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Full Chapter Cavity Dynamics and Splashing Mechanism in Droplets Springerbriefs in Energy 1St Edition Li PDF
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SpringerBriefs in Energy
Zhaohao Li · Xiaoyu Wang · Junwei Shen ·
Yuning Zhang
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Zhaohao Li · Xiaoyu Wang · Junwei Shen ·
Yuning Zhang
Cavity Dynamics
and Splashing Mechanism
in Droplets
Zhaohao Li Xiaoyu Wang
Key Laboratory of Power Station Energy Key Laboratory of Power Station Energy
Transfer Conversion and System Transfer Conversion and System
Ministry of Education Ministry of Education
North China Electric Power University North China Electric Power University
Beijing, China Beijing, China
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Cavitation activity within the droplets is of great significance in improving the perfor-
mance of fuel atomization and other industrial applications. In this book, the char-
acteristics of the cavitation bubble and the droplet dynamics are investigated based
on the high-speed photography experiments, the bubble dynamics theory, and the
numerical simulations. For the cavitation bubble dynamics, firstly, the movement
trajectory of the cavitation bubble from the nucleation to the collapse is introduced.
Secondly, the influence of droplets on the formation of cavitation bubble jets is
analyzed. Thirdly, the paramount parameters dominating the collapse are theoreti-
cally given together with the propagation of shock waves within droplets. For the
droplet splash dynamics, the droplet splash patterns are investigated with different
eccentricities and radius ratio of bubbles and droplets. Based on the analysis of the
flow field, the critical stability of the droplet surface is discussed, and the droplet
breaking mechanism induced by cavitation bubble collapse is revealed. In addition,
taking the vapor bubble and the diesel droplet as examples, the dynamic characteris-
tics of several typical types of the droplet containing bubbles are analyzed. For vapor
bubbles, the influences of vapor condensation on the propagation behaviors of gas
flow and shock waves are discussed in detail together with the collapse mechanism
of vapor bubbles. For diesel droplets, the influences of droplet viscosity, density,
surface tension, and other physical properties on the growth, and the collapse stages
of the cavitation bubble are analyzed.
Acknowledgement This book was financially supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Project No.: 51976056).
v
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Research Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Research Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Description of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 High-Speed Photography Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 Hemispherical Droplet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.2 Ellipsoidal Droplet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.3 Spherical Droplet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Bubble Dynamics Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Bubble Dynamics Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.2 Analytical Solution of Radial Motion Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Numerical Simulation of OpenFOAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.1 VOF Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.2 LES Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 Dynamics of Cavitation Bubbles in a Droplet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 Cavitation Nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1.1 Typical Nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1.2 Mechanism of Shock Wave Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2 Characteristics of Cavitation Bubble Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.1 Hemispherical Droplet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.2 Ellipsoidal Droplet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.3 Spherical Droplet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Radial Oscillation Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.1 Effect of Droplet Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.2 Collapse Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
vii
viii Contents
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Chapter 1
Introduction
consumption. Furthermore, the installation of two sets of pipelines inside the nozzle
increases the structure complexity and the cost of equipment.
Electrostatic atomization technology utilizes a high-voltage power supply to make
the liquid surface obtain extra charges. The charged liquid is ejected from the nozzle
under the action of electric field traction and is further broken into small droplets
under the influence of electric disturbance. Due to the need to overcome the surface
tension of the liquid, the electrostatic atomization technology requires a high voltage.
There are some security risks in actual application, and corresponding prevention
should be considered.
Cavitation atomization technology utilizes pressure waves or ultrasonic waves
to induce cavitation bubbles inside the spray droplets. Under the action of high-
intensity shock waves released by cavitation bubble collapse, cavitation atomization
technology can obtain spray droplets with small particle sizes with relatively low
energy consumption. Unfortunately, due to the complex dynamic behaviors of cavi-
tation bubbles inside the droplets, the mechanism of droplet breakup affected by the
cavitation is still unclear.
Aiming at cavitation atomization technology, this book adopts high-speed photog-
raphy experiments, bubble dynamics theory, and numerical simulation methods to
reveal the interactions between dynamic behaviors of cavitation bubbles and droplets,
the formation characteristics of shock waves and microjets. Furthermore, the mech-
anism of droplet action on the dynamic behaviors of the cavitation bubbles and the
physical mechanism of droplet breakup induced by the cavitation bubble collapse
are revealed.
better explain the dynamic characteristics, partition diagrams of the droplet deforma-
tion pattern is usually employed. Based on different methods of droplet generation
and control, the observed droplet deformation patterns vary greatly. For example, the
droplet morphologies summarized by Liang et al. [21] included annular, lateral jet and
jet at the pole. The deformation characteristics described by Wang et al. [22] included
spatter, ventilation, and steady state. Kobel et al. [23] classified the droplet dynamics
induced by cavitation bubble collapse into microjets, spatter, and burst. Avila and Ohl
[24] defined the droplet breakage modes as droplet atomization, unstable transparent
water layer, stable transparent water layer, and droplet oscillation. To explain the
experimental phenomenon, Zeng et al. [25] calculated the baroclinity of the droplet
surface, analyzed the law of influence of vorticity, and revealed that the spattering
phenomenon was caused by the Rayleigh–Taylor instability at the interface. Based
on Zeng et al. [25], Wang et al. [22] further proposed theoretical criteria including
the dimensionless parameter to define the differential characteristics of deformation
modes.
Figure 1.2 shows the chapter layout structure of the book. The main content of this
book is introduced as follows: In this chapter, the research background and the appli-
cation fields of cavitation atomization technology are introduced. The research of
bubble dynamics and droplet splash dynamics are reviewed. In addition, the content
of each chapter of the book is briefly introduced. Chapter 2 mainly introduces
the primary research methods for investigating the dynamic behaviors of cavita-
tion bubbles and droplets, including high-speed photography experiments, theoret-
ical analysis of the bubble dynamics model, and numerical simulation based on
OpenFOAM. In Chap. 3, the dynamic characteristics of cavitation nucleation, jet
and oscillation and their main influencing factors are analyzed. In Chap. 4, several
typical splashing modes of droplets are observed, and the theoretical basis of the
critical stability is proposed based on the distribution characteristics of the flow
field near the droplet surface. In Chap. 5, the dynamic behaviors between droplets
containing air bubbles and vapor bubbles are compared, and the influences of vapor
condensation on the gas flow and the shock wave propagation are discussed with the
evolution mechanism of the vapor bubble revealed. In Chap. 6, the mechanism of
various forces on the growth and the collapse of cavitation bubbles inside a diesel
droplet are discussed. In Chap. 7, the primary concluding remarks of the present
book are summarized.
References 5
References
7. Wang Y (2018) Development of a droplet breakup model for ultra-high pressure fuel spays and
numerical study of atomization mechanisms. Beijing Jiaotong University (in Chinese)
8. Yao KH, Jin Y, Zheng M et al (2020) Test study on spray performance of plain-jet airblast
atomizer. Aeroengine 46:75–80 (in Chinese)
9. Shen LX, Fang GY, Wang SZ et al (2022) Numerical study of the secondary atomization
characteristics and droplet distribution of pressure swirl atomizers. Fuel 324:124643
10. Hammad FA, Sun K, Che ZZ et al (2021) Internal two-phase flow and spray characteristics of
outside-in-liquid twin-fluid atomizers. Appl Therm Eng 187:116555
11. Li SJ, Zhuo Z, He LJ et al (2019) Atomization characteristics of nano-Al/ethanol nanofluid
fuel in electrostatic field. Fuel 236:811–819
12. Guo WL, Li HC, Wang JZ et al (2019) Research progress on interaction between a single
cavitation and free surface, Chinese. J Theor Appl Mech 51:1682–1698 (in Chinese)
13. Zeng YB, Lee CF (2001) An atomization model for flash boiling sprays. Combust Sci Technol
169:45–67
14. Zhang P, Zhang YS (2009) Numerical modeling of dimethyl ether (DME) bubble growth and
breakup. Chinese Sci Bull 54:2457–2463
15. Wang QG, Yao W, Quan XJ et al (2018) Validation of a dynamic model for vapor bubble growth
and collapse under microgravity conditions. Int Commun Heat Mass 95:63–73
16. Obreschkow D, Kobel P, Dorsaz N et al (2006) Cavitation bubble dynamics inside liquid drops
in microgravity. Phys Rev Lett 97:094502
17. Lv M, Ning Z, Sun CH (2016) Study on the growth and collapse of cavitation bubble within a
droplet, Chinese. J Theor Appl Mech 48:857–866 (in Chinese)
18. Heijnen L, Su PAQ, Zhao X et al (2009) Cavitation within a droplet. Phys Fluids 21:091102
19. Thoroddsen ST, Takehara K, Etoh TG et al (2009) Spray and microjets produced by focusing
a laser pulse into a hemispherical drop. Phys Fluids 21:112101
20. Martinez JPP, Juan JCRS, Rodriguez CB et al (2017) Controllable direction of liquid jets
generated by thermocavitation within a droplet. Appl Optics 56:7167–7173
21. Liang Y, Jiang YZ, Wen CY et al (2020) Interaction of a planar shock wave and a water droplet
embedded with a vapour cavity. J Fluid Mech 885:R6
22. Wang JZ, Li CH, Guo WL et al (2021) Rayleigh-Taylor instability of cylindrical water droplet
induced by laser-produced cavitation bubble. J Fluid Mech 919:A42
23. Kobel P, Obreschkow D, de Bosset A et al (2009) Techniques for generating centimetric drop
in microgravity and application to cavitation studies. Exp Fluids 47:39–48
24. Avila SRG, Ohl CD (2016) Fragmentation of acoustically levitating droplets by laser-induced
cavitation bubbles. J Fluid Mech 805:551–576
25. Zeng QY, Avila SRG, Voorde ST et al (2018) Jetting of viscous droplets from cavitation-induced
Rayleigh-Taylor instability. J Fluid Mech 846:916–943
Chapter 2
Research Methods
Figure 2.1 shows the experimental platform for the dynamics of the hemispherical
droplet containing cavitation bubbles, and the experimental method refers to Ref.
[1]. A microinjection pump is utilized to transport the liquid from the bottom of
the vertical transparent pipe to the top. Due to the surface tension of the liquid, a
millimeter-magnitude hemispherical droplet floating on the pipe outlet is formed.
The droplet size is changed by adjusting the injection time of the microinjection
pump. After the Nd: YAG pulsed laser is focused, the cavitation bubble is generated
inside a droplet. The size of the cavitation bubble is changed by adjusting the energy
attenuator to control the input laser energy. The dynamic behaviors of the droplet
and the cavitation bubble are recorded by a high-speed camera, which is controlled
synchronously with the laser generator by a digital delay generator. Through the
Fig. 2.1 Experimental platform for dynamic characteristics of a hemispherical droplet containing
cavitation bubble
Table 2.1 Main instrument performance parameters of the hemispherical droplet experimental
platform
Device name Model Parameter
High-speed camera X113 60,000 FPS
Laser generator Penny-100A-SC Maximum energy: 100 mJ
Digital delay generator DG535 Delay resolution: 5 ps
High-power focusing lens LMH-10X-532 Effective focal length: 20 mm
Light emitting diode Bolang Power: 300 W
Microinjection pump Lande Flowrate: 0.1 ml/h
Acrylic material supporting pipe – Outside diameter: 5.06 mm
Inside diameter: 3.05 mm
2.1 High-Speed Photography Experiment 9
2 13
Rb Rbx Rby
λ= = 2
(2.1)
Rd Rd x Rdy
where “λ” represents the ratio of the equivalent radius of the cavitation bubble to the
equivalent radius of the droplet. “Rbx ” and “Rby ” indicate the dimensions of the long
and the short axes of the cavitation bubble. “Rdx ” and “Rdy ” indicate the dimensions
of the long and the short axes of the droplet.
Figure 2.3 shows the definition of the eccentricity of the bubble in the hemispher-
ical droplet. Let us take the definition of eccentricity in the Y-axis direction as an
example. In the Y-axis direction, the distance between the droplet center Od and
the cavitation bubble birth position Ob is d bY , and the distance between the droplet
surface and the droplet center is d dY . Based on this, the eccentricity in the Y-axis
direction is defined by Eq. (2.2). Similarly, the eccentricities in the X-axis direction
and the 45° axis direction could be also obtained, as shown in Eqs. (2.3) and (2.4)
respectively.
dbY
εY = (2.2)
ddY
dbX
εX = (2.3)
dd X
db45
ε45 = (2.4)
dd45
10 2 Research Methods
Figure 2.4 shows the experimental platform for the dynamics of ellipsoidal droplets
containing cavitation bubbles, and the experimental method refers to Ref. [2].
Furthermore, acoustic transducers and reflectors are utilized to create sound fields.
With the sound field added, an ellipsoidal suspended droplet is formed, and the droplet
size could be changed by adjusting the frequency of the transducer. The generation
and the control methods of the cavitation bubble are similar to those in the hemi-
spherical droplet experiment platform, and the Nd: YAG pulsed laser is also utilized
for the bubble generation. During the experiments, the laser emission energy is up
to 5 mJ. The frame rate of the high-speed camera for recording dynamic behaviors
is 1 Mfps.
Figure 2.5 shows the definition of geometric parameters of the ellipsoidal droplet.
The radius ratio and the eccentricity of the X-axis and the Y-axis are defined in
Eqs. (2.5–2.7). In addition, to explore the energy of forming a cavitation bubble, the
energy parameter E is defined in Eq. (2.8).
RX
φ= (2.5)
RY
δX
εX = (2.6)
RX
δY
εY = (2.7)
RY
2.1 High-Speed Photography Experiment 11
Fig. 2.4 Experimental platform for dynamics characteristics of an ellipsoidal droplet containing a
cavitation bubble
κ El
E= (2.8)
Vd pa
where “Φ” represents the radius ratio of an ellipsoidal droplet. “εX ” and “εY ” repre-
sent the eccentricities of the X-axis and the Y-axis, respectively. “δ X ” and “δ Y ”
represent the distance between the center of cavitation bubble and the center of
droplet on the X-axis and the Y-axis, respectively. “κ” represents the percentage of
laser energy utilized for cavitation bubble nucleation. “E l ” represents the energy of
the laser emitted. “V d ” indicates the volume of the cavitation bubble. “pa ” indicates
environmental pressure.
Figure 2.6 shows the experimental platform for the dynamics of spherical droplets
containing cavitation bubbles. Compared with the experimental platform of hemi-
spherical and ellipsoidal droplets, the feature of this experimental platform is that
the droplet relies on the microgravity environment to maintain the spherical profile.
12 2 Research Methods
Fig. 2.6 Experimental platform for dynamic characteristics of a spherical droplet containing
cavitation bubble. Reprinted with the permission from Ref. [4] Copyright (2009) (Springer Nature)
The experiments were carried out during a manned parabolic flight by the European
Space Agency [3, 4]. Specifically, the gravity in this environment is about 0.02–0.05
g, where “g” represents the acceleration of gravity. The droplet size can be controlled
by adjusting the power of the micropump that injects a droplet into the experimental
platform. The formation of the cavitation bubble inside the droplet depends on the
discharge of the electric spark between two thin electrodes. Figure 2.7 shows the basic
principle and the spherical droplet containing the cavitation bubble. The high-speed
camera recording the dynamic behaviors was set to be 12,000 fps.
The geometric contour of the spherical droplet is more regular, which provides
great convenience for the definition of relevant parameters. The radius ratio and the
eccentricity are defined in Eqs. (2.9) and (2.10).
Rb,max
α= (2.9)
Rd,min
d
ε= (2.10)
Rd,min
where “α” represents the radius ratio of the spherical droplet. “ε” represents eccen-
tricity. “Rb,max ” represents the maximum radius of the cavitation bubble. “Rd,min ”
represents the initial radius of the droplet. “d” represents the distance between the
center of the droplet and the center of the cavitation bubble.
2.2 Bubble Dynamics Theory 13
Fig. 2.7 Schematic diagram of a spheroidal droplet containing cavitation bubble in a microgravity
environment: a cavitation bubble generation method; b high-speed photography. Reprinted with
the permission from Ref. [4] Copyright (2009) (Springer Nature)
The establishment of the bubble dynamics model is based on Ref. [1]. Figure 2.8
shows the physical model of a spherical droplet containing a cavitation bubble.
Based on the classical Rayleigh–Plesset equation considering the influence of surface
tension and the viscous force, the dynamic model suitable for the bubble in a spherical
droplet is expanded from the point of view of force balance. The kinetic equation of
cavitation bubble oscillation is shown in Eq. (2.11).
R 2 d2 R b 4μ L 4μG Rb2 dRb 3 2Rb Rb4 dRb 2
Rb − b + + + − +
Rd dt 2 ρ L Rb ρ L Rd3 dt 2 Rd 2Rd4 dt
3κ
1 2σ Rb0 Rb0 2σ Rb
= p0 + 1+ − 1+ − p0 (2.11)
ρL Rb0 Rd0 Rb Rb Rd
where “p0 ” represents the ambient pressure. “Rb ” represents the instantaneous radius
of the cavitation bubble. “Rd ” represents the instantaneous radius of the droplet.
“Rb0 ” represents the instantaneous radius of the cavitation bubble at equilibrium.
“Rd0 ” represents the instantaneous radius of the droplet at equilibrium. “μL ” and
14 2 Research Methods
“μG ” represent the viscosity coefficients of the liquid and the gas, respectively. “ρ L ”
represents the liquid density. “σ ” represents the surface tension at the gas–liquid
interface.
Assuming that the distance between a point in the liquid and the center of the
cavitation bubble is r, the pressure inside the liquid is p(r, t), and the radial outward
velocity is u(r, t). According to the law of mass conservation, the velocity can be
obtained as Eq. (2.12).
Rb2 Ṙb
u(r, t) = (2.12)
r2
The Navier–Stokes equation for Newtonian fluids in the spherical coordinates can
be expressed as Eq. (2.13).
∂u ∂u 1 ∂ ∂u 2u 1 ∂p
+u − νL 2 r2 − 2 =− (2.13)
∂t ∂r r ∂r ∂r r ρ L ∂r
Through integrating from the radius of the cavitation bubble to the radius of the
droplet, which is shown in Eqs. (2.15) and (2.16).
2.2 Bubble Dynamics Theory 15
Rd
1 1 1
2
dr = − (2.15)
r Rb Rd
Rb
Rd
−2 1 1
dr = 4
− (2.16)
r 5 2Rd 2Rb4
Rb
Substituting Eqs. (2.15) and (2.16) into Eq. (2.14), Eq. (2.17) can be obtained.
Rb2 d2 Rb 3 2Rb Rb4 dRb 2 pb − pd
Rb − + − + = (2.17)
Rd dt 2 2 Rd 2Rd 4 dt ρL
where
2σ 4μ L dRb
pb = pin − − (2.18)
Rb Rb dt
2σ Rb0 Rb0 3κ
pin = p0 + 1+ (2.19)
Rb0 Rd0 Rb
2σ 4μG dRd
pd = pout + + (2.20)
Rd Rd dt
where “pout ” represents the gas pressure at the junction between droplet and outside
air. “pin ” represents the gas pressure at the junction between droplet and cavitation
bubble. “pd ” represents the liquid pressure at the junction between droplet and outside
air. “pb ” represents the liquid pressure at the junction between droplet and cavitation
bubble.
According to the law of mass conservation and the fact that the liquid is
incompressible and does not evaporate or condense during bubble oscillation, the
mathematical relationship can be obtained as Eq. (2.22).
dRd R 2 dRb
= b2 (2.22)
dt Rd dt
The derivation of the radial motion equation is based on Ref. [1]. Equation (2.25) is
the dynamic equation of a cavitation bubble inside a droplet considering the surface
tension term.
−p 3 1 1
= Ṙb2 + Rb R̈b − 2 Ṙb2 λ − Rb R̈b λ + Ṙb2 λ4 + (2σ + 2σ λ) (2.25)
ρ 2 2 ρ Rb
The theoretical collapse time of the cavitation bubble is solved considering the
surface tension. Multiplying Ṙb Rb2 on both the left and the right sides of Eqs. (2.25),
(2.26) can be obtained as follows.
−P 3 3
Ṙb Rb2 = Ṙb3 Rb2 + Rb3 Rb R̈b − Ṙb3 Rb2 λ
ρ 2 2
1 1
− Rb3 Ṙb R̈b λ − Ṙb3 Rb2 λ + Ṙb3 Rb2 λ4
2 2
1
+ (2σ + 2σ λ)Rb Ṙb (2.26)
ρ
When Rb = Rb,max , the expression of relevant parameters are shown in Eqs. (2.28)
and (2.29).
Ṙb = 0 (2.28)
p 3 σ 2 2
C1 = − Rb,max − Rb,max + Rd,min
3
+ Rb,max
3 3
(2.29)
3ρ ρ
2.2 Bubble Dynamics Theory 17
Then, substituting the equations of the main parameters into Eq. (2.27), Eq. (2.30)
can be obtained as follows.
3
2p 1 Rb,max
Ṙb2 = −1
3ρ 1 − λ Rb3
⎡ 2 2 ⎤
2σ R2 3
Rd,min 3
Rb,max 3 3
Rd,min 3
+ ⎣ b,max − 1 + + − +1 ⎦
ρ(1 − λ)Rb Rb2 Rb3 Rb3 Rb3
(2.30)
When the radius of the bubble during the collapse reaches the maximum value,
the collapse time can be obtained, which can be expressed as Eq. (2.31).
Tc 0 1
Tc = ∫ dt = ∫ dRb
0 Rb,max Ṙb
⎧ ⎡ 2 2 ⎤⎫− 21
1 ⎨ 2p Rb,max − Rb ⎬
3 3
Rb,max 2σ R2 − Rb2 3
Rd,min + Rb,max
3 3 3
Rd,min + Rb3 3
= ∫ + ⎣ b,max + − ⎦ dRb
0 Rb3 ⎩ 3ρ Rb3 (1 − λ) ρ(1 − λ)Rb Rb2 Rb3 Rb3 ⎭
(2.31)
When it is subjected to external pressure, the cavitation bubble will oscillate. The
variations of the bubble radius can be solved through the small perturbation method,
which can be expressed as Eqs. (2.32) and (2.34).
where “ε” represents the amplitude of small disturbance vibration. According to the
aforementioned derivation, Eqs. (2.35–2.37) can be obtained as follows.
−3κ 3κ(3κ + 1) 2 2
1 + εx1 + ε2 x2 ≈ 1 − 3κεx1 − 3κε2 x2 + ε x1 (2.36)
2
−1
Rb−1 = Rb0
−1
1 + εx1 + ε2 x2 −1
≈ Rb0 1 − εx1 − ε2 x2 + ε2 x12 (2.37)
1
R3 3
Rd = Rd0 1 + 3εx1 + 3ε2 x2 + 3ε2 x12 b0 3
Rd0
R3
= Rd0 1 + εx1 + ε2 x2 + ε2 x12 b0
3
(2.38)
Rd0
(2.39)
The expressions of natural frequency and total damping are shown in Eqs. (2.42)
and (2.43) respectively.
4
1 2σ Rb0 2σ Rb0 Rb0 −1
ω02 = 3κ p0 + 1+ − 1+ 4 1−
ρ L Rb0
2 Rb0 Rd0 Rb0 Rd0 Rd0
(2.42)
where “β tot ” represents the total damping constant term. “β ac ” represents the acoustic
damping constant term. “β vis ” represents the viscous damping constant term. “β th ”
represents the thermal damping constant term. Since only the viscous damping term
is considered, the total damping can be obtained as Eq. (2.44).
3
2 Rb0 Rb0 −1
βtot = βvis = μ L + μ G 3 1 − (2.44)
ρ L Rb0
2
Rd0 Rd0
2.2 Bubble Dynamics Theory 19
Since x 1 and p0 ei(ωt+δ) are of the same frequency, Eq. (2.45) can be obtained by
considering the damping effect.
x1 = A1 cos(ωt + δ1 ) (2.45)
The complex form of the derivative of Eq. (2.45) is shown in Eq. (2.46).
Substituting Eqs. (2.41) and (2.46) into Eq. (2.40), Eq. (2.47) can be obtained as
follows.
−1 2
− 21
ω02 − ω2 + 2i ωβtot = ω02 − ω2 + (2ωβtot )2 ei δ1μ (2.48)
δ1 = δ0 + δ1μ (2.49)
Substituting Eqs. (2.48) and (2.49) into Eq. (2.47), the numerical expression of
the simple harmonic amplitude with the first-order accuracy is obtained, which can
be expressed as Eq. (2.50).
2 − 21
3 2
p0 Rb0 4 Rb0
A1 = − ω02 −ω 2
1− +ω 2
μ L + μG 3
ρ L Rb0
2 Rd0 ρ L Rb0
2
Rd0
(2.50)
The phase difference relation of the first-order caused by the viscosity term can
be obtained as Eq. (2.51).
⎡ ⎤
R3
− ρ 4ωR 2 μ L + μG Rb03
δ1μ = tan−1 ⎣ ⎦
L b0 d0
(2.51)
ω0 − ω 1 − Rd0
2 2 Rb0
Similarly, the bubble dynamics equation considering the surface tension and the
viscosity terms can be solved with the second-order accuracy, which can be expressed
as Eq. (2.52).
20 2 Research Methods
3
Rb0 4 Rb0
1− ẍ2 + μ L + μG 3 ẋ2
Rd0 ρ L Rb0
2
Rd0
4
1 2σ Rb0 2σ Rb0
+ 3κ p0 + 1+ − 1+ 4 x2
ρ L Rb02 Rb0 Rd0 Rb0 Rd0
4
x12 2σ Rb0 3κ(3κ + 1) Rb0
= p 0 + 1 + +
ρ L Rb02 Rb0 Rd0 2 4
Rd0
3 2Rb0 R4
− ẋ12 − + b04
2 Rd0 2Rd0
3 9 4
4x1 ẋ1 2μG Rb0 3μG Rb0 2Rb0 Rb0
+ − − μ L − x ẍ
1 1 1 − + (2.52)
ρ L Rb02 3
Rd0 9
Rd0 Rd0 4
Rd0
Therefore, the standard form of harmonic oscillation with the second order can
be expressed as Eq. (2.53).
−1
Rb0
ẍ2 + 2βtot ẋ2 + ω02 x2 = ϕ0 1− (2.53)
Rd0
The expressions of natural frequency and the total damping can be expressed as
Eqs. (2.54) and (2.55).
4
1 2σ Rb0 2σ Rb0 Rb0 −1
ω02 = 3κ p0 + 1+ − 1+ 4 1−
ρ L Rb0
2 Rb0 Rd0 Rb0 Rd0 Rd0
(2.54)
2 R3 Rb0 −1
βtot = βvis = μ L + μG b0 1− (2.55)
ρ L Rb0
2 3
Rd0 Rd0
x1 = A1 cos(ωt + δ1 ), ẋ1
= −ω A1 sin(ωt + δ1 ), ẍ1 = −ω2 A1 (ωt + δ1 ) (2.56)
Parameter ϕ 0 is employed to represent the right part of Eq. (2.52), and after
performing a trigonometric functional transformation, Eq. (2.57) can be obtained.
1 2σ R 3κ(3κ + 1) R4 ω2 5 4Rb0 4
3Rb0
ϕ0 = A21 cos 2(ωt + δ1 ) · 2
p0 + 1 + b0 + b0
4
+ − + 4
2ρ L Rb0 Rb0 Rd0 2 Rd0 2 2 Rd0 2Rd0
3
2μG Rb0 9
3μG Rb0
2ω
− A21 sin 2(ωt + δ1 ) 2 3
− 9
− μL
ρ L Rb0 Rd0 Rd0
1 2σ R 3κ(3κ + 1) R4 ω2
+ A21 2
p0 + 1 + b0 + b0
4
− (2.57)
2ρ L Rb0 Rb0 Rd0 2 Rd0 4
2.2 Bubble Dynamics Theory 21
According to the auxiliary angle equations, Eqs. (2.58) and (2.59) can be obtained.
3 9
2ω 2μG Rb0 23μG Rb0
C1 = −A21 − − μL (2.58)
ρ L Rb0
2 3
Rd0 9
Rd0
1 2σ Rb0 3κ(3κ + 1) R4 ω2 5 4Rb0 4
3Rb0
C2 = A21 2
p0 + 1+ + b0
4
+ − + 4
2ρ L Rb0 Rb0 Rd0 2 Rd0 2 2 Rd0 2Rd0
(2.59)
Substituting Eq. (2.57) into Eq. (2.53), Eq. (2.60) can be obtained.
! " Rb0 −1
ẍ2 + 2βtot ẋ2 + ω02 x2 = f [cos(2ωt)] + B2∗ 1 − (2.60)
Rd0
According to Eqs. (2.58) and (2.59), the components of Eq. (2.60) can be sorted
out, and the results are shown in Eqs. (2.61) and (2.62).
1 C1
f [cos(2ωt)] = C12 + C22 2 cos 2(ωt + δ1 ) − arctan (2.61)
C2
4
∗ 1 2σ Rb0 3κ(3κ + 1) Rb0 ω2
B2 = A1
2
2
p0 + 1+ + 4 − (2.62)
2ρ L Rb0 Rb0 Rd0 2 Rd0 4
Since x 2 and f [cos(2ωt)] are of the same frequency, Eq. (2.63) can be obtained.
x2 = A2 cos(2ωt + δ2 ) + B2 (2.63)
After expressing Eq. (2.63) and its derivatives in the complex form, Eq. (2.64)
can be obtained as follows.
Combined with the simple harmonic oscillation equation, the constant term needs
to be consistent, which can be obtained as Eq. (2.66).
Rb0 −1
ω02 B2 = B2∗ 1− (2.66)
Rd0
"En oikein ymmärrä teitä", sanoi kokki. "Miten joku paikka voi olla
sanantapa?"
"Niin kai se oli", vastasi vanha mies. "Hän luuli löytäneensä uuden
maanosan", jatkoi kalastaja "ja laski laivansa erääseen lahteen, veti
Suurbritannian lipun tangon nenään ja kutsui lahden nimensä
mukaan Piggotin lahdeksi. Tämä pääsi ulos miehistöltä kotia
saavuttua. Ja nyt jos joku täällä käyttäytyy hullumaisesti sanotaan
hänen ajavan takaa Piggotin lahtea. Siinä koko juttu."
"Dick! Dick?!”
"Miksikä ei?"
"Lähdemme heti teen jälestä, jos sinä viitsit katsoa lipun meille,
Dick", sanoi Sam.
"No! — Kyllä."
"En aio vielä mennä kotiin", sanoi hän. "Täytyy vähäsen kävellä
raittiissa ilmassa."
"Mitä luulitte?"
"Koska?"
"Sen ne kylläkin ovat tehneet", sanoi hän. "Eräs pieni toitottaja sai
seistä tunnin nurkassa oppiakseen pitämään suunsa kiinni."
"Minä en voi sitä auttaa", sanoi Wilson. "Saatte panna vaikka koko
koulun nurkkaan ettekä sittenkään saa minua estetyksi rakastamasta
teitä."
"Sinä olet ainoa poika, minkä koskaan olen täällä nähnyt", sanoi
hän iloisesti. "Kyllä sinä saat, sinä, kunhan miss Dimchurch tulee."
"En nyt niin varmaan muista — kuusi tai seitsemän kertaa", sanoi
Henry
Hatkins. "Luulen niitä sentään olleen vaan kuusi."