3D Printer

This 3D Printing Evolution Functional Block Diagram shows the process flow of 3D printing in the X
direction and the evolution of the functional blocks in the Y direction.

Extruder
Dual/Multi extruder

The first improvement to the extruder, that several 3D printers have now, is the dual extruder
capability. Printers with a single extruder can perform multi-color and multi-material operations but
it is faster and easier to perform these operations with multiple extruders.

3D printing and multi-material functionality has spark a huge interest in material science; people
have invented wood, ABS like PLA, nylon, flexible PLA, stone, carbon fiber, and other special
filaments. Not only has 3D printing material undergone significant material research, but MIT found
a way to enforce spider webs with carbon fiber to make it a stronger. It is also going to be interesting
to see special blends of materials in creating objects. Multi-material functionality allows for
optimized design: strain issues can be addressed with more flexible material and stress issues can be
addressed with more rigid material. Currently this can be done if each part is done in different and
distinct areas, but in the next five to ten years design software will allow for objects to be designed
for a blend of materials. While the FFM printer have a wide range of available filaments, there is not
a huge range of different resins available for SLA printing so it will be interesting to see what resins
may be developed in the years to come.

Cooling extruder

One way to decrease the overall print time would be to increase the rate at which the filament is
coming out of the extruder; however, the layer before must be fully solidified before the next layer of
plastics is placed. One possible solution to this problem would be to add a special cooling head that
would trail the hot print head to the hot plastic solidify faster.

Movement

Different 3D printers have different ways to move the extruder. A lot move the extruder in the
Cartesian coordinate system or in the X, Y, and Z direction and the most common ways of doing it is
by moving the extruder in the X and Y direction while the bed moves in the Z direction or have the
extruder move in all three directions around a stationary bed. Having both the bed and extruder move
in the X, Y, and Z direction could be a way to minimize the travel time.

Special nozzles

The extruder might be able to change the print head diameter at different times during the print
similar to how cake frosting have special decorative tips.

Video Camera

Equipping 3D printers with a video camera–or a pair for stereoscopic view–will enable real time
monitoring of the printing process either by algorithmic control or remote monitoring by human
operators. The print job could be aborted and restarted, preventing wasted time and material.
Depending upon what other postprocessing capabilities are available, or in a printer that supports
both additive and subtractive manufacturing, a complex part could be reworked and completed.

Bed
Hot Bed

Many printers already have the functionality of heating the bed to improve print quality and protect
against the warping during the print job.

Movement

As mentioned above, both the bed and extruder could move in the X, Y, and Z direction to minimize
the travel time. As for the delta 3-D printers, they could have their circular base to rotate to make the
travel time faster of the print head.
Auto-leveling

As someone who has used a variety of 3D printers, the leveling of the bed is one of the most annoying
thing in 3D printing and even the slight height difference could stop print jobs from being completed.
The Creatbot is the only 3D printer that I know of that has an auto-leveling bed and other great
features.

Post Processing
Current methods for post processing include deburring, sanding, priming, airbrushing, and
application of acetone. One of the biggest misconceptions with 3D printing is that the 3D printer can
print out objects just as nice as store bought items.

There might an effective trade off between a very high resolution print with no post processing and a
lower quality print and some post processing to make it smoother. The two major factors to be
considered in these processes is speed vs structure integrity. If the goal is to achieve a faster time
while not worrying so much about the strength of the object then the low resolution with the post
processing seems to be better choice; however, if it is a functional part then the first option is a safer
choice.

Missing Dimension: Information & Modeling

The CAD model development and related data flows are an important dimension of 3D printer
functionality. Scanners, CAD design system, design rule checks, model repair tools, and other software
that creates, modifies, or verifies the models needed for an object to be printed are undergoing as
significant a rate of evolution as the functional blocks identified here. A truly complete functional
block diagram would include them.

CCTV
CCTV
Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) is a system in which the circuit is closed and all of the elements are directly
connected. We know that, in broadcast television, from the airwaves, any receiver that is correctly tuned can
pick up the signal. In CCTV this is different. Systems interconnected via microwave, infrared beams, and other
means are examples of directly connected networks.
The camera tube is used to transform light from an item that the camera is focused on into electrical impulses.
The lens mechanism focuses light from the object on the light-sensitive surface (called the mosaic or
photoconductive material) in the camera tube. An electron gun is housed in the camera tube, which creates and
regulates a stream of electrons. The narrow stream of electrons is directed by the cannon in such a way that it
crosses (scans) the mosaic line by line. When the beam hits a point in the mosaic, it creates a little electrical
impulse that corresponds to the brightness or darkness of that specific small area of the image. The visual
amplifier receives the electrical impulses created in this manner.

Control Unit :
In a CCTV, the control unit is considered as the system's heartbeat. This unit links all of the system's other
components. Drive pulses are created, and the camera's sweep and blanking signals are developed. The control
unit sends synchronizing and blanking pulses to the receiver/monitor.

The camera's video signals are amplified and sent to the receiver/monitor. Vertical and horizontal blanking,
sync, and video signals are among the control unit's output signals. The video amplifier, control amplifier,
carrier, amplitude modulator, radio-frequency (RF) amplifier, sync generator, and audio controls make up the
control unit.

A wide variety of frequencies can be amplified using video amplifiers. The video amplifier amplifies the camera
tube's weak electrical impulses and feeds them to a control amplifier.

The control amplifier combines the video, sync, and blanking signals into a single continuous output to the
amplitude modulator, all inappropriate order.

Synchronizing (sync) and blanking pulses are generated by circuits in the sync generator. The control amplifier
receives these pulses, which constitute part of the broadcast signal. Horizontal synchronization occurs when
horizontal scanning at the receiver and horizontal scanning at the camera occur at the same moment. Vertical
synchronization keeps the receiver's vertical scanning in sync with the camera's vertical scanning.
The camera circuits also receive synchronization and blanking signals, which are used to generate the
appropriate control signals for the electron gun and sweep voltages for the deflection coils (both horizontal and
vertical). The main circuit of the carrier is an oscillator that produces a steady, continuous RF signal. Its
frequency is set by the relevant civil authorities for the TV station where it is broadcast.

The video, sync, and blanking pulses modify the carrier signal in the amplitude modulator. The R amplifier
amplifies the composite (total) signal before feeding it to the antenna for transmission into space.

A frequency-modulated R carrier transmits the sound part of the television broadcast. A microphone picks up
the noises, which are then boosted by the audio amplifier and sent to the frequency modulator unit. The
frequency of the sound earner is adjusted to match the frequency of the audio signal picked up by the
microphone. An R power amplifier then amplifies the frequency modulated signal. The data is then transmitted
into orbit through an antenna or a cable system placed throughout the ship.

Receiver/Monitor :
The receiver/monitor unit is the picture-producing unit. The only difference between the receiver and the
monitor is the circuitry in each device. The receiver and monitor devices use different types of transmission
medium. This discrepancy necessitates the use of extra circuits by the receiver. (Radio waves are used for the
receiver, whereas cables are often used for the monitor). The antenna system, tuner, R. The basic TV receiver
comprises the same circuits as the monitor, as well as the antenna system, tuner, and R.

Applications of CCTV :
Security systems and applications such as retail shops, banks, and government organizations are among the
most well-known uses of CCTV. The real spectrum of possible applications is nearly limitless.

Examples are:
• Focusing on traffic on a bridge.

• Record the inside of a bake oven to figure out what's wrong.

• A makeshift technique for conducting a traffic study in a city center.

• For the animation of plasticizing puppets, the time-lapse recording was used.

• Used by a show's stage manager to see hidden sections of the set.

• Its widespread use in football stadiums.

• Vandalism was controlled by hiding in buses.

• Observing a gorilla's birth at a zoo.

• Using a big model helicopter to create a wildlife program.

• Replicating a goldfish's infrared eyesight!

• Photographs taken from a hot air balloon.

• Factory production control.

ATM
What is the Full form of ATM?
The full form of ATM is Automated Teller Machine. The definition of an Automated
teller machine, or ATM, is an electronic banking facility that enables customers
to carry out routine financial transactions without the assistance of a bank
employee. The main advantages of ATMs are their accessibility and convenience.

History of ATM
The history of Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) is a fascinating journey that mirrors
the technological advancements in the banking industry and the changing landscape
of financial transactions. Let’s explore the key milestones in the development of
ATMs.

Conceptualization (Late 1960s)

The idea of a self-service machine for dispensing cash and performing basic banking
functions emerged in the late 1960s. The vision was to create a device that could
provide customers with 24/7 access to their funds, reducing their dependence on
traditional bank hours.

First ATM Installation (1969)

The world witnessed the first operational ATM on September 2, 1969, at Chemical
Bank in Rockville Centre, New York, USA. Created by Don Wetzel, an American
inventor, the machine allowed customers to withdraw cash, make deposits, and check
their account balances.

Magnetic Stripe Technology (1970s)

In the 1970s, the integration of magnetic stripe technology enhanced ATM
functionality. This innovation enabled the encoding of information on cards, allowing
users to perform various transactions securely.

Types of ATMs
Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) have evolved to offer various types to cater to
diverse user needs and technological advancements. Here are several types of
ATMs:
 Brown label: ATMs run by independent companies from banks or credit unions.
 Green label: Green label Automated teller machines (ATMs), also known as
ATMs, are typically run by organizations other than banks. ATMs that are
employed in agriculture.
 Orange label: for transactions involving sharing.
 Pink label: ATMs created specifically for women to avoid lengthy lines and
waiting periods.
 White label: These ATMs, which TATA Group introduced, are owned by specific
entities rather than banks.
 ATMs with a yellow label are those used for online shopping.
 To complete a transaction, consumers must use a plastic card, such as a bank
debit card or a credit card. The transaction is finished after successful
authentication with a PIN.
How Dose Automated Teller Machines (ATMs)
Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) work through a combination of hardware,
software, and communication technologies to facilitate various banking transactions.
Here’s a simplified overview of how an ATM operates:
1. Card Insertion: The user inserts their bank card (debit or credit card) into the
card reader on the ATM.
2. Card Authentication: The ATM reads the magnetic stripe or chip on the card,
authenticating the user’s identity by verifying the information encoded on the
card.
3. PIN Entry: The user enters their Personal Identification Number (PIN) on the
ATM’s keypad. The PIN is a crucial security measure to ensure that only
authorized users can access the account.
4. Connection Establishment: The ATM establishes a secure connection with the
bank’s host computer or a payment network. This connection can occur via
dedicated phone lines, internet connections, or other secure networks.
5. Transaction Selection: The user selects the desired transaction from the on-
screen menu, which may include options such as cash withdrawal, balance
inquiry, funds transfer, or other banking services.
6. Transaction Processing: The ATM sends the transaction request, along with
the user’s authentication details, to the bank’s host computer or payment
network. The host computer verifies the request, checks the user’s account
balance, and ensures the transaction is authorized.
7. Cash Dispensing or Transaction Completion: If the requested transaction is
approved, the ATM dispenses the requested cash amount. For non-cash
transactions, such as balance inquiries or funds transfers, the ATM completes
the transaction on-screen.
8. Receipt Generation: The ATM prints a receipt detailing the transaction,
including the amount withdrawn, account balance, or any other relevant
information. Users have the option to receive or decline a printed receipt.
9. Card Retrieval: The user retrieves their card from the ATM, and the transaction
is complete. It’s crucial for users to remember to take their card to avoid any
security risks.
10. Connection Termination: After the transaction is finalized, the secure
connection between the ATM and the bank’s host computer is terminated.
11. Cash Reconciliation: Periodically, the ATM undergoes a cash reconciliation
process to ensure that the physical cash in the machine matches the recorded
transactions.
12. Maintenance and Security: ATMs are regularly maintained to ensure proper
functionality. Security features, such as surveillance cameras, are in place to
deter fraudulent activities.
It’s important to note that the specifics of ATM operation may vary slightly depending
on the type and model of the machine, as well as the banking institution’s systems
and protocols. Advanced ATMs, such as Interactive Teller Machines (ITMs) or those
with biometric features, may involve additional steps in the transaction process.

RO SYSTEM
UNDERSTANDING THE REVERSE OSMOSIS W ATER FLOW DIAGRAM: A STEP-
BY-STEP GUIDE

Reverse osmosis is a process used to purify water by removing impurities and

contaminants. It is widely used in both residential and industrial settings to produce
clean and safe water for drinking, cooking, and various manufacturing processes.
Understanding the reverse osmosis water flow diagram is essential to grasp the
functioning and efficiency of this purification process.
The reverse osmosis water flow diagram consists of several key components that work
together to deliver high-quality purified water. The process starts with a pre-filtration
stage, where sediment and larger particles are removed to prevent damage to the
reverse osmosis membrane. This helps to prolong the lifespan of the membrane and
improve its overall performance.
After the pre-filtration stage, the water enters the reverse osmosis membrane, which
acts as a semi-permeable barrier. The membrane allows water molecules to pass
through while trapping contaminants such as bacteria, viruses, dissolved salts, and
other impurities. This filtration pr ocess ensures that the water produced is free from
harmful substances and safe for consumption.
Once the water has passed through the reverse osmosis membrane, it undergoes post -
filtration to further enhance its quality. This usually involves the use of a carbon filter to
remove any remaining odors, tastes, and volatile organic compounds. The final product
is clean, pure water that meets the required standards for drinking and various other
applications.

Understanding Reverse Osmosis Water Flow

The process of reverse osmosis (RO) is used to purify water by removing impurities and
contaminants. Understanding the water flow in a reverse osmosis system is essential to
ensure its proper functioning and efficiency.
1. Feed Water: The first step in the reverse osmosis water flow diagram is the entry of
feed water. This can be either tap water or any other source of water. The feed water
then goes through a pre-filtration process to remove larger particles and sediments that
could potentially clog the membrane.
2. Pre-Treatment: After passing through the pre -filtration process, the water enters the
pre-treatment stage, where it is further treated to remove chlorine, chloramines, and
other chemicals that could damage the reverse osmosis membrane. This stage typical ly
involves the use of activated carbon filters and sometimes other specialized filters.
3. Reverse Osmosis Membrane: The pre -treated water then enters the reverse
osmosis membrane, which is the heart of the system. The membrane is semi -permeable
and allows water molecules to pass through while blocking impurities and contaminants.
This process effectively removes dissolved solids, minerals, bacteria, viruses, and other
pollutants from the water.
4. Product Water: The purified water that has passed through the reverse osmosis
membrane is known as product water. It is collected and stored in a separate chamber,
ready for use. This water is typically of high quality and suitable for consumption,
cooking, and other applications.
5. Reject Water: Along with the product water, a certain amount of water is also
rejected and flushed out of the system. This reject water, also known as brine or
concentrate, contains the impurities and contaminants that were removed during the
reverse osmosis process. It is important t o properly dispose of this water to prevent any
environmental pollution.
Understanding the reverse osmosis water flow process is crucial for maintaining and
troubleshooting the system. Regular maintenance and cleaning of the filters and
membranes are essential to ensure optimal performance and longevity of the system.

What Is Reverse Osmosis?

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification process that uses a partially permeable
membrane to remove ions, molecules, and larger particles from drinking water. It is a
highly effective method for producing clean, purified water that is free from
contaminants. The process involves pressurizing the water and forcing it through the
membrane, which acts as a selective barrier that allows water molecules to pass
through while blocking the passage of impurities.
Reverse osmosis is widely used in both residential and commercial settings, including
homes, offices, and industrial facilities. It can effectively remove a wide range of
contaminants, including bacteria, viruses, heavy metals, salts, nitrates, and organic
compounds. This makes it an ideal solution for purifying drinking water and ensuring its
safety for consumption.
The reverse osmosis process typically involves multiple stages, including pre -filters to
remove sediments and chlorine, a membrane to remove dissolved solids, and post -
filters to enhance taste and remove any remaining impurities. The result is clean, great -
tasting water that meets the highest standards of purity.

Importance Of A Reverse Osmosis Water Flow Diagram

A reverse osmosis water flow diagram is an essential tool in understanding the process
and operation of a reverse osmosis system. It visually represents the flow of water
through the system, detailing each stage and component involved in the pur ification
process. This diagram serves as a valuable reference for technicians, operators, and
maintenance personnel, helping them troubleshoot issues, perform routine
maintenance, and ensure the system is operating optimally.
Visualizing the flow: One of the primary advantages of a reverse osmosis water flow
diagram is that it provides a clear visual representation of how water moves through the
system. This visual aid allows operators to easily identify any deviations or blockages in
the flow, enabling them to take immediate corrective action. By understanding the flow
and ensuring it is unimpeded, the system can maintain its efficiency and performance.
Troubleshooting and maintenance: A reverse osmosis water flow diagram helps in
troubleshooting issues that may arise in the system. If a problem occurs, operators can
refer to the diagram to identify the specific stage or component causing the issue. This
allows for targeted troubleshooting and efficient maintenance, minimizing downtime and
maximizing the lifespan of the system. Regular maintenance, guided by the flow
diagram, helps prevent potential problems and ensures the smooth operation of the
reverse osmosis system.
System optimization: The flow diagram also plays a crucial role in optimizing the
reverse osmosis system. By understanding the flow and identifying each stage and
component, operators can determine if any adjustments or upgrades are necessary to
achieve the desired water quality and production rate. This diagram serves as a
reference point for system modifications and improvements, enabling operators to fine -
tune the system for maximum efficiency and performance.
In conclusion, a reverse osmosis water flow diagram is a valuable tool that aids in
understanding, troubleshooting, maintaining, and optimizing reverse osmosis systems.
Its visual representation allows operators to easily identify issues, perform targeted
maintenance, and make necessary adjustments for optimal performance. Investing time
and effort into creating and utilizing a detaile d flow diagram can greatly benefit the
operation and longevity of reverse osmosis systems.

Why Is A Diagram Necessary?

 A reverse osmosis water flow diagram provides a visual representation of the various
components and processes involved in a reverse osm osis system. This diagram is
necessary for several reasons:
 Understanding the System: A diagram helps in understanding the different stages and
components of a reverse osmosis system. It displays how water flows through the
system and the specific function s of each component.
 Troubleshooting: When issues arise in a reverse osmosis system, a diagram can be a
valuable troubleshooting tool. It allows technicians to pinpoint the location of the
problem and identify the specific component or stage causing the is sue.
 Installation: A diagram is essential during the installation of a reverse osmosis system.
It provides guidance on the correct placement and connections of the various
components, ensuring the system is set up properly and functions efficiently.
Furthermore, a diagram can also serve as a reference tool for maintenance and repair
purposes. It helps in identifying and replacing faulty or worn -out parts, ensuring the
system continues to operate effectively. Additionally, it can aid in training new
technicians or operators by providing a visual representation of the system.

Components Of A Reverse Osmosis System

A reverse osmosis system consists of several key components that work together to
provide clean and purified water. These components include:
 Pre-filters: These are the first line of defense in the filtration process. They remove
larger particles such as sediment, rust, and chlorine from the water, preventing them
from reaching the reverse osmosis membrane.
 Reverse osmosis membrane: This is the heart of the system and is responsible for
removing the majority of impurities from the water. The membrane has extremely tiny
pores that allow only water molecules to pass through, while blocking contaminants
such as chemicals, bacteria, and viruses.
 Post-filters: After the water has passed through the reverse osmosis membrane, it
goes through additional post -filters. These filters are designed to further improve the
taste and quality of the water by removing any residual impurities and odors.
 Storage tank: The purified water is stored in a tank, allowing you to have a ready
supply of clean water whenever you need it. The tank usually has a capacity of several
gallons and is typically made of food -grade material to ensure the water remains safe
for consumption.
 Faucet: A dedicated faucet is installed on your sink to dispense the purified water. This
separate faucet ensures that the purified water does not mix with the regular tap water,
maintaining its purity.
 Flow restrictor: This component helps regulate the flow of water through the system. It
ensures that the water passes through the reverse osmosis membrane at the optimal
rate, allowing for effective filtration.
In addition to these main components, a reverse osmosis system may also include other
features such as a pressure gauge, a shut -off valve, and a drain line. These additional
components help monitor and control the system’s performance, ensuring efficient
operation and maximizing the lifespan of the system.

Pre-Filter
The pre-filter is an essential component in the reverse osmosis water filtration system.
Its primary function is to remove larger particles and impurities from the water before it
enters the reverse osmosis membrane.
The pre-filter acts as the first line of defense, capturing sediment, rust, dirt, sand, and
other debris that may be present in the water. These particles can clog the membrane
or shorten its lifespan if not adequately removed.
Typically, the pre-filter is a sediment filter made of tightly woven material or a porous
membrane. It effectively traps particles as small as 5 microns, ensuring that they do not
pass through to the reverse osmosis membrane.
In some reverse osmosis systems, the pre -filter may also include a carbon filter or
activated carbon component. This additional filtering stage helps to remove chlorine,
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and other chemicals that may affect the taste,
odor, or overall quality of the water.
Regular maintenance and replacement of the pre -filter are crucial for ensuring the
efficiency and longevity of the reverse osmosis system. Depending on the water quality,
the pre-filter may need to be replaced every 6 months to 1 year to maintain optimal
performance.
In summary, the pre-filter is an integral part of the reverse osmosis water flow diagram,
serving to remove larger particles and impurities from the water before it undergoes
further filtration. It helps protect and extend the lifespan of the reverse osmosis
membrane, ensuring clean and purified water for drinking and various applicat ions.

Reverse Osmosis Membrane

The reverse osmosis membrane is the most critical component of a reverse osmosis
water filtration system. It plays a crucial role in the purification process by effectively
separating contaminants from the water. The membra ne is constructed using a thin film
composite (TFC) material that allows only water molecules to pass through while
blocking the passage of dissolved salts, minerals, bacteria, and other impurities. This
selective permeability makes the reverse osmosis mem brane highly efficient in
removing a wide range of contaminants, including heavy metals, chlorine, pesticides,
and pharmaceuticals.
The reverse osmosis membrane operates on the principle of osmosis, which is the
natural process of water molecules moving fr om an area of lower concentration to an
area of higher concentration through a semipermeable membrane. In reverse osmosis,
pressure is applied to the feed water, reversing the direction of water flow and forcing it
through the membrane. As the water molecu les pass through the membrane’s
microscopic pores, most of the contaminants are rejected and flushed away as waste,
while the purified water is collected for use.
The reverse osmosis membrane is designed to provide a high level of filtration
efficiency, typically removing up to 99% of contaminants from the water. However, it is
important to note that the membrane’s performance can be affected by various factors,
including water temperature, pressure, and the concentration of contaminants in the
feed water. Regular maintenance, such as membrane cleaning and replacement, is
necessary to ensure optimal performance and extend the lifespan of the membrane.
To summarize, the reverse osmosis membrane is an integral component of a reverse
osmosis water filtration system, responsible for effectively separating contaminants
from the water. Its selective permeability allows only water molecules to pass through,
while blocking the passage of impurities. By utilizing pressure and the principle of
osmosis, the membrane removes a wide range of contaminants, providing purified water
for various applications. Regular maintenance is essential to maintain the membrane’s
performance and prolong its lifespan.

Electronic Ignition System:

Definition, Parts, Working,
Advantages, Application
What is Electronic Ignition System?
In an internal combustion engine, the electronic ignition system is used to ignite air-fuel.
Basically, this provides heat in form of spark for ignition. This system works inside the
engine for creating a spark in the spark plug.

Why do we need an Electronic ignition system?

There are already three different types of ignition systems are Battery Ignition System, Glow
plug ignition system, and Magneto Ignition System.
It is because there are certain limitations in all the given ignition system for example, If we are
talking about the Glow plug ignition system then this system electrode was used because that
combustion was uncontrolled.

Because of that, the exhaust emission rate was very high and there was also some limitation in
the battery and then magneto ignition system which is replaced by other system and the best
one was the electronic ignition system. This provides high performance, better mileage, and
reliability to this system.
 By replacing all the other ignition system, an electronic ignition system is introduced in the
market and it replaced all other.

When we are talking about the magneto ignition system, the electrode is replaced by a spark
because that emission rate decreases but the magneto system depends upon the speed of the
vehicle, and vehicle speed can never be constant on road because of traffic and many other
situations, which is not fulfilling the need.

That’s why the battery ignition system is introduced. Even today in most of vehicles, a battery
ignition system is used because it has high accuracy and high efficiency.

But there are certain limitations with the high-speed engine as it is less efficient, because of that
the electronic ignition system is introduced which fulfills all the requirements for an efficient
engine.

Now moving to construction,

Parts or Construction of Electronic Ignition

System:
Electronic Ignition System consists of following main Parts:
 Battery
 Ignition Switch
 Electronic control module
 Ignition coil
 Ignition distributor and
 Spark plug

Battery:
It works as a powerhouse of the whole system and the energy which is necessary for the
working of the whole system is provided by the battery.

A lead-acid battery is used in this system to provide electrical energy. This battery is
rechargeable and it gets recharged through the dynamo through the engine.

Ignition switch:
This is the main switch of the whole system. You can on/off with this switch. The negative side is
grounded and the positive side is connected to the primary winding of the coil.

Electronic control module:

A control module is the brain of an electronic ignition system. All the instructions are already
programmed in this module and it also controls or monitors the timing and intensity of the spark.

This is one of the important parts of the whole system. The whole system is controlled by an
electronic control module.

Armature:
This consists of reluctor which is the rotating part of the armature which consists of the tooth. To
make or break the circuit armature takes a regular supply of voltage through the electronic
control module.

When the armature tooth comes in contact with the pickup coil, voltage is generated and it stops
the flow of current from the primary circuit.

Ignition coil:
It consists of the primary winding and the secondary winding. This produces high voltage for the
spark plug. The coil is having a soft iron core.

Both the end of the primary winding is connected with exterior terminals. The primary winding is
having 200-300 turns but the secondary is consists of 21000 turns and another end is connected
with high tension wire.

Ignition distributor:
Distributor helps to distribute current for spark plug when there is the use of multi-cylinder or
more that one then sparks plug is used. It consists of the metallic electrode on the periphery and
the rotor in the middle of it.

The metallic electrodes are connected with spark plugs also known as ignition harness. The
rotor is connected with the secondary winding, which is driven by the camshaft.

When the rotor starts rotating, it passes high tension current to the ignition harness which is
carried by high tension currents with spark plugs.
Spark plug:
The plug emits sparks for the Ignition of fuel. It has two wires first one is connected with a high-
tension current-carrying wire and the other one is grounded, because of the potential difference
it creates sparks and combustion takes place.

Electronic Ignition System Working Principle:

When the driver inserts the key into his car for switching on the ignition switch, just after that
battery starts and it supplies current to the system.

Current passes through the ignition switch and move toward the ignition coil on the system then,
start passing through the primary winding of the coil.

As the current passes through the primary coil, the pick-up coil got activated which is in the
armature. It receives current as a voltage on the pick-up. Just after receiving voltage, the reluctor
starts rotating which consists of the tooth.

When the tooth comes in front of the pick-up coil exactly at the same time the pick-up coil starts
sending a signal to the electronic control module.

After receiving a voltage signal, it stops the current supply from the battery up to the primary coil.
When the tooth deviates from the point, it senses the change in voltage, and then again it sends
a signal of change in voltage to the electronic control module.

We all know that the electronic control system is already a programmed system, so exactly after
sending a signal of change in voltage it again starts supplying the current in the primary winding.

Because of this continuous make and break of the current circuit, it creates a magnetic field
inside the ignition coil because of that, the secondary winding emf is induced.

This emf increases voltage up to 50000 V. The voltage is supplied to the distributor.

It consists of a rotating rotor and distributor points, which is programmed as per the ignition.
When there is a jump of voltage between the air gap of the rotator and the distributor of high
voltage, after that it reaches to spark plug through high tension wire.

Spark is generated because of the voltage difference between the central electrode and the
ground electrode because the combustion is possible in air-fuel.
 Application of Electronic Ignition System:
The electronic ignition system has a lot of applications in the 21st century.

 It is mostly used in modern and hypercars.

 It is mostly used in Audi, Mahindra XUV, KTM bikes, Ducati, and many more.

 It is also used in aircraft engines.

Advantages of Electronic Ignition System:

The following advantages of Electronic Ignition System includes:
 These are low maintenance systems as compared to others like Battery Ignition System, Glow plug ignition
system, and Magneto Ignition System.

 It has no moving parts because it is controlled by the electronic control unit(ECV).

 Emission is less as compared to other means because this system is environmentally friendly.

 It increases the efficiency of the engine and also it is fuel-efficient.

 It is more accurate as compared to the magneto system.

 The vehicles having this system have a long life and also reliable.

Disadvantages of Electronic Ignition System:

The main disadvantage of electronic Ignition is that this system is very expensive because all
cannot afford the vehicles having an electronic ignition system.
How Does A Photocopier Work?
A photocopier relies on the principles of electricity and photoconductivity.
There is a light-sensitive photoreceptor inside the machine that first attracts
and then transfers toner particles onto plain paper to form a copy of a
document.

Origins Of The Photocopier

In the pre-photocopier days, duplicate copies of a document were usually
made at the source, either by using carbon paper or manual duplicating
machines. People were happy with how things worked, and no one really
thought that a photocopier could ever exist. However, Chester Carlson, the
man who invented the photocopier, had different plans for the world.

He was actually a patent attorney, and only a part-time inventor. His work at
the New York Patent Office required him to make multiple copies of important
documents, which he not only found extremely tedious and boring, but also
discomforting, as he suffered from arthritis.

He conducted experiments of photoconductivity in his own kitchen, made the

first crude design of a copier, and applied for a patent in 1938. He then
approached numerous companies, including General Electric and IBM, all of
which turned him down, citing that since there were already a few methods
available to make duplicate copies of documents, no one would be interested
in buying a copier.

However, Carlson contracted with a non-profit organization called the Battelle

Memorial Institute to further his research and refine the technology. After
some time, a New York-based seller of photographic paper obtained a
license to produce and market a copying machine; subsequently, in 1949,
the first xerographic copier called the Model A was launched.

Photocopier Working Principle

A photocopier works on two fundamental principles: the fact that opposite
charges attract and the tendency of certain materials to become more
electrically conductive after absorbing electromagnetic radiation, such as UV,
infrared, visible light etc. (photoconductivity).

Most modern photocopiers rely on a technology known as xerography, which

is essentially a dry photocopying technique. It involves using electrically-
charged particles to attract and then deposit toner particles onto a piece of
paper.

Parts Of A Photocopier
A typical photocopier (also casually known as a ‘xerox machine’) consists of
the following components:

A photoreceptor drum (or belt), which is covered by a layer of a

semiconductor material, such as selenium, silicon or germanium. This is
arguably the most critical part of the machine.

A toner, which is basically just pigmented liquid. Sometimes referred to as

‘dry ink’, a toner is a dry mixture of fine, negatively-charged plastic particles
and coloring agents that create the duplicate image on a piece of paper.

Corona wires, which when subjected to a high voltage, transfer a field of

positive charge to the surface of the photoreceptor drum and the copy paper.

A light source and a few lenses, which shine a bright beam of light on the
original document and focus a copy of the image onto a specific place,
respectively.

A fuser can be considered the ‘final’ main component of a photocopier, as a fuser unit melts and presses
the toner image onto the copy paper and imparts the final touches to the duplicate image just before it’s
ejected from the machine.

How Does A Photocopier Work?

To begin the photocopying process, the top lid of the photocopier is opened
and the master copy is placed face-down on the glass surface, where a
bright light beam will scan the entire document. White areas on the paper
reflect more light, while black areas reflect little or no light. An electrical
shadow (or image) of the master copy is formed on the photoconductor.
As the conveyor belt (with the photoconductor coating) moves, it takes the
electrical shadow along with it too. The negatively-charged toner particles
stick to the electrical shadow and an inked impression of the master copy is
made on the conveyor belt.

A blank piece of paper is fed into the photocopier from the other side, which
slowly moves towards the photoconductor belt. As it moves on the conveyor
belt, a strong positive charge is imparted to it. The strong positive charge of
the blank paper pulls the negatively-charged toner particles towards itself.
Consequently, a duplicate image of the master copy is formed on the blank
paper.

Finally, just before spitting the paper out, a fuser unit (a pair of hot rollers)
supply heat and pressure so the toner particles are permanently
attached/fused onto the paper. This is why a freshly ejected duplicate copy is
quite warm to the touch.
How Does a Washing
Machine Work: All Types
 Washing machines clean clothes using agitators, impellers, or rotating drums,
depending on the type of machine (top load or front load).
 Front load washers are gentler on clothes, using gravity and rotational forces
to clean them, while top load washers use agitators or pulsators to create
friction.
 High-efficiency washers save water, energy, and detergent compared to
regular washing machines, and come in both top and front-load varieties.
 Washing machines can have extra features such as silent mode, quick wash,
eco-friendly mode, time delay, various wash cycles, self-cleaning, ability to add
clothes during a wash, and built-in Wi-Fi.
Construction of a Washing Machine
To understand how a washing machine works, it’s important to get to grips with the
main elements. We’ll break down the three main parts: inside the washer, the controls,
and the machine’s plumbing system.

Inside the Washer

Have you ever looked at your washing machine and wondered, “What is actually
going on in there?”

Well, the answer differs for front and top load machines. Let’s start with front load
washers.

You don’t have agitators or pulsators in front loading machines. Instead, the drum
spins. It uses gravity and rotational forces to move clothes through the soapy water
inside the machine. Not only is this more gentle on your clothes, but this is also how it
cleans them.

The drum moves back and forth, swishing the clothes around. They rub against each
other and the drum itself to scrub out stains and dirt. After the cycle, the water is
sucked away through a pump and emptied through a drain.
Top-loaders use agitators or pulsators. During the cycle, the agitator turns around,
moving your clothes through the soapy water, but the drum doesn’t move. The
agitator moves your clothes, so they scrub clean, either against the agitator, the other
clothes, or the drum.

This movement creates friction, which is effective for cleaning but causes more wear
and tear on your clothes over time.

Controls

When you put your clothes in the machine, you have the option to choose the cycle.
On the control panel, you’ll find a range of different options. For instance, some
appliances let you choose a cycle based on the type of clothes: cotton, synthetics, or
wool. Other appliances give you the option to change the settings based on spin
speeds and temperatures.

These controls work like a computer. The central processing unit sends a message to
the machine based on your chosen settings. This tells the machine what to do based
on your decision, ensuring that the appliance uses the preferred temperature and
speeds.

This works by the controls signaling the motor. It tells it which hot and cold water
amounts to supply during the cycles. For instance, if you select cold, only the cold
water valve will open.

When you choose a speed setting, the plastic rocker in the machine engages two sets
of contacts. This either opens or closes the circuits connected to those contacts.

Plumbing

The plumbing of a laundry machine determines a few things:

1. The correct water temperature.

2. During a wash cycle, the plumbing recirculates water from the bottom of the tub
to the top.

3. It pumps water into a drain during the spin cycle.

Most appliances have two water lines coming from the back: one for hot water, one
for cold.

Before the water comes into the appliance, it is sent through an anti-siphon device
which prevents dirty water from going back into the water supply lines.

Your machine also has an overflow port which prevents the machine from flooding
and ruining your motor.

How Does a Washing Machine Work?

Let’s get into more depth and detail about the functions of a washing machine’s
operation. We’ll go through different types of top loaders as well as front load
washers, high-efficiency washers, automatic washers, and semi-automatic washers.

Top Load Washers

There are two types of top load washers: impeller washers and agitator washers.

You’ll find a control system and a mechanical system in both appliances. The control
system includes the timer, temperature selector, load size selector, control boards,
and lid locking switch. The mechanism system includes the pumps, water valve,
transmission, clutch, wash tubs, suspension system, and a motor coupling.

Both fill with water which submerges the clothes. However, the difference is how the
impeller or agitator washes the clothes.

With Impellers

An impeller is a shallow cone or disc that sits on the drum floor and works a bit more
like front load washers do. The drum rotates around a horizontal axis and is more
water-efficient. The machine will spin, using less water and detergent.

The impeller spins or rotates in place, which rubs clothes against each other. This
friction works to clean the clothes. The impellers also have a spraying mechanism that
adds fresh water to the clothes during the wash and rinse cycle.
With Agitators

Agitators are more common than impellers in top loading machines. It’s a central
pillar in a machine that moves clothes around the water. This continues throughout
the cycle to mix the detergent through the water and against the clothes. It also
encourages the clothes to rub against one another in order to scrub out dirt and
stains.

Some models use a two-part agitator. The top part of the agitator moves in one
direction, which sends the laundry to the bottom of the tub. The lower part of the
agitator then moves the laundry back up.

Like impellers, many agitators have a spraying action that tops up the cycle with fresh
water. While agitators are very effective at cleaning clothes, they’re not very gentle
and are more likely to damage fabrics.

Front Load Washers

Front load washers typically have six stages: filling, dispensing, washing, draining,
rinsing, and finally, spinning.

Once you select the load type and temperature, the machine typically senses the load
size to determine how much water to use. Once you shut the door and begin the
cycle, the machine fills with water.

When the machine has filled with an adequate amount of water, the machine stops
filling with water before dispensing the detergent and fabric softener during the
proper stage of the cycle.

The machine carries on with its wash cycle. A front load washer cleans your clothes by
rotating the drum in both directions. Some models use a drive motor, belt, and pulley
to rotate the tub. The drum tumbles the clothes in one direction, pauses, then
tumbles in the other direction.

This movement submerges and plunges the clothes into the water and detergent.

After the wash cycle, the machine pumps the water out of the drain hose into a pipe.
The rinse cycle works similarly to the wash cycle. This is when the fabric softener is
dispensed into your cycle. The water drains again.

Then the machine spins. This is much faster than the wash cycle to remove all excess
water from your clothes, so they aren’t dripping wet when the entire cycle is over. This
reduces drying time.

High-Efficiency Washers

High-efficiency washing machines clean your clothes wonderfully while using less
water, energy, and detergent than regular washing machines. You can find both top
and front-load HE washers.

Since these machines use less water, you need a specialized HE detergent that
produces less suds.

Once the lid locks, it senses the load size. The machine might spin for a few minutes
without any water. This is so that the machine can determine the load size, an
unbalanced load, and possibly even the fabric type.

Once the washer has determined the load type, it will fill with water before pausing to
let the water soak the clothes. You’ll notice the machine spins and pauses a few times
before the wash cycle commences.

The low water levels then clean the clothes. The wash plate or drum moves the
clothes against each other to agitate dirt and stains. The clothes move all around the
drum to ensure that they don’t remain static in one part of the drum. The machine will
stop and start, pausing now and then. This continues throughout the wash cycle.

The water then drains from the drum before rinsing the clothes. The machine then
spins fast to drain excess water from the clothes. When the machine is done, the door
automatically unlocks.

Besides these differences, the operation is similar to that of the top or front-load
machines. They are just more efficient, but they will use an agitator or tumbling effect
depending on the type of washing machine you have.
Automatic Vs. Semi-Automatic

Both automatic and semi-automatic machines wash, rinse and dry your clothes.

It’s not a surprise that automatic machines do more of the work for you. A
programmer tells each part of the washing machine what to do and for how long. It
combines water and detergent and even dries your clothes after the cycle. You’ll find
both top and front-load automatic washing machines.

Semi-automatic laundry machines, also known as twin tub machines, have two side-
by-side tubs. One wash and one dries.

You need to put the water and laundry detergent into the machine yourself. After the
cycle, you also need to transfer the wet clothes to the dryer tub. It’s a simpler
appliance, and they are also cheaper than automatic machines.

Additional Washing Machine Features

Many washing machines include extra features besides washing, rinsing, and spinning
your clothes. These features can make your washing experience easier and more
effective. Let’s look at a few extra features and programs that you might find on a
washing machine.

 Silent mode: Some brands, such as Grundig and LG, have a silent mode feature.
This skips the spin cycle and ends the entire cycle before the final rinse. It then
automatically resumes a few hours later so that the machine is extremely quiet
while you’re nearby. Other brands have a lower spin speed, maxing at 1000 RPM
so that the machine doesn’t make as much noise.
 Quick wash: Many washing machines have a quick wash cycle that cleans clothes
in as little as 15 minutes. This works by spinning the clothes faster so that they
wash and dry faster. Keep in mind that this is only for freshening up lightly soiled
clothes. You should also fill it about halfway. It’s not for frequent large loads of
laundry or laundry that is very dirty.
 Eco-friendly mode: Eco mode on your machine is usually an excellent choice for
daily laundry. It is the most energy and water-efficient option. It uses low
temperatures, less water, and less energy to wash your clothes adequately.
 Time delay: If you want your machine to go off at a specific time — for instance,
to avoid being on when guests are round, or to start at five in the morning, so
your wet clothes aren’t sitting in the machine all night — look for one with a time
delay option.
 Various wash cycles: We like washing machines with a range of wash cycles. For
instance, a hand wash or gentle cycle is a must-have. You’ll likely be washing
delicate clothes such as lingerie, wool, or embroidered items. It’s vital that your
washing machine can handle these garments as well as regular cotton or linen
clothes.
 Self-cleaning: Many modern appliances have a self-cleaning option. You often
don’t need to add any cleaning products (although we love to add one cup of
distilled white vinegar). The machine will then perform a drum cleaning cycle for
you.
 Add clothes during a wash: If you forget garments often, you will benefit from a
machine that lets you add items during the wash cycle. Many old-fashioned top-
loaders already let you do this. But front-load washers don’t allow this since the
door locks. But new models often contain a miniature door that you can open
and add a garment through.
 Built-in Wi-Fi: If you want to control your machine from anywhere, then look for
one with built-in Wi-Fi. This is handy if you have put clothes in the machine but
forgot to start it. Many apps also help you choose the cycle settings. For instance,
you can tap all the items in the drum (t-shirts, underwear, and socks, for
example), and it will choose the exact settings on which to wash them.
How the microwave works – the
principle of operation of the
microwave and magnetron
A microwave oven, commonly known as a microwave, is a highly convenient kitchen appliance
that greatly simplifies everyday life. With this handy device at your disposal, you no longer need
to spend extended periods of time in the kitchen, waiting for your food to heat up. The
microwave oven, also referred to as a microwave, is designed to rapidly cook or reheat food, as
well as defrost frozen items. Unlike a traditional oven, which primarily heats food from the
surface, a microwave evenly distributes heat throughout the entire volume of the dish.

Microwaves, which can deeply penetrate almost any type of food, are able to significantly
decrease the amount of time required for heating. In this article, we will discuss the operational
principles and the design of this essential kitchen appliance.

The principle of operation of the microwave

oven
In order to address this issue, you will require some preliminary information. The majority of food
items typically contain the following components: salts, fats, sugar, and water. For microwaves
to effectively function and heat up food, there needs to be presence of dipole molecules within
the products.

These molecules have a positive electric charge on one side and a negative charge on the
other. While there are sufficient amounts of these molecules in food such as fats and sugar, the
primary dipole molecule is water.

When it comes to vegetables, meat, fruits, and fish, these contain a significant number of dipole
molecules, with quantities reaching up to millions. In the absence of an electric field, these
molecules arrange themselves in a random fashion.

Microwaves in microwave ovens have a frequency of 2450 MHz. When an electromagnetic field
is present, they align themselves in opposite directions: the "plus" points in one way, while the
"minus" points in the other. As the field switches its polarity, the molecules rotate by 180
degrees.

In microwave ovens, microwaves operate at a frequency of 2450 MHz. One hertz refers to one
oscillation per second, and a megahertz equates to a million vibrations. The polarity changes
twice in each wave period.
When exposed to microwave radiation, the molecules in food start rotating more frequently,
effectively rubbing against each other. This friction releases heat, which is responsible for
heating the food.

The heating process in microwaves can be likened to how the palms of your hands warm up
when you rub them together. The microwaves only affect the surface layer of the food and do
not penetrate any deeper than 1-3 cm.

However, the heat extends even further when considering the principles of heat conduction.
Therefore, it is recommended to use medium power when heating a large piece of meat in the
microwave. Although it will take longer, this method will result in better overall warming as the
heat is able to penetrate deeper into the meat from the outer layers.

This same technique applies to soups as well. By periodically taking them out of the oven and
stirring, it helps the heat to evenly distribute and penetrate inside the soup.

Newer models of microwaves may offer a "Dual Radiation" function, which utilizes two separate
sources of radiation. This division allows for more even heating of the food and increases the
overall efficiency of the microwave oven.

Schematic diagram of a microwave oven

An exemplary representation will provide a blueprint of the Samsung RE290D microwave oven.
The schematic diagram will aid in comprehending the functioning of ovens produced by any
manufacturer. They may vary, barring certain alterations. The visual depiction of the circuit is
accessible in the accompanying photograph.
The plug’s ground contact is connected to the body in the left part, while the connection from the
middle point of the capacitor decoupling filter helps reduce interference from high-frequency
radiation.

Located in the power supply input area is a soft type fuse called FU1. To check its condition, you
can use electrical methods such as testing the circuit with a multimeter set to ohmmeter mode.

There is also a second fuse that serves to protect the microwave from emergency operation,
particularly if the door microswitches are defective.

In order for the magnetron, the radiation source, to start functioning, the door fault contacts must
be open, while all other contacts must be closed. If any of these contacts become disconnected,
the supply voltage to the high-voltage transformer is cut off.

The connection between the timer and cooling fan motors is provided by the safety relay contact.
If the Monitor Fuse blows, it results in the failure of the relay winding.

The timer houses the switch responsible for power selection. Following algorithms, the switch
removes voltage from the magnetron circuitry.

Resistor R1 is used to temporarily reduce the inrush current of the transformer. For this purpose,
a properly functioning Inrush Relay contact is required.

The Inrush Relay contact has the task of limiting the impulse caused by the discharge of the
capacitor, which can accumulate charge before it is turned on. This ensures a smooth startup of
the microwave oven.

For those familiar with it, the power circuitry of this Samsung oven is straightforward. The main
variations in microwave ovens come from their electronic units, which have different designs and
functionalities.

Microwave oven design

In the microwave oven, there are numerous essential components, hence it is worthwhile to
acquaint oneself with their functions. The internal configuration comprises a metal cavity
responsible for heating the food, along with a door that safeguards against radiation leakage.

In order to ensure even heating of the food, the cavity is equipped with a rotating turntable which
operates via a motor. However, there are other critical elements present as well.

Control unit
Microwave control unit
 The control panel options for the microwave include:

 mechanical controls
 electronic controls
The control unit is responsible for maintaining the preset power levels and will automatically turn
off the device after a predetermined amount of time.

Within the electronic control unit, there is a microcomputer that has a wide range of capabilities.
This allows it to be used for other purposes during the manufacturing of ovens. For example, it
can be programmed to display the time or play short melodies to signal the end of the cooking
cycle.

The control unit is the component of the microwave that the user directly interacts with. It
includes buttons, mechanical switches, and regulators that are used to set the operating
parameters. These controls allow the user to adjust the power, select the mode, and choose
specific programs.

Increasingly, we are seeing a rise in the use of touch panels as control units. They function in a
similar way to traditional mechanical buttons but offer a higher level of reliability. Furthermore,
these advanced systems allow for programming capabilities, enabling the adjustment of power
and duration of radiation output.

Microwave radiation generation unit

This is the "core" of the microwave oven. The component resembles a vacuum tube, similar to
those found in older cathode ray tube TVs.

Its primary function is to produce a strong electromagnetic wave at a high frequency. As

electrons pass through a magnetic field, a wave is generated, with the length of the wave
varying.

The generation unit consists of multiple microwave sources. To allow the waves to enter the
cooking area of the oven, waveguides are present within the oven. These waveguides are
situated behind a mica plate, which is hidden behind one of the side walls.

Primary and secondary protection systems

The control sensors are responsible for monitoring the proper functioning of essential electronic
and hardware components, ensuring they are not in an emergency state. Their primary role is to
promote the seamless operation of the microwave oven, while also serving as a safeguard
against potentially hazardous malfunctions.

The control sensor

 To ensure the safety of individuals from microwave exposure, microwave ovens are equipped
with a locking mechanism comprised of multiple switches:

 The Primary Switch;

 The Secondary Switch;
 The Door Switch;
 The Monitor Switch.
Operation of the microwave generating unit will only commence when the contacts of the
primary and secondary switches are closed (i.e., when the door is closed).

The purpose of the door switch is to prevent the activation of the power control relay. It is
primarily found in appliances with an electronic control unit.

Microwave functions
Microwave heating is a technique commonly used by people to heat food. However, this method
has the potential to do much more. With the assistance of a microwave, you can also cook
kebabs, grilled chicken, bake potatoes, and more.

One thing to keep in mind is that the "grill" mode requires a power of 1500 watts, which means
the oven will consume a significant amount of electricity. Additionally, the magnetron, which
generates the radiation, has a limited lifespan.

Therefore, using the microwave less frequently can help prolong its lifespan. Currently, it is
uncommon for individuals to completely replace traditional stoves with microwaves.

Here is a list of functions available in microwave ovens and their respective purposes:

 Movable grill: This feature allows the user to adjust the angle of inclination. Those who enjoy grilled
chicken often choose ovens with this capability;
 Convection. Heating food with the use of hot air. Manufacturers claim that this feature is specifically
designed for baking. However, it comes with a high price tag as models with this function are typically
expensive, heavy, and bulky. This is due to the presence of a large fan at the back of the appliance that
blows the hot air;
 Bio-coating. Also referred to as ceramic coating, although different names are used by manufacturers.
The advantages of this type of coating include its resistance, durability, and biological inertness
(preventing bacteria from multiplying inside the microwave, even with infrequent washing). The more
expensive the microwave model, the more advanced the coating technology used in it.
 Defrosting. The oven operates at the lowest required power level for thawing food.
 Intellowave. This system ensures even heating of food, such as a large piece of meat. Built-in sensors
monitor specific parts of the food, determine surface temperature, and adjust the power accordingly.
 Steam supply. An additional feature that prevents food from drying out during the cooking process.
 Cooking chamber ventilation. Useful for preventing the absorption of residual odors by a new dish.
These are the primary functionalities, but there is a constant addition of new ones.

What is a magnetron
The microwave’s magnetron is a component that produces high-frequency radiation inside the
working chamber. This radiation interacts with the molecules in the food, causing it to heat up.
This eliminates the need for external heat sources.

As a result, microwaves typically do not exceed a temperature of +100 degrees Celsius. The
magnetron is a crucial component that may occasionally malfunction. In such cases, it can be
replaced with a new one, but it must be compatible in terms of power, frequency, and terminal
location.

Principle of operation of the magnetron

The microwave magnetron can be likened to an electrovacuum diode, operating based on the
principle of thermoelectron emission. This occurs when the surface of the cathode or emitter is
heated, causing the active electrons to be expelled. However, to facilitate this process, a voltage
is applied to the anode.

As a result of the generated electric field, the electrodes are set in motion, following the force
lines towards the anode. When an electron enters the area of the magnetic field, its trajectory is
altered.

The shape of the magnetron’s anode is cylindrical and contains cavities. Inside, there is a
cathode with a filament. Positioned at the edges of the anode are ring magnets, which create a
magnetic field. Consequently, electrons cannot move directly from the cathode to the anode due
to the presence of these magnets.

Their trajectory becomes disrupted and they initiate a circular motion around the cathode.
Resonators receive a portion of their own energy from electrons that pass by
(interchangeability). Consequently, a robust and high-frequency field is generated within the
cavity and is conducted outside via a wire loop.

The magnetron becomes operational when a high voltage of 3000 – 4000 V is applied to the
anode. As a result, it is necessary to connect the magnetron to the household electrical system
through a high-voltage transformer.

Magnetron device
The magnetron is an element that is responsible for generating high-frequency oscillations.
There are other devices that operate on a similar principle, such as klystrons and platinotrons,
but they have not achieved widespread use.
 In 1960, microwave ovens started utilizing the magnetron for the first time. Nowadays, a
multiresonator element is utilized instead. Here are the various components and their
descriptions:

 Anode. This is a copper cylinder comprised of multiple sectors. It features resonator cavities that
generate a circular system of oscillations.
 Cathode. Positioned in the center of the magnetron, this cylinder houses a filament responsible for
electron emission.
 Ring magnets. These magnets are positioned at the ends of the oven and create a magnetic field that is
parallel to the magnetron. This causes the electrons to move in the same direction.
 Wire loop. Found in the resonator, this loop is connected to the cathode and leads to the emitter antenna.
Its purpose is to direct high frequency radiation into the waveguide, which then enters the microwave’s
working chamber.
Due to their straightforward construction, magnetrons find applications not only in microwave
ovens, but also in radar systems.

Magnetron connection
The inclusion method consists of rectifying high voltage in a single half-period. The output of the
transformer operates by short-circuiting the output winding, with a duration not exceeding 5
minutes.

It doesn’t make sense to carry a damaged magnetron for repair – even well-equipped workshops
don’t do this. That’s why a new part needs to be purchased.

When removing the magnetron from the microwave, make sure to mark the connector pins to
avoid confusion during reinstallation. If the pins are connected incorrectly, the magnetron won’t
function properly.

Anyone who has some basic knowledge of using a screwdriver and wiring diodes can handle the
replacement process. You won’t need to understand the operation, design, or efficiency of the
element. It’s not always possible to find an exact replacement for the magnetron.

However, a similar part will suffice. Make sure the power is the same or higher, and that the
mounting and connector match.

No matter which company produces them, all magnetrons are essentially the same device, with
only the design varying. Therefore, it is important to ensure a tight fit between the analog and the
waveguide when replacing this part.
AIR CONDITIONER
Air conditioning – Introduction
Air conditioning is not a process of only heating or cooling to some desired temperature. Air
conditioning is dealing with conditioning or controlling the air. The complete process of air
conditioning includes the following processes.

1. Cooling or heating air

2. Addition of moisture in the air (Humidification) or removal of moisture from the air
(Dehumidification)
3. Controlling movement of air
4. Purification of air
5. Addition of fresh air from outside
6. Distribution of air

Air Conditioning Definition :

Air conditioning may be defined as simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, motion, and
purity of air within an enclosed space.

OR

It may also be defined as the science which deals with supply and maintaining desirable internal
atmospheric condition irrespective of external condition

Principle of air conditioning

In the air conditioning system, the device or unit provides air conditioning is called an air
conditioner. This device continuously draws air from an indoor space which is required to cool, it
cools in the refrigeration system and discharges back into the same indoor space. This
continuous cyclic process of drawing, cooling, and recirculation of the cooled air maintains
indoor space cool at the required lower temperature which is required for comfort cooling.

Components of the air conditioning system

The basic components of the air conditioning system are,
1. Fans: For circulation of air
2. Filters: For cleaning air
3. Heating element: Heating of air (It may be an electric heater, steam, hot water)
4. Control system: It regulates automatically the amount of cooling or heating.
5. Grille: It adjusts the direction of conditioned air to the room.
6. Tray: It collects condensed water
Classification of Air conditioning system / Types Of
Air Conditioning System :
1. According to the arrangement of equipment
a. Unitary Air Conditioning System

In this system different component of air conditioning system is manufactured and assembled as
a unit in a factory. This unit is installed in or near to space to be conditioned.
Example: Window air conditioner and Split air conditioner

b. Central Air Conditioning System

In this system different components are manufactured in a factory and assembled at the site.
This type of system is used for conditioning of air in theatres, cinemas, restaurants, exhibition
halls, big factory space, etc.

In the central air conditioning system all the components are group together in one central room
and conditioned air then distributed from the central room to the required places through the
extension duct system. The main components of the central system are compressor with motor
drive, condenser with cooling coil, throttling devices. This system used large capacity units.
(above 25 tons).
The central air conditioning either direct or indirect type.

2. According to the purpose

a. Comfort air conditioning system
b. Industrial air conditioning system

3. According to the season of the year

a. Winter air conditioning system
b. Summer air conditioning system
c.Year-Round Air Conditioning System

4. According to Working substance used in the system:

a. All Air system.
b. Chilled water system
c. Air-water system

Year-Round Air Conditioning System

The arrangement of the year-round air conditioning system is as shown in fig. The amount of
outdoor fresh air and recirculated air is controlled by the motor. The air conditioner designed
such that when the outdoor air temperature is either above or below a certain selected value, it
assumes the season as summer or winter respectively.
In the summer season, bypass damper is almost closed and most of the air passes through the
cooling coil. The cooling coil may be evaporator of the refrigeration system or coil through which
chilled water is passed. All air is passed through the heating coil. In the winter season, bypass
damper is in an almost open position. Most of the air is directly passed to the heating coil
bypassing the cooling coil.

year around air conditioning system diagram

Winter air conditioning System

In winter air conditioning, the air is heated which is generally followed by humidification. The
schematic arrangement of the system is shown in Fig. The outside air flows through a damper
and mixes up with the re-circulated air (which is obtained from the conditioned space). The
mixed air passes through a filter to remove dirt, dust, and other impurities. The air now passes
through a preheat coil in order to prevent the possible freezing of water and to control the
evaporation of water in the humidifier. After that, the air is made to pass through a reheat coil
to bring the air to the designed dry bulb temperature. Now, the conditioned air is supplied to
the conditioned space by a fan. From the conditioned space, a part of the used air is exhausted
to the atmosphere by the exhaust fans or ventilators. The remaining part of the used air (Known
as re-circulated air) is again conditioned as shown in Fig. The outside air is sucked and made to
mix with re-circulated air, in order to make up for the loss of conditioned (or used) air through
exhaust fans or ventilation from the conditioned space.

winter air
conditioning system diagram

Summer Air conditioning System

This system is used in summer air conditioning applications. In this system air is cooled and
generally dehumidified. The schematic diagram is shown in figure. The outside air flows through
the damper and mixes up with recirculated air .which is obtained from air-conditioned space.
The mixed air passes through a filter to remove dirt, dust, and other impurities. The air now
passes through the cooling coil. The coil has a temperature much less than the required dry
bulb temperature of the air in the conditioned space. The cooled air passes through a perforated
membrane and loses its moisture in the condensed form which is collected in a sump. Air now
passes through a heating coil which heats up
the air slightly, in order to bring air to requisite DBT and relative humidity. Now conditioned air
passes to conditioned space by a fan. From the conditioned space the part of air is exhausted to
atmosphere by exhaust fans or ventilators. The remaining part of the used air or recirculated air
is again conditioned as shown in the figure. The outside air is sucked and made to mix with
recirculated air in order to make up for the loss of conditioned or used air through exhaust fans
or ventilators from conditioned space.
 summer air
conditioning system diagram

Room air conditioner

Room air conditioner consists of a casing which is divided into two parts by a vertical partition
i.e. outdoor part and indoor part.
The indoor part fitted into the room which consists of an evaporator, motor-driven fan,
expansion device, and control planet, an air filter, power connection, and tray. The condenser is
connected to the evaporator by a capillary tube through a filter. The evaporator is connected to
the compressor by suction pipeline and the compressor is connected to the condenser by
discharge pipeline.
 Room Air Conditioner
Diagram

Window air conditioner

The window air conditioner mainly used for conditioning of air in the room. Commonly it is
mounted in a window, hence it is known as a window air conditioner.

The window air conditioner unit consists of the following components as shown in fig

Refrigeration unit
Evaporator/cooling coil, condenser, compressor, expansion device Air circulation fan
windows air conditioning diagram

Working

The hot air coming from room is flowing on the evaporator (cooling coil), the cooling coil
absorbs heat from the air. The moisture of air gets removed on the cooling coil surface by the
process of condensation of air. Thus the air is cooled and dehumidified to meet the requirement
of comfort air conditioning in the room. The filter cleans the air coming from the room before
passes through the cooling coil. The tray is provided below the cooling coil (evaporator) to
collect moisture which condenses from the recirculation of air.
The flow of hot air (from the room) and cooled air (to room) is taking place by the evaporator
blower. The refrigerating unit provides a cooling effect at the evaporator. The condenser fan
circulates air on the outside of condenser tubes, the refrigerant in condenser rejects heat to
outside atmospheric air. Necessary fresh air is allowed to mix with the recalculated room air to
meet the ventilation requirement. Ventilation air is controlled by ventilation damper. The room -
temperature is controlled by a thermostat using an on-off power supply to the compressor
motor.

Limitations

 It produces noise in the room because of the compressor is very near to the room.
 The evaporator and condenser are enclosed in a single unit. Therefore evaporator cannot be used as
an interior of room because condenser requires outside air for cooling.
 It requires an appropriate size of window or hole in the wall to fit the conditioner.

Split air conditioner

It is a modification of the window air conditioner.

Construction

This unit differs from the window air conditioner. In terms of splits of the unit into two parts. In
the split air conditioner, the window air conditioner divided (split) into two parts.

First part: Includes the evaporator, filter, evaporator fan, and grille (cooling coil). They placed
inside the room.

Second part: Includes condenser, condenser fan, and compressor. This placed outside the
room.

The first part (inside of the room) and the second part (outside of the room) are connected by
small diameter tubes. Therefore, a small hole required in the wall for the installation of a split air
conditioner.

split air conditioner diagram

The advantages of a split air conditioner over a window air conditioner

 The compressor is outside of the room, therefore no compressor noise in the room.
 No window opening and fixing needed.
 The compressor is outside of the room, therefore no compressor noise in the room.
Automobile air conditioning system.
Air conditioners work on the principle that “liquids absorb heat when they become a vapor
(evaporate). Low-pressure R134a vapor entering the compressor is compressed to become high
pressure/temperature R134a vapor. This is then circulated along with lubricant oil to
the condenser. As the high pressure/temperature vapor travels through the condenser, heat is
released to the cooler ambient air passing over the condenser tubes condensing the vapor into a
liquid. This high pressure/temperature liquid then travels through the filter drier onto the
expansion valve where a small variable orifice provides a restriction against which compressor
pushes.

Suction from the compressor pulls the high pressure/temperature liquid R134a through small
variable orifice of the TX valve and into the low-pressure side of the A/C system. The R134a is
now under low pressure/temperature vapor where heat from the cabin being blown over the
evaporator coil surface is absorbed into the colder low-pressure refrigerant The R134a is then
pulled through the evaporator and into the compressor.

automobile air conditioning diagram

Difference Between Central Air conditioning

and Unitary Air Conditioning :
Sr.
Central Air Conditioning Unitary Air Conditioning
No.

1. Ton capacity is more than 40 Ton of refrigeration Ton capacity is less than 25 Ton of refrigeration

2. Mass flow rate of air handled is around 2000 m3/min The mass flow rate of air handled is less.

3. Central air conditioning is located in the basement or Unitary air conditioning is located in every room
outside the building. which required to be air-conditioned.

4. Central air conditioning is quite in operation as noise- Unitary air conditioning may be noisy. It is quite in
making components are located outside. operation if used as a split unit.

5. All the rooms are required to be maintained at more or Each room can be maintained at different conditions.
less similar conditions.

6. It requires duct design and installation. No duct design and installation is required.

7. The capital cost of central air conditioning equipment is The capital cost of unitary air conditioning equipment
less. is more.

8. Maintenance is convenient and easy. Maintenance is difficult.

Applications of air conditioning system.

1.Laboratories: to make precise measurements

2. Printing Industry: Specific temperature and humidity are maintained in the printing industry.
Paper becomes too dry in low humidity and improper stamping takes place. Paper swell in high
humidity and ink spreads as well as taken time to dry causing non-uniform printing.

3.Textile Industry: Relative humidity and temperature are the key factors of the textile
industry. Humidity has an effect on strength, quality of fabric to make them soft and reliable
instead of brittle and weak.

4.Pharmaceutical: industry needs refrigeration to reduce air borne bacteria and dirt to preserve
products

5. Photographic- Industry Provides accurate control of temperature, humidity for

manufacturing as well as processing in photographic films.
6. Machine tools Industry – The Same machining processes requires accurate temperature
and humidity. Ex. Processing in manufacturing of bearing, scientific instruments, electronic
devices test gauges, and precision gears, etc. where close tolerance of dimensions is required.
7. Farm Animals
8. Computer Rooms:

Industry Air-conditioning – Used to control the condition of the atmosphere required to

carry out industrial processes most efficiently, economically with better quality. Ex-Textile mills,
paper mills, printing and photo processing plants, etc.
Comfort Air-conditioning – It is provided for the ultimate comfort of human being Ex-
airconditioning system at home, office, etc. In this case, the stay time of occupants is
prolonged.

Commercial Air-conditioning – It is similar to comfort air-conditioning except that the

stay time of occupant is short. Ex-air-conditioning system is the bank, departmental store, etc.

Difference Between VCD and DVD

VCD vs DVD
Video Compact Disc or VCD has been the standard for storing and playing
back video recordings on a CD. This standard aims to provide video that
is comparable to VHS which was the prevalent technology of that time.
The Digital Video Disc or DVD is the more recent technology that aims to
supersede the VCD and has been pretty successful in this regard due to
multiple features that have been added to the standard. Almost all of these
features stems from the fact that DVDs have a much greater data capacity
compared to standard CDs. A standard VCD can contain up to 800MB of
data while DVDs can contain 4.7GB of data at the very least or roughly 6
times more.

The greater data capacity means that it is possible to store videos with
much higher resolutions and better image quality than that of VCDs.
Movie makers can then choose to not compress their videos so much that
the quality deteriorates. It also means that instead of using two discs to
store a single movie, like in VCDs, you only need one DVD with room to
spare. This is very convenient for most users who, prior to DVDs, need to
get up to change the VCD in the player in order to proceed to the second
half of the movie.

The extra space on the disc is often used to provide extra content that
offers a bit more value to the DVD than what is possible with VCDs. For
starters, multiple audio tracks can be included in a single movie allowing
more language options. Movie makers often add edited scenes and behind
the scene footages to their discs so that buyers can take a peek at what
happened during the movie making process.
Since DVDs were created later than VCDs, their players have the ability
to play the older VCD discs. VCD players do not have the ability to play
DVDs and their owners are restricted to using VCDs.
Summary:
1. VCD is a much older technology compared to DVD
2. DVD offers a greater data capacity compared to VCD
3. A standard-length movie can be stored in 2 VCDs or one DVD
4. Better quality video can be stored in DVDs than in VCDs
5. DVDs can contain a lot of extra features that cannot be stored on a VCD
6. VCDs can be played in DVD players while DVDs cannot be played on
_ VCD player.

DVD PLAYER BLOCK DIAGRAM

What is an LCD Projector?

An LCD projector, standing for Liquid Crystal Display projector, is a tool that projects
videos, pictures, or computer data onto a screen or other flat surfaces.

Popular in settings like schools, businesses, entertainment venues, and home theaters,
you might wonder how this device functions and its history.

In this piece, we’ll delve into the evolution of this tech, see how it stacks against other
projectors, understand its mechanism, and weigh the pros and cons of using LCD
projectors.

In short: An LCD projector is a device that uses Liquid Crystal Display technology to
project images, videos, or data onto a larger screen or surface.

Understanding LCD Projectors

At its core, an LCD projector uses liquid crystal panels to form images. These liquid
crystals, intriguingly, possess characteristics of both solid and liquid states. Their shape
and ability to transmit light can change when an electric field influences them.

Here’s a basic breakdown of how an LCD projector works: A light source, like a lamp or
LED, sends light to a condenser which gathers and focuses this light onto a tri-color filter.
This filter breaks the light into the primary colors: red, green, and blue. Each of these
colors illuminates its respective liquid crystal panel, packed with millions of tiny pixels.

These pixels are like little shutters, determining if light should pass or be obstructed.
When electricity comes into play, these pixels adjust their shape, hence controlling light
transmission.

The individual monochromatic images created by each panel are combined with a prism
and sent through a lens. This lens magnifies and sharpens the image, projecting it onto
the chosen surface.

An LCD projector uses liquid crystal panels to produce images. Light from a source
passes through filters to produce primary colors: red, green, and blue. These
illuminate separate panels filled with pixels, which control light flow using electric
fields. Finally, a lens projects the combined image onto a surface.

The Evolution of LCD Projectors

Back in 1968, the foundations of LCD projectors were laid by an American scientist
named Gene Frantz. He pioneered the initial liquid crystal display (LCD), utilizing nematic
liquid crystals known for their notable contrast and swift response. But, this early version
was limited – it was petite and only showcased numbers.

Fast forward to 1971, and along came Tadasi Saito from Japan, who made significant
advancements by designing a matrix LCD display capable of presenting letters and
symbols.

Opting for twisted nematic liquid crystals, he achieved a broader viewing angle and
heightened resolution. Though revolutionary, his display was only about the size of a
postage stamp, boasting a resolution of 120 by 32 pixels.

The real game-changer surfaced in 1984 when the Japanese tech giant, Epson,
introduced the world to its debut LCD projector, the VPJ-700. Featuring three liquid
crystal panels, it produced vibrant color images and had the capability to project visuals
as large as 40 inches.

Tailored for computer connectivity, this device was hefty, tipping the scales at roughly 12
kilograms.
From those pioneering days, LCD projectors have undergone remarkable evolution.
Today’s models are brighter, boast higher resolution, better contrast, and enhanced color
fidelity.

All the while, they’ve become more compact, lightweight, and energy-efficient. Currently,
LCD projectors hold their ground as some of the most sought-after and wallet-friendly
projectors in the marketplace.

In 1968, Gene Frantz introduced the initial LCD using nematic liquid crystals, which
was soon advanced by Tadasi Saito in 1971 with a matrix display. By 1984, Epson
launched the game-changing VPJ-700, and since then, LCD projectors have evolved
immensely in brightness, resolution, and efficiency, standing as popular and
affordable choices today.

Diving Into the Projector World: LCD vs. The Rest

Projectors aren’t a one-size-fits-all product. While LCD projectors have earned their
reputation, there’s a range of other contenders, including DLP, LCoS, and LED projectors.
Here’s a rundown on how each of these stacks up against the LCD:

DLP Projectors
DLP projectors operate with a legion of tiny mirrors directing light onto the screen. Their
strengths lie in high contrast, brilliant sharpness, and inky black depths.

However, they’re not without flaws. They can sometimes display the ‘rainbow effect’
(color bands seen during quick eye movement). Generally, they lag behind LCDs in
brightness and true-to-life color reproduction.

LCoS Projectors
LCoS technology combines liquid crystals over a silicon base. If you’re looking for top-tier
resolution, color fidelity, and contrast, these projectors are the cream of the crop. The
trade-off? They come with a steeper price tag, carry a bit more weight, and can be a tad
more high-maintenance.

LED Projectors
These are powered by, you guessed it, LEDs. Their claim to fame? Longevity. They sip on
power, sidestep the need for lamp replacements, and are built to last. Yet, when it comes
to sheer brightness, resolution, and contrast, they don’t quite match up to LCD
projectors.

Each type of projector has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice depends on the
specific needs and preferences of the user.

Using LCD Projectors: A Quick Guide

LCD projectors are a cinch to use, and they aren’t too fussy in terms of maintenance. That
said, here are a few operational nuances to keep in mind:

Keep ‘Em Clean

Like any gadget, LCD projectors gather dust. Over time, particles can settle on lenses,
filters, and fans. Neglect this, and you might notice a drop in image clarity, or worse, your
device might overheat. So, grab some optical cleaning solutions or an air compressor to
keep your projector spick and span.

Mind the Lamp Life

Every lamp or LED has an expiration date. For most LCD projectors, this hovers between
2,000 to 10,000 hours based on the model and how you use it.

If your lamp starts to dim, flicker, or sport funky colors, it’s probably time for a change.
You can either get in touch with a service center or, if you’re feeling handy, follow the
manufacturer’s DIY replacement guide.

Installation Matters
For that picture-perfect display, it’s all about placement. Think about how far your
projector is from the screen, tweak its height, and angle it just right.

Depending on where you’re setting it up, switch between projection modes like front,
rear, ceiling, or table. Dive into the settings to adjust brightness, contrast, colors, and
resolution for the best viewing experience.

Connect and Play

LCD projectors are quite the social butterflies. They can buddy up with computers,
laptops, smartphones, tablets, DVDs, and gaming consoles.
All you need is the right cable or a wireless connection like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or Miracast.
Plus, some come with a few extra perks: in-built speakers, USB slots, memory card
readers, or even their own OS, making streaming or playing files a breeze.

The Pros and Cons of LCD Projectors

Like any tech gadget, LCD projectors come with their own set of strengths and
weaknesses when stacked against their projector kin. Here’s a quick rundown:

Upsides of LCD Projectrs:

 Vibrant and True-to-Life:Expect high brightness and accurate colors.
 Budget-Friendly:With plenty of models to choose from, there’s something for
every wallet.
 User-Friendly: They’re pretty straightforward to use and maintain.
 Stay Cool: They run quieter and cooler than some of their peers.

Downsides of LCD Projectors:

 Contrast Could Be Better: Black levels and contrast aren’t their strongest suit.
 Bit Bulky: They tend to be on the heavier and larger side.
 The Clock’s Ticking: The lifespan of their lamps or LEDs isn’t infinite.
 That Pesky Screen Door Effect: Some users might notice the visible grid on
images.

What is an LCD Projector: Last Words

The LCD projector is your ticket to casting videos, photos, or computer content onto big
screens or walls. Born from the magic of liquid crystal panels and electricity’s influence,
the first LCDs made their mark in 1984.

And oh boy, have they come a long way since! While they’ve got some competition in
the likes of DLP, LCoS, and LED projectors, LCDs have carved out a niche, especially in
classrooms, boardrooms, theaters, and living rooms. They’re versatile, offering a balance
of price and performance for varied uses.
Working Principle and
Components of Drone

How do drones fly in air? Which

drone is more popular?
Introduction to Drone or UAV
 Any aircraft or flying machine operated without a human pilot such machines is
called an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). It can be guided autonomously or
remotely by a human operator using onboard computers and robots.
 During surveillance or military operation, UAVs can be a part of an unmanned
aircraft system (UAS), Drones are separately for air and water
 Drones have become increasingly popular in recent years. They are used for a
variety of purposes, including photography, videography, surveying, inspection,
and even delivery. But have you ever wondered how drones work? In this blog post,
we’ll take a look at the working principle of drones
 The basic components of a drone are the frame, motors, propellers, battery, flight
controller, and sensors. Let’s take a closer look at each of these components.
 Frame
 Battery
 Flight controllers
 Sensors
  Motors and Propellers:

Subjects for Drone or UAV

Understanding and development of drones depend on many subjects. The design of
drone for a particular application comprises many factors like the aerodynamic shape of
propellors, strength and weight of drone parts, electric motor, electric speed controller,
radio transmitter or receiver, and software interface on mobile or computer for
monitoring and data analysis.

 Fluid Dynamics or Aerodynamics:

 Fluid dynamics plays an important role to decide the forces acting on the body
of a drone
 The shape, size, and speed of the propeller and drone depending on
the aerodynamics of propellers or blades
 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling helps for flow dynamics of
airflow over drones
 CFD modeling of turbo-machinery) is essential to decide the amount of thrust
generated by propellors
 Wind tunnel testing of the aerofoil blade of the drone is still important for
testing CFD results

 Mechanical Design
 Rigid body dynamics to study the motion and forces acting on drones
 Strength of materials
 Low weight and rigid materials are selected for drone

 Electronics and Electrical Components:

 Electric motor with and without brush is required to drive the propellors
 Electronic Speed Controller
 Flight controller unit and computer processors

 Radio Communication: transmitter and receiver for radio signals

 Battery: Low weight and high-power wattage battery is important
 Software-based interface: data collection and analysis using mobile or
computer

Working Principle of Drone and Flow Pattern

 The subject of Fluid dynamics plays a significant role in the design and
development of aircraft and drones. This subject consists of the working principle
of the aerodynamics of aircraft.
 A sufficient amount of upward force is required to lift the vehicle against gravity
which is named Lift.
 A force created to move the vehicle or body in motion is called thrust. These forces
can be studied using the kinematic laws of fluid flows

 When air flows over an aerofoil and pressure, viscous and drag force act on the
profiles
 Force is directly proportional to the velocity of air at the inlet
 The flow pattern around the cross-section of the aerofoil or propeller is shown
below. High fluid pressure at the bottom and low pressure at the top of the
propeller causes an upward force which is called a lift. This force is responsible for
lifting the weight of an aero-plane or drone.
 The amount of lift force depends on the angle of inclination of the aerofoil or
propeller.

 Based on the principle of conservation of energy in fluid flow (Bernoulli’s

principle, the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid is constant along
the streamline
 When air flows over an aerofoil or wing, its velocity increases at the top portion.
But the pressure of air decreases.
 In contrast, the air velocity decreases and pressure increase at the bottom side of
the blade. The next pressure difference across the aerofoil results in an upward
force which is called a lift
 CFD modeling of flow over an aerofoil has been important in many vehicular and
aerospace industries
Types of drones based on the number of
Propellors
A number of propellors are provided to drones. More propellors improve the stability of
drones and load-carrying capacity but such drones need more battery power to drive
more motors to get high power. A quadcopter is a more popular drone.

 Bicopter (2 propellers)
 Triplecopter (3 propellors)
 Quadcopter (4 propellers)
 Hexacopter (6 propellers)
 Octacopter (8 propellers)

Working Principle of Quadcopter

 A quadcopter has four propellors at four corners of the frame
 For each propeller, speed and direction of rotation are independently controlled
for balance and movement of the drone
 In a traditional quadrotor, all four rotors are placed at an equal distance from each
other
 To maintain the balance of the system, one pair of rotors rotates in a clockwise
direction and the other pair rotates in an anti-clockwise direction
 To move up (hover), all rotors should run at high speed. By changing the speed of
rotors, the drone can be moved forward, backward, and side-to-side

Quadcopter Dynamics
 The movement of drone are classified into four types based on the relation motion
between four propellors: 1) throttle, 2) Pitch, 3) Roll, and 4) Yaw
 The details of quadcopter dynamics are explained in many references

 Throttle/ Hover: up and down movement of the drone is called throttle

 If all four propellors run at normal speed, then the drone will move down
 If all four propellors run at a higher speed, then the drone will move up. This is
called the hovering of a drone
 Pitch: movement of a drone about a lateral axis (either forward or backward) is
called pitching motion
 If two rear propellors run at high speed, then the drone will move in a
forwarding direction
 If two front propellors run at high speed, then the drone will move in
the backward direction
 Roll: movement of a drone about the longitudinal axis is called rolling motion
 If two right propellors run at high speed, then the drone will move in the left
direction
 If two left propellors run at high speed, then the drone will move in the right
direction
 Yawn: the rotation of the head of the drone about the vertical axis (either the left
or right) is called Yawning motion
 If two propellors of a right diagonal run at high speed, then the drone will rotate
in an anti-clockwise direction
 If two propellors of a left diagonal run at high speed, then the drone will rotate
in a clockwise direction
Forces and Moments Acting on a Drone
Major forces acting on a Drone
When a drone moves in the air, various forces act on it. The resultant force will decide its
movement. There are major forces acting on a drone
  Weight
 Due to the mass of the drone, the body mass force always acts in the direction of
gravity
 Higher the weight of the drone, more power is required to lift and move the
drone
 Weight of drone = mass of drone × acceleration due to gravity
 Lift:
 The vertical force acting on the drone is called lift
 This force is due to pressure differences across the drone (in the vertical
direction). Hence, the speed, size, and shape of the propeller blade decide the
amount of lift force
 Lift is essential to lift the body against the gravity
 To create this force, all four propellors run at high speed to lift the drone
 Thrust
 The force acting on the drone in the direction of motion is called thrust.
However, for drone dynamics, it is normal to the rotor plane.
 During hovering, the thrust is purely vertical. If thrust is inclined then the
drone will tilt forward or backward.
 This force is essential to move the drone in the desired direction at equal speed
 To get desired motion, two propellors have been given high speed
 Drag
 The force acting on the drone in the opposite direction of motion due to air
resistance is called drag
 This may be because of pressure difference and viscosity of air
 To reduce the drag, the aerodynamic shape of the drone is selected
Kinematic for Quad-copter
  The thrust produced by each propeller is perpendicular to the plane of rotation of
propellors. It is directly proportional to the square of the angular velocity of the
propeller
Fi = kf ×ωi2
 If L is defined as the distance between two motors or propellors for any diagonal of
the drone, then the reaction moments about the X-axis and Y-axis
Mx = (F3 – F4) × L
My = (F1 – F2) × L
 Newton’s second law of motion
 For linear motion: Force = mass × linear acceleration
 For rotational motion: Torque = inertia × angular acceleration
Hovering Motion

 Equilibrium Conditions for hovering
mg = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
All moments = 0


 Equation of motion
m = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 – mg
m=0
Rise or Fall Motion (Throttle up)

 Conditions for hovering (rise)
mg < F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
All moments = 0


 Conditions for Fall
mg > F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
All moments = 0


 Equation of motion
m = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 – mg
m>0
Yaw Motion

 Conditions for hovering
mg = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
All moments ≠ 0


 Equation of motion
mass* linear acceleration = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 – mg
Izz *angular acceleration@ Z-axis = M1+ M2+M3+ M4
Pitch and Roll Motion

 Conditions for hovering
mg < F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
All moments ≠ 0


 Equation of motion
mass* linear acceleration = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 – mg
Ixx * angular acceleration @ x-axis = (F3 – F4)×L
Rigid-body dynamics
 To calculate individual speeds and forces acting on drones, the three-dimensional
rigid-body dynamics should be modeled
 The first step is to identify the reference coordinates, the direction of rotor speed
and forces acting the drones
 For the rigid body, we have to consider the effect of aerodynamic, inertial,
gravitational, and gyroscope
 Aerodynamic Forces: rotation of the propellors in air causes various forces
such as friction and drag
 Secondary aerodynamic effects: blade flapping, ground effect, and local flow
fields
 Inertial counter torques: gravitational forces acting at the center of drone
affect the rotation of propellors
 Gyroscopic effects: change in the orientation of drone body and plane rotation
of propellors.
  Based on Newton-Euler equations, all forces and moments acting on a quadcopter
are combined and result in a complete model of the drone dynamics
 This physical model is useful to control the desired motion of the quadcopter
Major Components of Drones
The following are major parts of drones.
 1. Frame:
 It should have sufficient strength to hold the propeller momentum and additional
weight for motors and cameras
 Sturdy and less aerodynamic resistance
1. Propellers:
 The speed and load lifting ability of a drone depends on shape, size, and
number of propellors
 The long propellors create huge thrust to carry heavy loads at a low speed
(RPM) and less sensitive to change the speed of rotation
 Short propellors carry fewer loads. They change rotation speeds quickly and
require a high speed for more thrust.
2. Motor
 Both motors brushless and brushed type can be used for drones
 A brushed motor is less expensive and useful for small-sized drones
 Brushless type motors are powerful and energy very efficient. But they need
Electronic Speed Controller (ESC) to control their speed. These brushless
motors are widely used for racing freestyle drones, traffic surveys and aerial
photography drones.
3. ESC (Electronic Speed Controller)
 ESC is used to connect the battery to the electric motor for the power supply
 It converts the signal from the flight controller to the revolution per minted
(RPM) of motor
 ESC is provided to each y motor of the drone
4. Flight Controller (FC)
 It is the computer processor which manages balance and telecommunication
controls using different transmitter
 Sensors are located in this unit for the accelerometer, barometer,
magnetometer, gyrometer and GPS
 The distance measurement can be carried out by an ultrasound sensor
5. Radio Transmitter sends the radio signal to ESC to pilot to control motor speed.
6. Radio Receiver: Received the signal from the pilot. This device is attached to the
quadcopter
7. Battery: High-power capacity, Lithium Polymer (LiPo) is used for most drones.
The battery can have 3S (3 cells) or 4S (4 cells).
 When the pilot or autonomous system gives the drone a command, the flight
controller sends signals to the motors to spin the propellers
 The speed and direction of the motors and propellors are adjusted to achieve the
desired movement. The sensors provide data to the flight controller, which uses it
to stabilize the drone in the air and adjust its movement
 Drones can be controlled manually using a remote controller or programmed to fly
autonomously. Autonomous drones use sensors and pre-programmed instructions
to fly to a specific location, perform a task like taking photos or delivering a
package, and return to their starting point.
How to operate a Drone
 Operating a drone can be a fun and rewarding experience, but it’s important to
know how to do so safely and legally
  Here are some general steps to operate a drone:
1.
1. Read the manual: The first step is to read the drone manual carefully, as each
drone model is unique and has its own set of instructions.
2. Register your drone: Depending on your location, you may need to register
your drone with the appropriate authorities.
3. Charge your drone battery: Make sure your drone battery is fully charged
before flying it.
4. Find a suitable location: Choose a location that is open, clear, and away
from any obstacles like trees, buildings, or power lines.
5. Check the weather: Avoid flying your drone in windy or rainy conditions.
Check the weather forecast before flying.
6. Turn on the drone: Turn on the drone and the remote control.
7. Calibrate the drone: Follow the instructions in the manual to calibrate the
drone before flying.
8. Take off: Push the throttle stick slowly and smoothly to take off the drone.
9. Fly the drone: Use the remote control to maneuver the drone in the air. Keep
it at a safe distance from people and property.
10. Land the drone: When you are ready to land the drone, slowly bring it down
to the ground using the throttle stick.
11. Turn off the drone: After landing the drone, turn off the drone and the
remote control.

Precautions During the Drone Use

 Drones can be a fun and useful tool, but they can also be dangerous if not used
properly. Here are some precautions to keep in mind when using a drone:
1.
1. Know the laws and regulations:
  Before flying a drone, make sure you know the laws and regulations in your
area
 This includes any local, state, and federal regulations, as well as any
restrictions on where you can fly your drone.
2. Always keep your drone in sight:
 It’s important to keep your drone within your line of sight at all times
 This will help you avoid collisions with other objects or people.
3. Fly in open areas
 Try to fly your drone in open areas away from people, buildings, and other
obstacles
 This will help you avoid accidents and crashes.
4. Respect people’s privacy:
 Don’t fly your drone over private property without permission
 Also, avoid flying your drone close to people’s homes or in areas where
people have a reasonable expectation of privacy.
5. Avoid flying in bad weather:
 Drones are not designed to handle extreme weather conditions like strong
winds, heavy rain, or snow
 Avoid flying your drone in these conditions, as they can cause your drone to
crash or become damaged.
6. Keep your drone in good condition:
 Regularly check your drone for any signs of damage or wear and tear
 Replace any damaged parts before flying.
7. Practice safe battery use:
 Always use the manufacturer’s recommended batteries and charger
 Avoid charging your batteries unattended and never use damaged or swollen
batteries.
8. Be prepared for emergencies: Keep a first aid kit and a fire extinguisher
nearby in case of emergencies. Also, be prepared to land your drone quickly if
necessary.
 By following these precautions, you can help ensure a safe and enjoyable drone
experience for yourself and others.

Application and Development of Drones

 Drones or UAE has a lot of application in space, defense, and military purposes,
delivery of food items, and spraying of pesticides in farming
 Refer to the post for the application of drones in industries on this website
 Application of drone and scope of CFD modeling
 Profile

 Types

 Acceleration

 Aerodynamic

 Aircraft

 All Forms

 Artificial Intelligence
 Blades

 Boat propellers for sale

 Body Mass

 Profile
 Types

 Acceleration

Scope of CFD Modeling for Drone Aerodynamics

 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) predicts the pressure gradient required for
lifting a drone
 The following parameters decide the aerodynamic design of the drone
 Payload of drone
 Number and speed of propellors
 Aerodynamics of propellors
 Spacing between the propellors
 Lift coefficient of drone
 The thrust generated by the drone
 CFD modeling will help to optimize the aerodynamics and applications of drone
Summary
 The working principle of drones is similar to the flying of aero-planes
 The vertical lift force is created due to pressure difference across the rotating
blades
 The drag and gravity forces act against its vertical motions
 By controlling the speed and directions of different rotors we can control the
motion of the drone or UAV
 The drone consists of mechanical, electrical, and electronic components
 Drones have many applications in defense and military purposes, space,
surveillance, agriculture, and many more.
 CFD modeling predicts the pressure gradient which is helpful for the aerodynamic
design of the drone
 We have to understand the coordination of several components, including the
frame, motors, propellors, battery, flight controller, and sensors
 The flight controller receives input from the pilot or autonomous system and sends
signals to the motors to control the drone’s movement
 Sensors provide data to the flight controller, which uses it to stabilize the drone in
the air and adjust its movement
 With their versatility and range of applications, drones are likely to become even
more widespread in the years to come.
 What is Cable TV??
According to the FCC (Federal Communications Commission), cable TV is “a video delivery service
provided by a cable operator to subscribers via a coaxial cable or fiber optics.” (1) That means if you
get your TV service via a satellite dish from a provider like DISH or DIRECTV, technically you have
“satellite TV,” not cable TV.

That said, cable TV has become so popular that it’s often colloquially used to describe any type of
paid TV service other than streaming, which can lead to some pretty confusing overlap. In this
article, we’ll explain what really qualifies as cable TV, why the term is so pervasive across the TV
industry, and how you can tell the difference between cable TV and other popular methods of
watching live TV.

Trying to pick a live TV provider?

Learn more about cable vs. satellite TV and how to choose between them.

Pros and cons of cable TV

Pros

 Often comes in discounted bundles with internet service

 Doesn’t use up your internet data, which is especially handy if you have a low data cap
 More provider choices than satellite TV
 Not affected by weather

Cons

 Most plans come with more channels than you’ll ever watch
 Lacks access to some sports and streaming content only available through satellite TV and
streaming
 Frequent price hikes after the promotional period ends

Cable TV has garnered a reputation for being old-fashioned as of late, with phrases like “cut the
cord” and “cord cutting” gaining mainstream appeal as streaming providers increase in popularity
and people increasingly ditch cable. Over 52% of Americans now report no longer paying for cable
TV. (2) Although cutting the cord is a good option for many people, cable TV still has a lot to offer—
especially if you primarily watch live TV (including sports) or have an internet plan with slow
speeds or a low data cap.

Perhaps the biggest benefit of cable TV is the opportunity for bundled discounts. Since many cable
TV providers also offer internet service (think Xfinity), they’ll usually throw in a cable package with
your internet deal for a really good price—at least for the first year or so. This can be a very
convenient way to get TV since it’ll all be from one provider and come on the same bill.
Just keep in mind that all good things come to an end, and you’ll probably be in for a hefty price hike
once the promotional period is over. You can always cancel and move to another provider if you’re
up for going through the hassle of switching service providers. However, providers are counting on
you not wanting to rock the boat with your entertainment setup and just swallowing the higher
monthly cost.

Is all TV considered cable TV?

No, all TV is not considered cable TV even though many people will use the term “cable TV” or just
“cable” to describe any paid TV you can watch beyond local network television. To be fair, cable TV
was the first type of paid subscription television available. It was available for nearly 30 years
before satellite TV providers DISH and DIRECTV came on the scene. (3, 4, 5)

But now with TV options more numerous than ever, it can be confusing to navigate what is truly
considered cable TV and what is something else.

Cable TV vs. streaming TV

Cable TV is transmitted via coaxial cables that attach physically into your home and your TV.
Streaming TV is the most popular alternative to cable TV, and it’s transmitted purely over the
internet. However, this line is rapidly becoming more blurry as cable providers evolve to meet the
current market and avoid getting cut from your budget.

For example, cable TV provider Xfinity offers an app called “Stream” where you can watch the same
live channels and on-demand programming that you get through your Xfinity cable package while
also utilizing DVR capabilities. That means you’re technically paying for a cable TV package but
watching it via streaming.

The simplest way to identify a cable TV package is to know who you’re paying for it. If you’re paying
a cable provider like Xfinity, Spectrum, Cox, Verizon, or Optimum, it’s cable TV. But if you’re
watching live channels through a streaming provider like YouTube TV, Hulu, or Sling, it’s not cable
TV.

Cable TV vs. network TV

Network TV consists of the TV channels that you can watch for free if you have an over-the-air
(OTA) antenna. These are channels that the FCC has designated as public access channels via the
Communications Act. (7) Some examples of channels you can watch for free include ABC, CBS, PBS,
and even The CW. C-SPAN (the channel that covers federal government proceedings) is also part of
the crew, although we doubt you’ll be very excited to hear that. Cable TV, on the other hand,
includes all the channels you can get for free through network TV in addition to channels that are
available only to paid subscribers.

Keep learning about how to get free TV.

What is basic vs. premium cable?

Basic cable is considered cheap cable TV because it consists, at minimum, of all the channels
required by the FCC to be part of network TV as well as “any public, educational, or government
access channels required by the system's franchise agreement.” (8) In short, paying for basic cable
(also called basic service), will get you all the local channels you could get for free with an OTA
antenna plus a random smattering of other channels your TV provider decides to include (don’t hold
your breath for ESPN, but you’ll probably get channels like the Hallmark Channel or OWN thrown
in).

Cable TV vs. satellite TV

The difference between cable TV and satellite TV is often the most difficult for people to understand
because what you watch and how the packages are structured are all highly similar between the
two. The main difference is the technology used to watch cable TV and satellite TV. Cable TV relies
on coaxial cables, which are buried beneath the ground. Satellite TV relies on an external dish
attached to your home or installed in your yard that receives the signal from the provider’s satellite
in space.

Cable TV is available almost everywhere, but there are some areas of the US where it’s not available
since the necessary cable infrastructure has not been constructed. But the advantage of satellite TV
is that it is available almost anywhere—just as long as you have a clear view of the southern sky.
This makes satellite TV a popular choice for rural areas and vacation homes.

Best cable TV providers

The best cable TV provider is Xfinity because it offers the best channel selection, prices, and
bundles. If Xfinity isn’t available in your area, we recommend going with Verizon or Cox.

Some cable TV providers lose points on their internet service by offering lackluster plans. But
Xfinity has some of the fastest speeds in the industry along with cutting-edge apps to help you
manage your entertainment and internet in the way that works best for you.

Want more details on why we recommend these cable providers? Check out our full review on the
best cable TV providers of 2023 and get the down low on our ranking methodology.