety employers have few rights and many responsibilities,
while employees have few responsibilities and many rights. Employers are responsible for
providing appropriate PPE of suitable quality and complying OSHA standards. They must
provide employees with a workplace that isn’t likely to cause serious illness, injury, or other
fatality. They have right to demand that their employees shall wear personal protective equipment.
Most important employer right is to expect all employees to work in a safe manner.
On the contrary employees have many rights in demanding the availability of all the PPE,
safety precautions, and safety procedures required for the operation he is engaged. The major
employee rights demanding a workplace that is free of all recognized hazards. They are
responsible for obeying the instructions of the health and safety department and shall be
disciplined in all fronts of the work. Most important is to utilize the safety equipment and to abide
by any and all health and safety regulations in the performance of their job duties.

☞ Practical demonstration of all possible types of personal protective equipment and provide
opportunity in handling the same
☞ Exhibit safety videos related to PPE that are specific in nature
☞ Ask students to write reports about PPE suitable for different workplace and environment
☞ Ask students to refer OSHA standards and methods of identifying quality products
3.13 ASSESSMENTS
could include but not limited to different personal protective equipment, advantages, limitations,
OSHA standards.

CHAPTER 4
4 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET AND FIRE SAFETY
Handle hazardous chemicals in compliance with the Material Safety Data Sheet and identify
various classes of fire to decide on suitable extinguishing methods
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Hazardous chemicals are substances that are falling in the category of explosive,
flammable, harmful, irritant, corrosive and toxic. This chapter provide understanding of chemical
hazards due to toxic substances that could be exposed to the workers and also provides methods
to control such exposures and effective handling storage, use and disposal of hazardous
chemicals. Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) will also be discussed that provides understanding
the properties of particular substances, recommended safety standards and practices for safe usage
of materials. Fire safety also would be discussed in terms of types of fires, fire triangle, fire alarms,
detection, extinguishing methods and other relent fare safety measures
4.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR HANDLING HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS

Human exposure to hazardous chemicals could cause skin allergies, irritations to long term
illness like cancer. All those who are involved in storing, handling and transporting are mandated
to follow the basic principles of handling Hazmat as given below:
▪ Assess the risk present in the workplace
▪ Make proper plans for the potential hazards
▪ Develop Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) for handling situations of spills, leakage
or exposure
▪ Use of PPE is mandatory and keep the ventilation hoods in well maintained
▪ Ensure that all hazardous materials are identified properly and the hazmat containers
labelled
▪ All hazmat containers must be kept in cool ventilated uncluttered places
▪ Hazardous materials must be used for the intended purposes only
▪ Always wash hands after using hazardous materials and never consume food or drink
while using the same
▪ Employees must be provided adequate training about the handling hazmat

▪ Employees must refer to the labels on hazmat containers and understand what they are
handling and shall access the MSDS prior to the usage of it
▪ Conduct periodic inspection on the containers to look for possible spills or leaks
4.3 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET (MSDS)

OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.1200 promulgates the need of communicating the potential
hazards to the employees and general public who might get exposed to hazardous chemicals by
labelling the containers that include the harmful effects and prevention and protection practices.
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is the main form of communication the supplier provides
including name of manufacturer and contact details, hazardous ingredients, physical
characteristics, chemical characteristics, fire hazard data, explosion hazard data, reactivity data,
health hazard data, precautions, safe handling procedure and control measures. MSDS is also
known as Chemical Safety Data Sheet (CSDS)
The main objectives of MSDS are:
o Help the user clearly understand the suggested safety measures and its basis
o Assist the user the identify the consequences of exposure
o Helps in the preparation of strategies for safe usage
o Cautioning the user about the effects of noncompliance to the recommendations
OSHA standards mandate to include 16 sections in the MSDS and is as below:
Section 1: Identification – including the name of the chemical details of manufacturer and its
recommended use
Section 2: Hazards identification – classification of hazards, signal, symbol, percentage of
toxicity etc. example: Flammable, radiation, toxic etc.
Figure 4.1 Hazard symbols

Section 3: Ingredients or composition – including the chemical name, symbols and percentage
of ingredients, percentage of ingredients withheld due to trade secret policy etc.
Section 4: Ingredients or composition – including the chemical name, symbols and percentage
of ingredients, percentage of ingredients withheld due to trade secret policy etc.
Section 5: Firefighting measures – including the recommendations of fire caused by the

chemical, PPE needed and the hazardous chemicals formed during combustion and effects of the
same
Section 6: Accidental release measures – this include the recommendations in the event of
accidental spill, release or leakages.
Section 7: Handling and storage – this section details on the practices of safe handling, storage
and other hygiene factors.
Section 8: Personal protection and exposure control – OSHA permissible exposure limits,
threshold limit values, suitable engineering controls, PPE and other recommendations are
included in this section.
Section 9: Physical and chemical properties – includes details like appearance, pH, odour,
melting point, flash point, flammability, vapour pressure, auto-ignition temperature etc.
Section 10: Stability and reactivity – test data of reactions of chemicals, chemical stability etc.
are included.
Section 11: Toxicological information – include the details of likely manner of exposure like
eye contact, skin, inhalation, ingestion etc. and the symptoms that could be noticed
Section 12: Ecological information – include information of environmental impact
Section 13: Disposal considerations – detailing the disposal practices, recycling, disposal of
containers, precautions for incineration.
Section 14: Transport information – details of shipping and transportation
Section 15: Regulatory information – OSHA and local standard involved
Section 16: Other information – details and date of preparation of MSDS and revisions

How to read the different sections of MSDS is given in the figure 4.2 below.
Figure 4.2 Section of MSDS based on OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.1200

Given below is a sample Material Safety Data Sheet

Figure 4.3 A sample MSDS (Courtesy: https://manualzz.com/doc/20155247/)

4.4 FIRE SAFETY

Fire accidents that are caused in industries and outside are causing severe injuries, fatalities
and death. Control to start and spread of fire is the key in prevention of fire accidents. Fire is a
combustion chemical reaction where the combustible material reacts with oxygen to produce heat
and carbon dioxide. It also results in the formation of smokes containing particulates and carbon
monoxide and other products of combustion.
4.4.1 FIRE TRIANGLE

Fire needs fuel, oxygen and source of energy to ignite to start and sustain. To understand
the start and spread of fire, the knowledge of various elements of fire is required and is depicted
in the fire triangle.
Figure 4.4 Fire triangle (Courtesy: www.highspeedtraining.co.uk)

Controlling the fire could possibly be done by removing any one of these elements.
o Removal of the source of ignition (Cooling)
o Controlling the fuel supply (Starving)
o Smothering (Blanketing)
Removal the source of ignition: Ignition sources are friction, hot surfaces, electricity, static
electricity, smoking etc. Cooling is the most common type of fire extinguishing in this type due
to the high latent heat of vapourization and thermal capacity and also its easy availability.
Starving: Starving is done by removal of fuel or cutting the fuel supply. Examples are draining
of fuel from tanks, removing vehicles from the proximity of fire, removing tyres from the
warehouse, creaking firebreak pits in forests, removing cargo from ships etc.

Smothering: It is done by cutting OFF oxygen from the nearby surrounding atmosphere.
Insufficient oxygen supply will cause the fire to reduce and cease later. Examples are using a fire
blanket, using sand buckets, using carbon dioxide etc.
4.4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE

Fire is classified on the basis of fuel and the means of extinction.
Class A: Mostly organic and solid materials like paper, wood, coal etc. and mostly extinguished
by cooling with water
Class B: Mostly liquids and liquified solids
Class B1: Mostly liquids soluble in water (e.g. methanol) carbon dioxide, dry powder and
water spray is used to extinguish such fires.
Class B2: Mostly liquids insoluble in water (e.g. petrol) carbon dioxide, dry powder and
water spray is used to extinguish such fires.
Class C: This type of fire is from gases and liquefied gases (methane, LPG) that results from
leakages and spillage. Foam and dry powder can be used for extinguishing this and water can be
used to cool the container.
Class D: This type is involving metals such as magnesium or Aluminium and specific type of dry
powder extinguishers are used in such cases.
Also, Class K is another type of fire which involves cooking equipment, vegetable oil etc.
Figure 4.5 Fire triangle (Courtesy: https://fireprevention.utexas.edu)

4.4.3 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS AND FIREFIGHTING METHODS

A fire extinguisher is an equipment that is used to extinguish or control fire of small
magnitudes and is often employed in emergency situations. If the fire is of higher magnitude and
is reaching ceiling height and is out of control, it would be dangerous and require specialized
services of fire brigade.
Figure 4.6 Fire extinguishers and their suitability for different types of fire
(Courtesy: www.marineinsight.com)
Fire extinguisher is used by four simple stages PASS – Pull Aim, Squeeze and Sweep
Figure 4.7 Use of fire extinguisher (Courtesy https://spectrumforfireprotection.com)

Other firefighting equipment are fire bucket, fire blankets, flamezorb are noncombustible
material which is an alternative for sand and is also used for flammable liquid also.
4.4.4 OTHER PRECAUTIONS, PREVENTIONS AND PROTECTION PRACTICES

o Signs and Training - to be provide and especially on the escape routes
o Lifts and Escalators – not to be used during fire hazards
o Fire Doors – fire resistant doors that retards the passage of fire, reduce the spread of
smoke
o Fire Exit Doors – to ensure the smooth exit and passage during fire
o Fire Alarms
o Fire Detection/ Smoke detection
o Hydrant Systems – allows the supply of water to control a fire
o Automatic Sprinkler Systems
OSHA standard for fire safety prevention and protection is covered in the standards as below:
1926.24 Subpart C, 1926.150, 1926.151, 1926.1512, 1926.153
4.5 SUMMARY
Material safety data sheet is mainly intended to make the workers and other industrial
operators to focus on hazards and understanding the potential hazards and practices that must be
followed in storage and handling the hazard materials. Further, the main strategies for managing
the safety in case of a fire hazard is prevention, suppression, protection and escape. It is highly
important to provide regular training, select the equipment carefully that complies to the standards
and regulatory bodies, regular inspection of fire extinguishers, regular maintenance of firefighting
equipment like hydrant systems, smoke detectors etc.

☞ Ask the students to comprehend the harmful effects of hazmat and prepare a MSDS
☞ Ask students to write reports on types of fire and different extinguishing and control
measures
4.7 ASSESSMENTS
could include but not limited to material safety data sheet, MSDS sections, fire triangle, fire
extinguishers and OSHA standards.

CHAPTER 5
5 START-UP AND SHUT-DOWN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
Apply the safety regulations and standard operating procedures concerning start up and
shut down operations of process equipment
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Process equipment are designed for specific tasks mainly a single purpose that are generally
classified as storage, reactors, controlling flow, steam production, heat exchanger etc. that are
generally found in refineries, chemical plants, water and waste water treatments and many heavy
industries. Process equipment are instrumental to pose many types of hazards which are discussed
in the earlier sections. Most safety concerns related to process equipment are addressed in the
design stage itself and also through various mountings on it. Moreover, toxicity, reactivity,
corrosion, potential threat from hazmat, fire, explosion, and other process safety management
concerns are addressed in the previous chapters. The focus of this chapter is limited mainly to the
start-up and shut-down operations of process equipment.
It is highly important to review the safety before the operations of any process equipment
as it usually is subjected to high temperature, high pressure or may be handling hazardous
chemicals. Process equipment safety requires a pre-startup safety review especially when it is
newly procured or operating after certain modifications.
5.2 PRE-STARTUP SAFETY REVIEW

Pre-startup safety review mainly consists of the following activities.
o Fabrication of the equipment is complying with the design specification
o Design of equipment and the procurement of material is generally approved by a third-
party quality assurance agency
o Mountings on different equipment for safety are in place and is in good condition
o Standard operating procedures are set for safety, operation, maintenance and emergency
is adequate
o Process hazard analysis is performed before the startup of the equipment
o Specific training for every operators and other personnel is given and they are put to test
in simulators to assure suitable actions when emergency situation arises and if mandatory
they need to be certified and approved

5.3 START-UP OPERATIONS OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Startup operations of a general type of process equipment (Boiler, pressure vessel, storage,
heat exchanger etc.) are as enlisted below:
▪ Powering on the burners and pilots, preheaters, compressors, cooling towers etc. as it may
apply for different equipment
▪ Check all the valves and its reseating – flow control valves, pressure control valves,
direction control valves and other types
▪ Check the working of safety mountings
▪ Charge the system slowly to reach the rated operating parameters of pressure, temperature
or any other parameters
▪ Ensure the smooth functioning of all the automatic controls
As an example, startup operations of a boiler are as descried below: (Courtesy:
www.rfmacdonald.com)
o The burner switch is powered to prove the flames of standing, intermittent or interrupted
pilots and the main flames
o Boiler vent and the drain between stop valve and non-return valve are kept open to bleed
air from the system
o Open the equalizing valve near the main stop valve
o Open the main steam stop valve
o Close the boiler vent when the pressure reaches up to 15 psi
o Secure the boiler feed and check whether power is cut-off at proper low level
o When steam reaches up to 85 % of system pressure open the nonreturn valve
o Manually test all the valves are operating and reseating
o The boiler pressure is slowly reached in low fire and allow the non-return automatically
cut the boiler into live system
o Verify the drain between stop valves and non-return valve
o Check if all the automatic controls are operating and secured
5.4 SHUT-DOWN OPERATIONS OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Proper shutdown of process equipment is highly important, if otherwise it may lead to
damages and breakdowns by improper shutdown. Most of the process equipment are operating at
elevated temperatures and higher pressures and it is abruptly closed or drained, it may cause
distortion of parts and affects its dimensional stability and the residual heat may lead to crack
formations on the equipment and many other damages. This is true for process equipment like
fractional distillation columns, boilers, furnaces, heat exchangers etc. Considering the durability
of the equipment, shutdown process is more important in view of the equipment safety as it takes
care of safety for future impending failures. There is no specific singular shutdown process for
process equipment in common, as it varies in its function and design parameters. However, a
general sequential shutdown operation is listed below:
▪ Reduce the temperature slowly to bring it down to normal ambient conditions
▪ Close the fuel after its operating parameters are brought down to reduced levels
▪ Close down all the accessories that is for the purpose of process efficiencies first
▪ Shut down the feed systems
▪ When drained in hot conditions, internal parts like tubes, shells and non-structural
elements may be subjected to warpage and distortions and cause leaks
▪ It could enhance the chance of scale formations inside the equipment
▪ Sudden cooling and use of cold water should never happen as it leads to formation of
crack. It will alter the mechanical properties of the material
▪ During the idle condition after the shutdown, it is highly vulnerable to corrosion. So, it
must be kept completely dry, filled with inert gas (low oxygen condition), fill with treated
water or other suitable fluid etc. depending on wet storage or dry storage that is
recommended by the manufacturer.
5.5 SUMMARY
Above all, the startup and shutdown process must be finally performed as suggested by the
manufacturer and the prevailing standards. OSHA standard 1910.118 App C governs the safety
of process equipment and there are many other standards like TEMA for heat exchangers, API
for petroleum industries etc. that provides regulatory standards for specific equipment by
considering its design and operations. To keep the process equipment in operation safe, reliable
and efficient to startup, shutdown and carryout the maintenance and repairs in a timely manner.
There is a need to make a checklist for startup and shutdown of process equipment.

☞ Ask the students to collect and present information related to startup and shutdown of
process equipment
5.7 ASSESSMENTS
could include but not limited to startup and shutdown of process equipment and OSHA standards.


CHAPTER 6
6 FIRST AID AND HANDLING EMERGENCIES
Work safely in various laboratories and workshops to Perform emergency and First Aid
Procedures
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Right actions during emergencies is the key to industrial safety in various industries where
potential hazards and possible accidents are prevalent. This is true in many industries like
petroleum, petrochemical, refinery, sea-ports, airports, shipyards, paper manufacturing,
mattresses manufacturing, paint manufacturing and other hazardous chemical industries. In the
subsequent sessions, emergency procedures, first aid procedures and safety in laboratories and
workshops would be discussed.
6.2 EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE

Emergencies leads to different types of hazards for workers and the area that it is impacted.
Due to that employers and other workers who are contractors staff have to know what could be
the appropriate response for keeping them and others around safe during such emergencies.
Emergency response and preparedness depends greatly on the type of emergencies.
6.2.1 WORKPLACE EMERGENCY

A workplace emergency is an unexpected situation that threatens the workers, employees,
contractors, general public, customers and other stakeholders. Emergencies occur due to
controllable and uncontrollable causes like accidents, fire, toxic gas leakages, chemical spills,
explosions, radiological accidents, floods, hurricanes, earthquakes etc.
The following actions are generally found to be in the preparedness and response.
▪ Provide training to the worst-case situations
▪ Prepare the emergency action plan
▪ Alert the employees about the emergency
▪ Develop an evacuation plan
▪ Establish an evacuation route
▪ Define the roles of safety wardens and coordinators

The detailed emergency action plan should consist of the following:

o Method of reporting fire or any other types of accidents
o Emergency escape routes and procedures – floor plans, refuge area etc.
o Names and phone numbers of the coordinators and wardens and emergency contact lists
o Assigning special duties to persons responsible for shutdown, performing emergency
duties and operating fire extinguishers
o Medical duties and designated rescue workers
o Types of alternative communications
o Assembly points and public announcement systems
Detailed training before the inception of the workers to the specific departments and periodic
continuous training is the key for preparedness and response during emergency.
6.3 FIRST AID

Health and safety managers ore often responsible for supervising the plant nurse and first
aid process. A well trained, qualified and adequately experienced first aid person must be made
available at all the time. First aid is the instantaneous assistance that is given to a person
encountering an injury or illness- minor or major, on the first instance itself before taking him for
specialized medical care. First aid is administered for mainly three purposes – Prevent worsening
of the condition, preserve life, and also to promote the recovery.
Different types of first aid process for different situations like unconscious, cardiac arrest,
burns, broken bones, nosebleeds, wasp/bee stings, sprains, choking, bleeding are detailed as
below. (Courtesy: www.verywellhealth.com/basic-first-aid-procedures-1298578)
6.3.1 UNCONSCIOUS/UNRESPONSIVE
When a person is found unresponsive or unconscious the basic principle adopted as first
aid is ABC
o Airway – Clear the airway when someone is unresponsive. Keeping the person in the
recovery position, clear the vomit or fluid seen.
o Breathing – After clearing the airway, if still no response provide rescue breathing i.e.
blowing air into the person’s mouth to supply the necessary oxygen
o Circulation – If the person involved fails to breath, he should be given chest compressions
as a first aid. This will help circulation and saves time and life.

6.3.2 CARDIAC ARREST

If a person is found in cardiac arrest, perform a cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) or
he can be helped by using an automated external defibrillator (AED) that can be operated even
without a trained person around.
Figure 6.1 Use of CPR and AED

6.3.3 BURNS
First aid for burns depends on the types of burn:
First Degree Burn: It is minor burns that causes swelling and redness on the skin and is affecting
the outer layer of the skin. It affects the epidermis of the skin.
Second Degree Burn: It causes redness, swelling and blistering along with it. It is a major burn
and is more severe when it happens on hands, joints, face and is more than three inches wide.
This type of bure is the most painful and affects the dermis of the skin.
Third Degree Burn: It is a severe burn that affects the deeper layers of the skin and is often seen
as blackened or white skin and numbness as well and is life threating and affects the hypodermis
of the skin.
Figure 6.2 Types of burns

The first action to provide during burning is to stop the burning process. Chemicals need
to be cleaned if it is a chemical burn electricity need to be cut of, if it is an electrical fire
For the first and second degree burn:
o Cool the burned area with running water for a long time
o Apply ointment if the burn is a minor one
o Apply a light gauze bandage
o Do not break any blisters if formed
For major burns call for emergency medical attention. For pain relief ibuprofen or acetaminophen
upon the advice of the plant nurse. In case of third degree burn, do not apply ointment, do not
soak the bun with water and do not remove the burned clothing sticking to the area.
6.3.4 BROKEN BONES OR FRACTURE

All injuries to hands and feet are considered as fracture or broken bones until otherwise
confirmed by an X ray and the person affected need to be taken for medical assistance, however
it does not require an emergency rush to hospital. The first aid in such situations are as below:
o Use a splint to keep the part still
o Do not try to straighten the bone
o Put a cold pack over the injured part
o The person should not be allowed to move, if spinal injury is suspected
o Transport to the hospital for medical assistance.
6.3.5 NOSE BLEEDS

Causes for node bleeds are nose picking, hot air, blowing the nose hard, high blood
pressure, chemical fumes, high altitudes etc. The first aid in such situations are as below:
o Lean forward
o Pinch the nose just below the bridge and check after sometime whether bleeding is stopped
or else repeat the same
o Apply a cold pack on the bridge of the nostrils
o If not stopping take the person for medical assistance
6.3.6 BLEEDING
Bleeding might occur from capillaries, veins and arteries. Bleeding from capillaries stops
soon and is often trickling only, from the veins it will be dark red blood that flows consistently
and from the arteries, it would be bright red and sprouts out and large quantity of blood may be
lost.

All types of bleeding can be stopped and the first aid in such situations are as below:
o Wash and use a glove to get protected from contagious diseases like HIV, Hepatitis B etc.
o Rinse the wound with good water
o Cover the area by using gauze of good cloth
o Apply direct pressure is bleeding profusely which might help stopping the loss of blood
o Keep the part that is bleeding above the heart level
o If the cloth is soaked with blood, use another cloth over it, do not remove the cloth
o If bleeding stops, apply bandage or else take the person for medical assistance
6.3.7 SPRAIN
Symptoms of sprain is similar to that of a fracture unless otherwise confirmed by an X-
ray. It is generally an injury on the ligaments of the ankles or wrists. Person who has sprain would
experience severe pain when he is trying to move, unable to bear the weight. It is not a serious
injury can apply cold packs and go for medical assistance.
Figure 6.3 Sprains

6.3.8 WASP/BEE STINGS
Wasp or bee stings are painful and can be dangerous for those allergic to bee venom. The
first aid in such situations are as below:
o Try to remove the stringer quickly
o Wash the area with soap, water and disinfectants
o Apply ice or cold pack
o The plant nurse must administer some medication to those who are allergic to bee stings

Figure 6.4 Bee stings
6.3.9 CHOCKING
Blockage of the throat by food or any other particle entrapment is chocking which might
lead to unconsciousness or to death. The first aid in such situations is performing a Heimlich
maneuver and the process is as below:
o Make the person lean forward by standing behind and pressing him
o Put your arms around the waist of the person
o Clench your left fist and keep it between the rib cage and navel (For right handed persons)
o Grab the clenched fist with the other hand
o Push the clenched fist in backward and upward direction under the rib cage in five quick
thrusts and repeat this cycle till the object is coming out
o This procedure can be done before the medical assistance arrives
6.4 SAFETY IN LABORATORIES AND WORKSHOPS

Safety in laboratories and workshops can be easily ensured by always following the
instructions of the teachers, supervisors and technicians. Students need to clearly understand the
priority of safety and must be highly disciplined. Discipline is when you are proud in following
the rules even when no one is watching you.
o Right from the parking place as you enter the university campus, watch for the signals and
visual instructions.
o Put your PPE as mandated by the laboratories and workshop.
o In workshops safety shoe, lab coat, coverall is compulsory and gloves, apron and other as
it is provided.
o Never try to operate a machine if not trained
o In chemistry labs watch for the labels and material safety data sheet
o In electrical workshops follow the instructions for electrical safety

o Wash your hands thoroughly after the work and before contacting others and eating food
o Grease which contains lead is carcinogens
o Sit in the correct posture while working in computer labs
o While doing an outdoor task like surveying, especially during summer, drink a lot of water
and be safe against sun strokes
o Always participate in the mock safety drill with seriousness and understand the evacuation
processes
6.5 SUMMARY
In conclusion it can be clearly ascertained that providing first aid to a person injured is the
most important step in protecting him before reaching the adequate medical assistance. First aid
equipment must be in well maintained condition and the person responsible for providing first
aids must always be available. They need to make sure that their absence is always by informing
and making necessary arrangements. OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.151(b) promulgates the
methods of first aid in a general industry.

☞ Tasks that provides practical training in first aids to be given
☞ Students can be asked to write report on different emergency situations
☞ Help of trained professionals from nearby industries or hospitals must be utilized
☞ Expert talks by doctors and trained nurses an also be sought
☞ Students can be asked to collect information from local industries about the emergency
response and first aid
6.7 ASSESSMENTS
could include but not limited to emergency preparedness and response in different situations and
about different first aids and OSHA standards.


CHAPTER 7
7 HUMAN ERROR AND BEHAVIOURAL SAFETY
Understand the implications of safety violations due to human error and behavioural safety
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Achieving excellence in health and safety greatly depends of how an organization can
change. The major challenge is to maintain a continuity in changes that lead to continuous
improvement. There is no place for complacency when it comes to health and safety of an
industry. Human factors are greatly affecting the performance of the industry and also the social
characteristics of the work group and its members.
7.2 HUMAN ERROR AND BEHAVIOURAL SAFETY

As stated in the chapter 1, Domino theory of causation of accidents by H W Heinrich it is
evident that accidents at workplace are resulting from a chain of events and generally 88% of
such mishaps results from unsafe acts. Unsafe acts are resulting from human error and behaviour.
7.2.1 UNDERSTANDING HUMAN FAILURE

Human failure may be categorized as two: Violations and Human Error; the later in turn
is classified into two, as skill-based errors and mistakes. This might happen to a well-trained and
most experience worker also. Human error is unintended actions or decision which are not exactly
violations that are deliberate in nature. Examples of Skill based errors are slips and lapses.
Slips are not doing what you are supposed to do. Examples are omitting one or few steps
of a process, doing things too fast, doing things too slow, not putting a PPE, performing a task in
the wrong direction, checking a measuring dial and noting a wrong value etc.
Lapses are forgetting to do the things. Examples are taking a mask to talk and later
forgetting to wear it, forgetting to switch off an equipment, forgetting to turn of the stove etc.
Slips and lapses might occur if the person is highly familiar to the task and will perform
thoughtlessly, when the majority work is done and only the last few steps are left with, lot of
interruptions while working etc. It can be prevented by using checklists, making the layout
sequentially, applying the policy of not using phones while working, apply engineering controls
like bar code readers after each step etc.

Mistakes are failures in decision making which are either rule based or knowledge based
and we do things wrongly thinking that it is right. Examples are wrong overtaking while driving,
entering a road in the wrong side etc. Mistakes happen when a person is doing many things at the
same time and working against the pressure of time to complete. This often happens due to
environmental conditions, social issues, individual stress, equipment problems etc. Rule-based
mistakes can be avoided by providing situational awareness. E.g. Rumble strips on roads creates
awareness of approaching roundabouts. Knowledge-based mistakes can be avoided by effective
supervision and instructions.
Violations are thoughtfully doing wrong things and causes a lot of accidents. Examples
are not wearing seat belts, not using harness in scaffolding, allowing untrained drivers to drive,
working without goggles, working under peer pressure, thinking as rules are too strict and
unwanted and fail to follow etc. Violations can be controlled by routine monitoring and
supervision, convince the workers about the rules, make the environment more conducive for
workers, provide continuous training, encourage the workers to report their problems etc.
7.3 BEHAVIOURAL SAFETY

Behavioural safety is aimed at prevention or avoidance of unconscious unsafe behaviour
that has resulted from habit formation of doing thing wrongly. Inappropriate behaviour generally
lead to significant number of accidents. It greatly depends on the attitudes and observations of the
persons. Safety managers must clearly define what is safe and unsafe behaviour and provide
feedback. Managers and peers play a substantial role in how to reinforce safe behaviour.
Behavioural safety training can be given by different approaches.
✓ Behavioural safety by systematic and continuous improvement
✓ Behavioural safety based on observations and data collection
✓ Behavioural safety based on workers participation
✓ Behavioural safety based on focusing specific unsafe behaviour
✓ Behavioural safety based on focusing feedback on performance
✓ Behavioural safety based on the involvement of data driven decision making
Certain points that can be kept in mind in this regard are
o Do things when it is really needed
o Always develop a network for support and guidance
o Believe that the system that you are working is your own and act accordingly
o Listen to your employers and peers
o Pilot the process and roll out only after securing completely and when you are fully
confident
o Do not underestimate the instructions and plan for safety

o Perform things in the right manner and develop habits
7.4 SUMMARY
Positive safety culture can be made by maintaining healthy communication between
employers and employees, demonstrating greater commitments by senior managers, providing
higher standards of training, providing good working conditions, creating stress free work
atmosphere etc. Behavioural safety offers several advantages in terms of reduced accidents,
enhanced quality, reduced time for completion of a task, improved efficiency, good relationship
between employers and employees, good teamwork, employee engagement and increased
commitments. However, it takes a lot of time, usage of additional resources and determined
efforts and commitment of senior management and administration.

☞ Provide different behavioural safety cases and ask the students to develop plans for
improving behavioural safety based on what they have studied in the preceding chapters
7.6 ASSESSMENTS
Quizzes, Short Tests, Reports on case studies and behavioural safety approaches


CHAPTER 8
8 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIONS, REPORTING AND RISK
ASSESSMENTS
Conduct accident reporting and investigations, preparation of the Risk Assessment

Observation Sheet
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Accidents and incidents are to be reported, tracked and investigated so as to ensure the
prevention of it in the future. Accident reports would be an important input for the ongoing safety
training. Risk assessment is the procedure that helps in identifying the potential hazards and
analyze what might be the consequence of the specific hazards. Risk assessment observation sheet
is a highly effective safety management tool that breaks risk assessment into different stages in a
matrix and specifies the identified hazards and also the people who are in risk.
8.2 ACCIDENT/INCIDENT REPORTING

Accident is an event that has occurred unintentionally and is resulting in a damage, injury
or fatality or combination of these. Incident is an event that has occurred unintentionally and may
not result in damage, injury or fatality. It is compulsory to report and also record work related
accidents that causes death, serious injuries, industrial diseases and dangerous occurrences.
Moreover, it is a legal requirement as well to report and accident that cause a worker to abstain
from work for a minimum of three days. OSHA standards 1960.29 and 1904.39 are covering
regulations for accident reporting and 1960.70 and 1904.7 covers the regulations of record
keeping.
The main aspects that must be reported are:
o Work related accidents which are identifiable and causing injury
o It must result in the type of injury that is in the reportable category
o Type of death (If involved)
o Type of injury
o Injuries to non-workers
o Occupational hazards that are reportable
o How the work was organized
o Who has carried out the supervision

o The machinery or equipment that is used

o The condition of the site where the accident occurred
o Other relevant findings
o An easy guideline in reporting is to follow the 5W&H rule (What, Why, When, How,
Where and Who) – 6 honest friends by Rudyard Kipling
A Sample accident reporting and investigation for is added as Appendix 1
8.3 RISK ASSESSMENT

To understand risk assessment, it is essential to know about the following.
Hazard: Act, Source and Situation that might lead to injury, ill health, death, damage to property
or a combination of all these.
Risk: Combination of the probability and severity of a hazardous or harmful event happening.
Risk can be quantified as the product of probability of occurrence of an event and severity of the
damage or destruction resulting from that event.
Chance: It is a measure of how likely is an accident that may happen
Severity: It is a measure of seriousness of the injury due to the accident
Control Measures: It is the steps that is applied to remove the hazard or reduce the risk
Risk assessment is carried out mainly in three steps:
o Identify the hazards in a workplace
Physical, Chemical, Health, Human factor
e.g. Heavy noise in spinning mills
o Assess the risks of the hazards identified
Based on the measure of likelihood, seriousness and how often the workers are exposed,
risks are classified as low, medium and high
e.g. High risk of health hazard for an operator and medium risk for a manager
o Applying the control measures that reduce the risks
Attempts are made to eliminate the hazard. If not possible explore the possibility of an
alternate method or applying precautions to reduce the effects of the risk.
e.g.: Worker is provided with an earmuff and the manager is asked to use a PPE ear plug
while entering the area
8.3.1 RISK ASSESSMENT MATRIX

A risk assessment matrix evaluates the probability and severity of a specific action that is
expected to occur. It is also known as risk matrix and is a very valuable tool that helps an industry

to prioritize the actions and the level of attention that it requires. A sample risk matrix is depicted
below.
Figure 8.1 Risk matrix (Courtesy: www.stakeholdermap.com)
8.3.2 RISK ASSESSMENT OBSERVATION SHEET

A risk assessment observation sheet is used for assessing the risk and measuring it on the
basis of its impact, probability and severity. A sample risk assessment observation sheet is
attached in the Appendix II.
8.3.3 ACCIDENT, FREQUENCY AND SEVERITY RATE

Accident rate, frequency rate and severity rate can be calculated as shown below.
Total numbers of lost time injury
Accident Rate = X 1000
Average number of employees
Lost Time Injury Frequency Rate (LTIFR)

Total numbers of lost time injury
Frequency Rate = X 1000000
Man − hours worked
Total man − days lost

Severity Rate = X 1000000
Man − hours worked
Total man − days lost

Incident Rate =
Number of incidents reported

Example: Based on the data given, calculate, Accident rate and Frequency rate.
Employees: 200 (Average)
Working hours (W.H): 8 hours per day
Numbers of days in a month: 26
Lost Time Injury (L.T.I): 2
Total Man-hours = Average number of employees per day X Number of days in a month X W.H
Total Man-hours = 200 X 8 X 26 = 41600 hours
2
Accident Rate = X 1000 = 10 per thousand
200
2
Frequency Rate = X 1000000 = 48 per million
41600
8.4 OTHER RISK ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Quantitative risk assessment techniques are HAZOP, Job Hazard Analysis (JHA), Fault
Tree Analysis (FTA), Event Tree Analysis (ETA) are introduced here just to get a familiarity with
the names. It is beyond the scope of this course at this level of study.
HAZOP Analysis is hazard and operability analysis used for quantitative risk assessment. It
assesses the presence of hazards in an equipment and its vulnerability.
Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) is done on a specific job or task so as to identify hazards before
their occurrence. JHA is a relative study on the different entities like the task, worker, tools and
environment and thereafter it takes necessary steps to reduce or eliminate the potential threats.
Event Tree Analysis (ETA) is an analytical technique to assess the process and events resulting
a likely accident.
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) is a highly effective tool for systematically examining and finding
hazardous areas for the purpose of mitigation and prevention
8.5 SUMMARY
Safety risk assessment is a methodological procedure for identifying assessing and
preventing hazards by control measures. It demands the detailed examination of the processes,
equipment and work environment to for the safety management.

☞ Ask the students to make reports of different accidents by referring to Appendix I
8.7 ASSESSMENTS
Quizzes, Short Tests, Reports on risk assessment, calculations of accident rate, frequency
rate and severity rate.

CHAPTER 9
9 ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY AND INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS
Adapt Omani standards for environmental safety and industrial effluents
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Environmental safety is a comprehensive safety policy that provides policies, practices and
guidance so as to ensure that the environment is free from hazards and thereby result in the
wellbeing of employees, general public and the flora and fauna which is also an essential part of
the environment by preventing harmful releases to environment. HSE managers are responsible
not just the safety of employees and industrial persons alone, but also have commitment to the
compliance of all the regulations and environmental standards.
9.2 RESPONSIBILITIES OF HSE MANAGER

The main responsibilities of HSE manager in reference to environmental safety are as
below:
o Assessing the risk or the operations
o Job hazard analysis
o Incident investigations
o Ensuring industrial hygiene
o Environmental safety compliance
o Safety observations by walkthroughs around the worksite
o Hazmat controls
o Appointing safety committees
o HSE training
o Collecting data regarding the leading and lagging indicators
o Taking the industry towards environmental safety qualifications like ISO 14000
9.3 OMANI STANDARDS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

There is a series of laws and Sultani decrees promulgates the statutes and regulations related
to environmental safety as below:
Omani law on conservation of the environment and prevention of pollution is available in the link
as herewith: https://www.sustainableoman.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/MD-5-86.pdf

Omani law on protection of sources of potable water from pollution is available in the link as
herewith: https://owwsc.nama.om/WDocument/RoyalDecreeEN
Sultani decree 114/01 deals with protection of habitats through environmental permit system
which mandates any construction to be certified by Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs
(MOECA)
Management of solid waste and its regulations are provided in MD 17/93 and for hazardous waste
MD 18/93.
MD 15/2021 is related to export of certain specific waste, MD 23/2020 has put a ban on single
consumption plastic bag, MD 34/1974 is controlling marine pollution.
9.4 INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT TREATMENT

The major detrimental effect of rapid industrial growth and expansion is the waste industries
are generating and its harmful effects on the environment. Most of the industries result in
generation of huge quantity of waste in the form of harmful gases, smoke particulates et. that
affects the air quality; solid wastes that are soil, aqua and marine pollutants and particular
combination of pollutants contaminating the environment. Therefore, environmental rules
mandate the industries to have effluent treatment plants (ETP) to stop the discharge of pollutants
to water bodies. Some industries like food processing units, dairy production, textile and dyeing,
paper manufacturing, pharmaceuticals etc. ETP is compulsory. Most of the petroleum,
petrochemical industries and refineries gas flaring is the major reason for environmental
pollution.
Different types of ETP and their levels can easily be understood from the table below.
Table 9.1 Safety gloves comparison chart and selection guide
(Courtesy: https://neoakruthi.com/blog/industrial-effluent-treatment-plant.html)
Level of
Description Processes
Treatment
Pretreatment It removes large solid wastes like rags, grit and grease It is a physical
or Preliminary using screens and grit chamber process
Treatment
Primary It removes settleable, floating wastes and suspended Physical and

Treatment solids. At this stage up to 70 % of suspended solids are chemical process
removed and 30 % BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand)

Sludge that are settling down at the bottom of the

primary clarifier is frequently pumped out for sludge
processing.
Secondary At this level biodegradable organic matter is removed by Biological and
Treatment aerobic processes by which 85% of organic matter is chemical process
removed
Tertiary At this level residual suspended solids and even Physical,
Treatment or dissolved solids are removed. This improves the quality chemical and
Advanced of the discharge water. Processes like chlorine biological
Treatment treatment, ozone treatment, UV light etc. are the main process
processes that removes the micro-organisms.
Effluent treatment plants mainly consist of different units like storage tank, equalization
tank, neutralization tank, primary clarifier, anaerobic reactor, series of aeration tanks, final
clarifier, sludge pumps and sludge drying pumps. The basic processes that happens in an ETP is
as depicted below.
Figure 9.1 Effluent treatment plant - processes

The flow chart of the processes of an ETP is as below.
Figure 9.2 Flow chart of effluent treatment plant

9.5 ISO 14000

ISO 14000 is the quality standard that governs the industries to reduce the adverse effects
and impact on environment. It is a framework that helps all the industries to improve their
operations and environmental consciousness in quality management systems.
9.6 SUMMARY
ETP purifies the waste water, so that water can be reused and avoids the harmful effects to
the environment. It takes care of the general contaminants like oil, grease, toxic materials, and
harmful pollutants and the discharge is made ready to send out without affecting the environment.
Design and construction of an effluent treatment plant depends on the quality of the effluent,
quantity of waste water, land availability and local effluent regulations. It is the responsibility of
the HSE manager to carried out the industrial safety and accident prevention along with
environmental safety that is essential for sustainable development.

☞ Students may be taken for a field visit to get a firsthand information about industrial safety
and effluent treatment plants and can be asked to write a report
9.8 ASSESSMENTS
Quizzes, Short Tests, Reports based on industrial visit

10 REFERENCES
[1] Safety and Health for Engineers, Roger L. Brauer, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken,
New Jersey, ISBN-13: 978-1118959459, ISBN-10: 1118959450
[2] System Safety Engineering and Risk Assessment: A Practical Approach, Bahr Nicholas
J, Taylor and Francis USA, ISNN: 9781560324164
[3] Principles of health and safety at work, Allan St John Holt and Jim Allen, Routledge
London, ISBN 978-1-138-85515-1
[4] The basics of occupational safety, Goetsch, David L, Pearson Education Inc. USA, ISMN:
9780133496079
[5] Safety, Health and Environment for Process Technicians, Thomas, Charles E, UHAI
Publisher USA, ISBN: 9780966551525
[6] Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction: The Handbook for the NEBOSH
National Certificate in Construction: Health and Safety, Hughes, Phil / Ferrett, Ed,
Routledge United Kingdom, ISBN: 9780080970684
[7] Industrial Safety and Health Management, Asfahl, C Ray, Pearson Education Inc. USA,
ISMN: 9780131423923
[8] Electrical Safety Handbook, Cadick, John / Neitzel, Dennis, Mc Graw Hill International
USA, ISBN: 9780071457729


11 APPENDIX I: SAMPLE ACCIDENT REPORT

Report of Injury Form
Injuries caused by major or minor accidents, incidents and near miss need to be reported.






12 APPENDIX II: RISK ASSESSMENT OBSERVATION SHEET

Prepared by:
Mr. James Joseph
Lecturer
Mechanical & Industrial Engineering Section, Department of Engineering
University of Technology & Applied Sciences – Al Mussanah
Mr. Bineesh Chulli Parambil

Lecturer
Mechanical & Industrial Engineering Section, Department of Engineering
University of Technology & Applied Sciences – Al Mussanah

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EGHS1140 Health Safety and Environment

ii University of Technology and Applied Sciences

EGHS 1140 Health Safety and Environment 2 Credit Hours

University of Technology and Applied Sciences iii

iv University of Technology and Applied Sciences

University of Technology and Applied Sciences v

3.2 Safety Helmets .............................................................................................................. 28

vi University of Technology and Applied Sciences

6.3.1 Unconscious/Unresponsive .................................................................................... 52

University of Technology and Applied Sciences vii

9.5 ISO 14000 ..................................................................................................................... 70

viii University of Technology and Applied Sciences

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO SAFETY

1.2 NEED OF SAFETY

▪ Unguarded pits and floor platforms

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Unsafe Condition Unsafe Act Near Miss Accident

1.3 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

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1.4 PROCESS AND PRODUCTION SAFETY

1.5 MATERIAL SAFETY

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1.6 FIRE SAFETY

1.7 ELECTRICAL SAFETY

1.8 BUILDING AND STRUCTURAL SAFETY

1.9 ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY

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1.10 SAFETY SIGNS AND COLOUR CODING

+ Yellow Danger (Hurt You/Kills You)

+ Red Prohibited (Cannot Do)

+ Blue Mandatory (Must Do)

+ Green Emergency (Safety First)

+ Red Fire (Fire Equipment)

Some of the examples of safety signs are as below:

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Meaning: Never, Do Not, No

Meaning: You Must Obey, Do This

Meaning: First Aid, Follow, This Way, Escape Route

Meaning: Fire Alarm, Fire Extinguisher, Fire Equipment

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1.11 IMPORTANT TERMS GLOSSARY

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Figure 1.2 Safe and happy family

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1.13 PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES AND TASKS FOR STUDENTS

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2.2 BASIC APPROACHES OF SAFETY MANAGERS

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2.3 WORK EQUIPMENT

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Figure 2.1 Machine safety guarding

2.4 MANUAL HANDLING

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Figure 2.2 Correct method of manual handling

Figure 2.3 Appropriate sequence in lifting and carrying the load

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Figure 2.4 Manual handling risk limits (Courtesy: www.hse.gov.uk)

2.5 MECHANICAL HANDLING