Presented by:

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

Part I
 THERMODYNAMICS
is the science of energy!
Thermodynamics is the study of the
transformation of heat, mechanical work
and other forms of energy and how these
transformations relate to properties of
matter.
Thermodynamics

therme dynamis
heat power
 Thermodynamics

classical statistical
macroscopic microscopic
A system is defined as a quantity of
matter or a region in space to be studied.

The mass or region outside of the system

is called the surroundings.

The real or imaginary surface that

separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary.
A closed system is composed of a fixed
amount of mass and no mass can cross
its boundary.

If both mass and energy are not allowed

to cross the boundary, the system is said
to be isolated.

An open system allows the transfer of

both mass and energy across a boundary.
Mass cannot cross the boundary of
a closed system, but energy can.
A control volume with moving and
fixed boundaries.
Any characteristic of a system is called a
property. Properties can be intensive or
extensive.

If a property is independent of the mass

of the system, it is an intensive property.
Otherwise, it is extensive.

Extensive properties per unit mass are

called specific properties.
The state of a system refers to its
conditions which can be described
completely by its properties.

A system is said to be in thermodynamic

equilibrium if maintains thermal,
mechanical, phase and chemical
equilibrium.
A process refers to any change in the
state of a system. A process that starts
and ends with the same state is called a
cycle or cyclic process.

A system is said to be in thermodynamic

equilibrium if maintains thermal,
mechanical, phase and chemical
equilibrium.
A process refers to any change that a
system undergoes from one equilibrium
state to another.

The series of states that the system has

undergone during a process is called the
path of the process.
Temperature maybe regarded as the
quantitative measure of the hotness or
coldness of a body.

Statistically, temperature is defined as

the measure of the average kinetic
energy of all the molecules that make up
a material.
A condition in which the temperature of
a system is the same and equal to the
temperature of its surroundings is called
thermal equilibrium.

Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if

they are at the same temperature,
whether or not they are in physical
contact.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states
that if two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are
also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.

Two bodies can be in thermal equilibrium

with each other even if they are not in
physical contact with each other.
Temperature scales are used as the basis
for measuring temperature.

Common Temperature Scales

Celsius Kelvin
Fahrenheit Rankine
∆TC 100 5
= =
∆TF 180 9

9
TF = TC + 32
5

5
TC = (TF − 32)
9
A temperature scale that is independent
of the properties of any materials is
called a thermodynamic temperature
scale.

The thermodynamic temperature scale in

the SI system is the Kelvin scale. In the
English system, it is Rankine scale.
A temperature scale that is nearly
identical to the Kelvin scale is the ideal-
gas temperature scale.

Temperatures in this scale are measured

using a constant-volume gas
thermometer.
TK = TC + 273.15

Absolute
zero!
 The Kelvin scale is considered as the
absolute
One temperature
kelvin scale.
is defined as It is based
1/273.16 of theon
two fixed temperatures
difference namely
between the triple the of
point
absolute
water andzero and the
absolute triple point of
zero.
water.

Absolute zero: −273.15°C = 0 K

Triple point (H2O): 0.01°C = 273.16 K
The expansion of a material when heat is
applied is called thermal expansion.
Properties like length and volume are
affected by temperature changes.

ΔL  αLoΔT
β  3α
ΔV  βVoΔT
Jim uses a steel measuring tape that is
exactly 50.000 m long at an ordinary
temperature of 25°C. What is the length
of the steel tape on a hot summer day
when the temperature gets 35°C?

Ans: 50.006 m
The expansion or contraction of
materials due to temperature changes
may result to thermal stress σ, which is
analogous to pressure (force per unit
area).

σ = Eα∆T
A cylindrical aluminum having a radius of
2.5 cm is used as a spacer between two
steel walls such that the two bases of the
cylinder are touching the walls. At 17°C,
the cylinder just slips in between the
walls. When it warms to 25°C, calculate
the stress in the cylinder and the force
that it exerts on each wall, Assuming that
Ans:
the 26.4
walls arekNperfectly rigid.
Heat is defined as the
transfer of thermal
energy across a
boundary or from one
body to another due to
temperature difference
between them.
Since heat is a transfer of energy, it has
the same unit as energy.

joule

calorie
1 BTU = 1055 J
BTU
1 cal = 4.186 J
 1 cal = 4.186 J

1 BTU = 1055 J

1 BTU = 252 cal

1 BTU = 778 ft-lb

The amount of heat required to change
the temperature of a given mass of a
pure substance is called sensible heat.
This amount of heat Q is directly
proportional to the mass m of the
substance and to the change in
temperature ∆T.

Q = mc∆T
The specific heat is defined as that
amount of energy transferred by heat
necessary to change temperature of a
given unit of mass by 1 C°.

Q
c
mΔT
 J/kg  K 
c  4.186 J/g  C
c  4,186 J/kg  K
c  1 cal/g  C
c  1 BTU/lb  F
The heat capacity of a substance is the
amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of a given sample by 1°C.

Q
C
ΔT
 J/K 
The molar heat capacity of a substance is
the product of its specific heat and molar
mass.

Determine the molar heat capacity of

water.

Ans: 75.35 J/mol ∙ K

The law of Dulong and Petit states that
the molar heat capacities of most
elemental solids approach the value 3R,
which is approximately 25 J/mol∙K.
A transition from one state of matter to
another is called a phase change. At a
given pressure, a substance changes from
one phase to another at a definite
temperature. More importantly, the
phase change is always accompanied by
the absorption or release of energy,
usually by heat.
Latent heat is the amount of energy
transfer needed to change the phase of a
given mass of substance without
changing its temperature.

Q = mLf for water:

Lf = 80 cal/g
Q = mLv
Lv = 540 cal/g
Calorimetry is all about heat calculations
involved in various physical changes.

When energy is transferred by heat

between two bodies, the heat lost by one
body equals the heat gained by the
other.

−Qlost = Qgained
A 0.050 0-kg ingot of metal is heated to
200.0°C and then dropped into a
calorimeter containing 0.400 kg of water
initially at 20.0°C. The final equilibrium
temperature of the mixed system is
22.4°C. Find the specific heat of the
metal.

Ans: 453 J/kg ∙ K

A cowboy fires a silver bullet with a
muzzle speed of 200 m/s into the pine
wall of a saloon. Assume all the internal
energy generated by the impact remains
with the bullet. What is the temperature
change of the bullet? For silver c = 234
J/kg∙°C

Ans: 85.5°C
Determine the total amount of energy
needed to convert 250 g of ice at a
temperature of −10°C to steam at 120°C.

Ans: 769 kJ
What mass of steam initially at 130°C is
needed to warm 200 g of water in a 100
g glass container from 20.0°C to 50.0°C?

Ans: 10.9 g
There are three mechanisms on how
energy can be transferred by heat in
thermal processes:

conduction
convection
radiation
Conduction is the process by which
energy is transferred by heat as a result
of interaction among particles. The
transfer of energy occurs when the
particles gain kinetic energy in collision
with more energetic particles. The gain
in KE results to a change in temperature.
The rate at which energy is transferred by
thermal conduction is proportional to the
temperature gradient.

dQ ΔT
H  kA
dt Δx

H = heat current in watts (W)

 dQ  Th  Tc 
H  kA  
dt  L 
A cooler made of Styrofoam has a total
wall area of 1.2 m2 including the lids and a
wall thickness of 1 inch. The cooler is
filled with lots of ice and bottled beers.
What is the rate of heat flow into the
cooler if the air outside has a temperature
of 27°C? How much ice melts in one day?

Ans: 12.7 J/s, 3.3 kg

Convection is an energy transfer
mechanism which involves the combined
effects of conduction and fluid motion.
In convection, there is a transfer of fluid
mass from one region of space to
another.
The rate of heat transfer by convection is
determined from Newton’s law of
cooling.

dQ
H  hAΔT
dt
Consider a person standing in a breezy
room at 20°C. Determine the total rate of
heat transfer from this person if the
exposed surface area and the average
outer surface temperature of the person
are 1.6 m2 and 29°C, respectively, and the
convection heat transfer coefficient is 6
W/m2 · °C

Ans: 168.1 W
Radiation is the energy transfer by
means of electromagnetic waves. It does
not require any physical contact or
medium, and thus, radiation can take
place even in a vacuum.

Thermal radiation is a form of radiation

emitted by bodies because of their
temperature.
The rate at which energy is transferred
by thermal radiation is proportional to
the fourth power of the absolute
temperature of the radiating body.

P = σeAT4 (W)

σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2∙K4

A thin square steel plate, 10 cm on a side
is heated in a black smith’s forge to a
temperature of 800°C. If the emissivity of
the body is 0.6, what is the total rate of
radiation of energy?

Ans: 900 W
Part II
State variables are the quantities that are
used to describe the state of a system.

State variables depend only of the initial

and final state of the system.

Examples of state properties are

pressure, volume, temperature and
internal energy.
 At constant n and T, P  1/V
 At constant n and P, V  T
 At constant n and V, P  T
 At constant P and T, V  n

PV = nRT

R = 8.314 J/mol∙K
R = 0.0821 L∙atm/(mol∙K)
Determine the volume occupied by one
mole of an ideal gas at STP.

Ans: 22.4 L
In an automobile engine, a mixture of air
and gasoline is compressed in the
cylinders before ignited. A typical engine
has a compression ratio of 9:1. The initial
pressure is 27°C. If the pressure after
compression is 21.7 atm, find the
temperature of the compressed gas.

Ans: 450°C
 The separation between individual gas
molecules is way too large compared to
their own individual sizes
 The molecules move randomly obeying
Newton’s law.
 There is no force of attraction or
repulsion between individual gas
molecules.
 The collision of molecules to the wall of
the container is a perfect collision.
The average translational kinetic energy
of a gas molecule is given by
3 3
K av  kT Kt  nRT
2 2
The rms speed of a gas molecule is

3RT
v rms 
M
For monatomic gases , the values of CV
and CP respectively are
3 5
CV  CP 
2 2
CP  CV  R

CP 5 2R 5
     1.67
CV 3 2R 3
Part III
A thermodynamic system is any
collection of object that can be regarded
as a unit and has the potential to
exchange energy with its surroundings

A process that involves a change in the

state of a system is called a
thermodynamic process.
The macroscopic forms of energy are
those a system possesses as a whole with
respect to some outside reference frame.

The microscopic forms of energy are

those related to the molecular structure
of a system.
The first law of thermodynamics involves
systems in which the only energy change
is that of internal energy, and the only
energy transfer involved is by means of
heat and work.
The sum of all the microscopic forms of
energy possessed by a system is called
the internal energy, U.

This energy includes all sort of kinetic as

well as potential energy of atoms and
molecules.
Thermal energy maybe defined as the
sum of the kinetic energies of all the
molecules in a system, including both the
sensible and latent forms of internal
energy.
A process that does not involves a
transfer of energy by heat.

In an adiabatic process, the temperature

of the system can also be changed by
other means such as by doing work.
Work is the energy transfer associated
with a force acting to a system creating a
displacement.

The rate at which energy is transferred is

called power. Since work can be used to
transfer energy, power maybe defined
specifically as the rate of doing work.
The work done on or
by a gas from an
initial to final state
depends on the path
between these states. Vf
w   PdV
Vi


w  P Vf  Vi 
 Both heat and work are boundary
phenomena
 A system may posses energy but not
heat or work.
 Both heat and work are associated with
a process, not a state.
 Both heat and work are path functions.
In any process energy can neither be
created nor destroyed; it can only be
converted from one form to another.

The net change in the total energy of the

system during a process is equal to the
difference between the total energy
entering and the total energy leaving the
system.
The net change in the total energy of the
system during a process is equal to the
difference between the total energy
entering and the total energy leaving the
system.

∆E = Ein – Eout
The energy of a closed system may only
be changed by heat or work. Thus, the
change in the total energy of the system
is simply equal to the sum of the energy
transferred by heat and the net work
done.

∆E = Q + W
The energy of a closed system may only
be changed by heat or work. Thus, the
change in the total energy of the system
is simply equal to the sum of the energy
transferred by heat and the net work
done.

∆E = Q + W
 ∆E = Q + W

Process Sign
Heat is absorbed by the system +
Heat is gained by the system −
Work is done on the system +
Work is done by the system −
The change in the total energy of a
closed system is equal to the change in
its internal energy.

∆E = ∆U

∆U = Q + W
The change in the internal energy of a
system is equal to the sum of the energy
transfer by heat and work.

∆U = Q + W

Specifically, the first law in this case is

applied to a closed system.
 Being a state function, the
∆U = Q + W change in internal energy
depends only on the initial
and states of the system.

Process Sign
Heat absorbed by the system +
Heat gained by the system −
Work done on the system +
Work done by the system −
These are the quantities that are used to
describe the state of a system.

State variables depend only of the initial

and final state of the system.

Examples of state properties are

pressure, volume and internal energy.
These are the quantities at the right side
of the conservation of energy equation.

They are either positive or negative.

Examples are heat and work.

They are not associated with a given

state of the system but rather, with a
change in the system.
For a cyclic process, the initial and final
states of the system are identical, and
thus, the change in internal energy must
be zero.

∆U = 0
The internal energy in a cyclic process
remains constant.
In an isolated system, no energy is
transferred between the system and
surroundings either by heat or by work.

∆U = 0

The internal energy of an isolated system

remains constant.
In an adiabatic process, no energy is
transferred by heat, thus, the change in
the change in the energy of the system
equal the net work done.

∆E = W (adiabatic process)
TVγ-1 = constant

PVγ = constant
In an adiabatic free expansion, the
change in the internal energy of the
system is zero.

∆U = 0
The work done in an isobaric process is

W = −P(Vf – Vi)
For expansion, work is negative
For compression, work is positive

Q = mCp∆T

∆U = Q + W
For this process ∆V = 0 and hence W = 0.

W=0

The heat transferred is

Q = mCV∆T

∆U = Q
For an isothermal process involving an
ideal gas, the change in internal energy is
zero.

∆U = 0

Q = −W
For an isothermal expansion, the work
done is

W = nRT ln (Vi/Vf)
A student eats a dinner rated at 2 000
Calories. He wishes to do an equivalent
amount of work in the gymnasium by
lifting a 50.0-kg barbell. How many times
must he raise the barbell to expend this
much energy? Assume he raises the
barbell 2.00 m each time he lifts it and he
regains no energy when he lowers the
Ans: 8540 times
barbell.
A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is
cooled while being stirred by a paddle
wheel. Initially, the internal energy of the
fluid is 800 kJ. During the cooling
process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat,
and the paddle wheel does 100 kJ of
work on the fluid. Determine the final
internal energy of the fluid. Neglect the
Ans: 400
energy kJ in the paddle wheel.
stored
Suppose 1.00 g of water vaporizes
isobarically at atmospheric pressure. Its
volume in the liquid state is Vi = Vliquid
1.00 cm3, and its volume in the vapor
state is Vf = Vvapor = 1 671 cm3. Find the
work done in the expansion and the
change in internal energy of the system.

Ans: W= −169 J, ∆U = 2.09 kJ

A 1.0-kg bar of copper is heated at
atmospheric pressure so that its
temperature increases from 20°C to 50°C.
(A) What is the work done on the copper
bar by the surrounding atmosphere? (B)
How much energy is transferred to the
copper bar by heat? (C) What is the
increase in internal energy of the copper
Ans:
bar? W = −1.7 × 10 −2 J,

Q = 1.2 × 104 J, ∆U = 1.2 × 104 J

Part IV
A process that proceeds spontaneously in
one direction but not the other is called
an irreversible process. All processes that
occur in nature are irreversible.

A reversible process is an idealized

process in which the system is always in
thermodynamic equilibrium with its
surroundings. Thus, a reversible process
is an equilibrium process.
When a process takes place and yet the
system remains very close to an
equilibrium state, which makes the
process nearly reversible, the process is
called quasi-static or quasi-equilibrium
process.
Any device that transforms heat partly
into work or mechanical energy is called
a heat engine.

The matter inside the engine is called the

working substance.

The simplest engine to analyze are those

that involve a cyclic process.
 The working substance
absorbs energy by heat
from a high
temperature reservoir
 Work is done by the
engine
 Energy is expelled by
heat to a lower
temperature reservoir
The net work W done by a heat engine
equals the net energy transferred by heat.

W = |Qh| − |Qc|
The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is
the ratio of the work done by the engine
during one cycle to the energy input at
higher temperature.

W Qh  Qc Qc
E  1
Qh Qh Qh
It is impossible to construct a heat
engine operating in a cycle that will
produce an amount of work equal to the
amount of input energy by heat.
A device that transfers energy from a
cold to hot reservoir is called a heat
pump or a refrigerator.

The transfer of energy from a cold to hot

reservoir can only be achieved if work is
done on the engine.
It is impossible to
construct a machine
that can transfer
energy by heat from
a lower to higher
temperature without
the input energy by
work.
The COP is a number that measures the
effectiveness of a heat pump.

Qc
COP  cooling mode
W

Qh
COP  heating mode
W
A Carnot engine is a
theoretical engine that
operates in an ideal, reversible
cycle called Carnot cycle, and
is the most efficient engine
possible.

Sadi Carnot
No real heat engine operating between
two energy reservoirs can be more
efficient than a Carnot engine operating
between the same two reservoirs.
The thermal efficiency of a Carnot engine
is given by the formula

Tc
eC  1 
Th
Entropy is a state variable which
measures the degree of disorder in a
system.

Entropy statement of the second law:

The entropy of the Universe increases for

all real processes.
The change in entropy during a process
depends only on the initial and final
states, and thus, independent of the path

dQ f
dQ
dS = ΔS  
T i
T
Calculate the change in entropy when
500 g of ice melts into liquid water.

Ans:
The change in entropy in a reversible
process is zero and greater than zero in
an irreversible process.

∆S = 0 (reversible process)
The total entropy of an isolated system
always increases for an irreversible
process. For a reversible process, the
total entropy of the isolated system
remains constant.
Free expansion is an irreversible
adiabatic expansion.

Vf
∆S = nRln
Vi
Determine the change in entropy when
2.4 kg of air expands adiabatically to four
times its initial value.

Ans: