Physics Department

SOLID STATE PHYSICS

Laboratory Notebook
Experiments

 Hall Effect Measurement

 Four-Point Probe Measurement
 X-Ray Diffraction
 Creep test
 Thermal Expansion Measurement
 Thermoelectric Effect
 Stress- Strain
 Band Gap Measurement
 Fermi Surface Mapping
 Ferroelectric Polarization
 Superconductivity Transition Temperature
 Dielectric Constant Measurement
 Physics Department TITLE:

Hall Effect Measurement

AIM
DEMONSTRATION SIMULATION
To investigate the Hall effect by measuring the Hall
voltage and determining the charge carriers and
their concentration in a conducting material.

● Hall effect setup (includes a sample holder,

magnetic field source, current source, voltmeter)
● Conducting material samples of different types

Solid-Sate Physics Laboratory Lab book

APPARATUS (e.g., metals, semiconductors)
AND ● Power supply for the current source
MATERIAL ● Magnetic field source (e.g., permanent magnets
REQUIRED: or electromagnets)
● Voltmeter or multimeter
● Data acquisition system (if available)

PRINCIPLE:

The Hall effect refers to the generation of a voltage perpendicular to both the current flow and the magnetic field in a
conducting material. The Hall voltage can be measured and used to determine the nature of the charge carriers and
their concentration in the material.

The Hall voltage is given by: [ V_H = B \cdot I \cdot R_H ] where:

● V_H is the Hall voltage

● B is the magnetic field strength

● I is the current flowing through the material

● R_H is the Hall coefficient, which depends on the charge carrier density and their mobility

The Hall coefficient can be related to the charge carrier density (n) and their mobility (μ) using the equation: [ R_H =
\frac{1}{{n \cdot e}} ] where:

● e is the elementary charge

 Physics Department TITLE:

Hall Effect Measurement

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the Hall effect apparatus with the sample holder, magnetic field source, current source, and voltmeter.

2. Select a conducting material sample and place it in the sample holder.

3. Apply a known current through the material using the current source.

4. Adjust the magnetic field strength using the magnetic field source.

5. Measure the Hall voltage using the voltmeter, ensuring the voltage leads are connected perpendicular to the
current flow and magnetic field direction.

6. Repeat the measurements for different current and magnetic field values.

7. If available, use a data acquisition system to record and analyze the Hall voltage data.

Solid State Physics Laboratory Lab

CALCULATIONS & RESULTS:

● Calculate the Hall coefficient (R_H) using the measured Hall voltage, current, and magnetic field values.

● Determine the charge carrier density (n) using the equation R_H = 1/(n * e).

● Analyze the results to determine the type of charge carriers (electrons or holes) and their concentration in the conducting
material.

1. Alignment errors: Misalignments in the setup, such as the current direction, magnetic field
direction, or voltage lead connections, can introduce errors in the measured Hall voltage. Ensure
proper alignment and connection before conducting the experiment.
SOURCES OF
ERROR: 2. Temperature effects: Variations in temperature can affect the electrical properties of the material,
The most common including the mobility of the charge carriers. Control the temperature during the experiment and
sources of errors in take temperature measurements if necessary.
this experiment are:
3. Sample impurities or defects: Impurities or defects in the conducting material can affect the charge
carrier density and mobility, leading to deviations in the measured Hall voltage and calculated
values. Use high-quality samples and ensure proper sample preparation techniques.
 Physics Department
TITLE:

Four-Point Probe Measurement

AIM
DEMONSTRATION SIMULATION

To measure the sheet resistance of a thin

conducting film using a four-point probe technique
and analyze the relationship between resistance,
probe spacing, and film thickness.

● Four-point probe setup (includes a probe head

with four evenly spaced needles, sample holder,
current source, voltage meter)
APPARATUS

Solid-Sate Physics Laboratory Lab book

● Thin conducting film samples of different
AND materials
MATERIAL ● Power supply for the current source
REQUIRED: ● Voltmeter or multimeter
● Micrometer or thickness gauge
● Data acquisition system (if available)

PRINCIPLE:
The four-point probe measurement is a technique used to determine the sheet resistance of a thin conducting film. By passing a
known current through two outer probes and measuring the voltage drop across the two inner probes, the resistance of the film can
be calculated.

The sheet resistance (R_s) can be calculated using the following equation: [ R_s = \frac{\pi \cdot V}{I \cdot \ln(2) \cdot S} ] where:

● R_s is the sheet resistance

● V is the voltage drop across the inner probes

● I is the current passing through the outer probes

● S is the spacing between the inner probes

The sheet resistance is inversely proportional to the film thickness.

 Physics Department TITLE:

Four-Point Probe Measurement

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the four-point probe apparatus with the probe head, sample holder, current source, and voltage meter.
2. Select a thin conducting film sample and place it in the sample holder.
3. Adjust the probe head to ensure the four probes make good contact with the film surface.
4. Apply a known current through the outer probes using the current source.
5. Measure the voltage drop across the inner probes using the voltmeter.
6. Repeat the measurements for different current values and probe spacings.
7. If available, use a data acquisition system to record and analyze the voltage and current data.

CALCULATIONS & RESULTS:

Solid State Physics Laboratory Lab

● Calculate the sheet resistance (R_s) using the measured voltage drop, current, and probe spacing values.

● Determine the film thickness using the relationship between the sheet resistance and film thickness.

● Analyze the results to understand the relationship between resistance, probe spacing, and film thickness.

1. Probe misalignment: Misalignments in the probe head or probes not making proper contact with
the film surface can introduce errors in the measured voltage drop and calculated sheet resistance.
Ensure proper alignment and contact before conducting the experiment.
SOURCES OF 2. Film non-uniformity: Variations in the thickness or uniformity of the conducting film can affect the
ERROR: accuracy of the measured sheet resistance. Use samples with consistent film properties and
The most common minimize film thickness variations.
sources of errors in
this experiment are: 3. Contact resistance: Resistance at the probe-film interface can introduce deviations in the measured
voltage drop and calculated sheet resistance. Ensure good probe-film contact and clean the probes
regularly to minimize contact resistance.
 Physics Department
TITLE:

X-Ray Diffraction

AIM
DEMONSTRATION SIMULATION

To investigate the phenomenon of X-ray diffraction

and determine the crystal structure of a given
material by analyzing the diffraction pattern.

● X-ray source (e.g., X-ray tube)

● Crystal sample
● Goniometer or sample holder
APPARATUS

Solid-Sate Physics Laboratory Lab book

● X-ray detector (e.g., photographic film or digital
AND detector)
MATERIAL ● Data acquisition system (if available)
REQUIRED: ● Safety equipment (e.g., lead apron, radiation
badge)

PRINCIPLE:
X-ray diffraction is a phenomenon that occurs when X-rays interact with the regular arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice. The X-
rays are diffracted at specific angles, resulting in a characteristic diffraction pattern.

The Bragg's law relates the diffraction angle (θ), the wavelength of X-rays (λ), and the spacing between atomic planes (d) in the
crystal: [ 2d \cdot \sin(θ) = n \cdot λ ] where:

● d is the spacing between atomic planes

● θ is the diffraction angle

● λ is the wavelength of X-rays

● n is an integer representing the order of the diffraction peak

By measuring the diffraction angles and using Bragg's law, the spacing between atomic planes and the crystal structure can be
determined.
 Physics Department TITLE:

X-Ray Diffraction

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the X-ray diffraction apparatus with the X-ray source, goniometer or sample holder, and X-ray detector.

2. Take necessary safety precautions, including wearing protective equipment and following radiation safety
guidelines.

3. Position the crystal sample on the goniometer or sample holder, ensuring it is aligned properly.

4. Adjust the X-ray source and detector positions for optimal diffraction.

5. Record the diffraction pattern by exposing the X-ray detector to the diffracted X-rays.

6. Determine the diffraction angles for each peak in the pattern using the goniometer or appropriate
measurement techniques.

7. If available, use a data acquisition system to record and analyze the diffraction data.

Solid State Physics Laboratory Lab

.

CALCULATIONS & RESULTS:

● Calculate the spacing between atomic planes (d) using Bragg's law and the measured diffraction angles.

● Compare the calculated values of d with known values for different crystal structures to determine the crystal lattice of the
sample.

● Analyze the diffraction pattern to identify the crystal structure and other relevant information about the material.

1. Crystal imperfections: Crystals may contain defects or imperfections that can affect the diffraction
pattern. Use high-quality crystals and carefully examine the diffraction pattern for any irregularities.
SOURCES OF
2. Instrumental errors: Misalignment of the X-ray source, goniometer, or detector can introduce errors
ERROR:
The most common in the measured diffraction angles. Ensure proper alignment and calibration of the equipment
sources of errors in before conducting the experiment.
this experiment are: 3. Radiation safety: X-rays can be harmful, so it is essential to follow safety protocols and wear
appropriate protective equipment. Minimize exposure time and maintain a safe distance from the
X-ray source to prevent unnecessary radiation exposure.
 Physics Department
TITLE:

Creep Test

AIM
DEMONSTRATION SIMULATION

To investigate the phenomenon of creep in

materials by measuring the time-dependent
deformation under constant stress and analyzing
the relationship between stress, time, and strain.

● Creep testing machine

● Specimen of the material to be tested
● Load cells or weights for applying a constant
APPARATUS

Solid-Sate Physics Laboratory Lab book

stress
AND ● Extensometer or strain gauge for measuring
MATERIAL deformation
REQUIRED: ● Stopwatch or timer
● Data acquisition system (if available)

PRINCIPLE:
Creep is the time-dependent deformation that occurs in a material when it is subjected to a constant stress over an
extended period. This phenomenon is often observed in materials under high temperatures and long-term loading.

The creep strain (ε) can be described by a power-law creep equation: [ ε = A \cdot \sigma^n \cdot t^m ] where:

● ε is the creep strain

● A is a material-dependent constant

● σ is the applied stress

● n is the stress exponent, which characterizes the sensitivity of the material to stress

● t is the time of loading

● m is the time exponent, which characterizes the sensitivity of the material to time

By measuring the creep strain under different stress levels and time durations, the creep behavior and material
properties can be determined.
 Physics Department TITLE:

Creep Test

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the creep testing machine and ensure it is properly calibrated.

2. Prepare the specimen of the material to be tested, ensuring it meets the required dimensions and surface
quality.

3. Apply a constant stress to the specimen using load cells or weights, maintaining the desired stress level
throughout the test.

4. Measure the initial length or strain of the specimen using an extensometer or strain gauge.

5. Start the timer or stopwatch and record the time.

6. Monitor and record the deformation of the specimen at regular intervals over the desired duration.

7. If available, use a data acquisition system to record and analyze the deformation data.

Solid State Physics Laboratory Lab

CALCULATIONS & RESULTS:

● Calculate the creep strain (ε) using the measured deformation and initial length or strain values.

● Determine the stress exponent (n) and time exponent (m) by fitting the creep strain data to the power-law creep equation.

● Analyze the results to understand the creep behavior of the material under different stress levels and time durations.

1. Temperature fluctuations: Variations in temperature can affect the creep behavior of the material.
Ensure proper temperature control during the experiment, especially for materials sensitive to
temperature changes.
SOURCES OF 2. Specimen preparation: Inaccurate preparation of the specimen, such as improper dimensions or
ERROR: surface quality, can introduce errors in the measured deformation. Follow proper specimen
The most common preparation techniques and ensure consistent specimen quality.
sources of errors in
this experiment are: 3. Time measurement errors: Inaccurate measurement of the test duration can affect the accuracy of
the creep strain calculations. Use reliable timing devices and ensure accurate and consistent time
measurements.
 Physics Department
TITLE:

Thermal Expansion Measurement

AIM
DEMONSTRATION SIMULATION

To investigate the thermal expansion behavior of a

material by measuring the change in length as a
function of temperature and analyzing the
coefficient of linear expansion.

● Thermometer or temperature probe

● Specimen of the material to be tested
APPARATUS

Solid-Sate Physics Laboratory Lab book

● Ruler or calipers for measuring length
AND ● Heating device (e.g., Bunsen burner or hot plate)
MATERIAL ● Heat-resistant container or clamp
REQUIRED: ● Data acquisition system (if available)

PRINCIPLE:
Thermal expansion is the phenomenon where materials expand or contract in response to changes in temperature. This
behavior is due to the change in the average spacing between atoms or molecules in the material.

The coefficient of linear expansion (α) describes the amount of length change per unit length per degree Celsius: [ α =
\frac{{\Delta L}}{{L_0 \cdot \Delta T}} ] where:

● α is the coefficient of linear expansion

● ΔL is the change in length

● L_0 is the initial length

● ΔT is the change in temperature

By measuring the change in length of a specimen as it is heated or cooled, the coefficient of linear expansion can be
determined.
 Physics Department TITLE:

Thermal Expansion Measurement

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the experiment by placing the specimen in a heat-resistant container or clamp.

2. Measure the ini al length (L_0) of the specimen using a ruler or calipers.

3. Connect the thermometer or temperature probe to monitor the temperature changes.

4. Heat the specimen gradually using a heating device while continuously monitoring the temperature.

5. Record the change in length (ΔL) of the specimen at regular temperature intervals.

6. Repeat the measurements as the specimen cools down to its initial temperature.

7. If available, use a data acquisition system to record and analyze the temperature and length data.

CALCULATIONS & RESULTS:

Solid State Physics Laboratory Lab

● Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion (α) using the measured change in length, initial length, and temperature
change.

● Analyze the results to understand the thermal expansion behavior of the material and compare it to known values for
similar materials.

1. Thermal equilibrium: Ensuring that the specimen reaches thermal equilibrium with the surrounding
environment can be challenging. Allow sufficient time for the specimen to reach a stable
temperature before taking measurements.
SOURCES OF
ERROR: 2. Measurement errors: Inaccurate measurements of length or temperature can introduce errors in
The most common the calculated coefficient of linear expansion. Use appropriate measurement techniques and
sources of errors in instruments with proper calibration.
this experiment are:
3. Material heterogeneity: Variations in the composition or structure within the material can affect its
thermal expansion behavior. Ensure that the specimen used is representative of the material and
minimize any inconsistencies in its composition.
 Physics Department
TITLE:

Thermoelectric Effect

AIM
DEMONSTRATION SIMULATION

To investigate the thermoelectric effect by

measuring the voltage generated when a
temperature gradient is applied across a
thermoelectric material.

● Thermoelectric material sample (e.g., bismuth

telluride)
APPARATUS ● Heat source (e.g., hot plate)

Solid-Sate Physics Laboratory Lab book

AND ● Heat sink (e.g., water-cooled container)
MATERIAL ● Thermocouples (type K)
REQUIRED: ● Voltmeter
● Ammeter
● Insulating material for thermal isolation

PRINCIPLE:
The thermoelectric effect is the phenomenon where a temperature gradient across a thermoelectric material results in the
generation of a voltage, known as the Seebeck effect. This effect arises due to the diffusion of charge carriers in response
to the temperature gradient, leading to an accumulation of charge at the hot end and a depletion at the cold end.
The relationship between the generated voltage (V) and the temperature gradient (ΔT) is described by the Seebeck
coefficient (S) of the material: [ V = S \cdot \Delta T ] where:
● V is the generated voltage
● S is the Seebeck coefficient
● ΔT is the temperature gradient
The Seebeck coefficient is a material-specific property that characterizes the efficiency of a material in converting a
temperature difference into a voltage.
 Physics Department TITLE:

Thermoelectric Effect

PROCEDURE:

1. Place the thermoelectric material sample between a heat source and a heat sink to create a temperature
gradient across the material.

2. Use thermocouples to measure the temperature at the hot and cold ends of the material.

3. Connect the thermoelectric material to a voltmeter and ammeter to measure the generated voltage and
current.

4. Apply a known temperature gradient and record the corresponding voltage and current values.

5. Repeat the measurements for different temperature gradients to observe the relationship between the
generated voltage and the temperature gradient.

CALCULATIONS & RESULTS:

Solid State Physics Laboratory Lab

● Calculate the Seebeck coefficient (S) of the thermoelectric material using the measured voltage and temperature gradient:
[ S = \frac{{V}}{{\Delta T}} ]

● Plot the generated voltage as a function of the temperature gradient to observe the Seebeck effect and determine the
Seebeck coefficient.

1. Temperature gradient uniformity: Inhomogeneities in the temperature gradient across the

thermoelectric material can affect the accuracy of the measured voltage. Ensure a uniform and
controlled temperature gradient.
SOURCES OF
ERROR: 2. Contact resistance: Poor electrical contacts between the thermoelectric material and the
The most common measurement instruments can lead to errors in the measured voltage. Ensure secure and low-
sources of errors in resistance electrical connections.
this experiment are:
3. Thermal losses: Heat losses from the thermoelectric material to the surroundings can impact the
observed temperature gradient and the accuracy of the measured voltage. Minimize thermal losses
through proper thermal isolation of the material.
 Physics Department
TITLE:

Stress-Strain

AIM
DEMONSTRATION SIMULATION

To investigate the relationship between stress and

strain in a material and determine its mechanical
properties, such as Young's modulus and yield
strength.

● Specimen of the material to be tested (e.g., metal,

plastic, or rubber)
● Universal testing machine or tension/compression
APPARATUS

Solid-Sate Physics Laboratory Lab book

testing machine
AND ● Vernier calipers or micrometer for measuring
MATERIAL dimensions
REQUIRED: ● Load cell or weights for applying load
● Extensometer or strain gauge for measuring
deformation
● Data acquisition system (if available)

PRINCIPLE:
Stress and strain are fundamental mechanical properties that describe a material's response to an applied force or load.
Stress is the internal resistance of a material to deformation, while strain is the measure of deformation relative to the
material's original length.

The relationship between stress (σ) and strain (ε) is described by Young's modulus (E): [ E = \frac{{\sigma}}{{\epsilon}} ]
where:

● E is Young's modulus (also known as the modulus of elasticity)

● σ is the stress applied to the material

● ε is the resulting strain in the material

The yield strength (σ_y) represents the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically.
 Physics Department TITLE:

Stress-Strain

PROCEDURE:

1. Prepare the specimen by cutting it to the desired dimensions and ensuring it has smooth and parallel surfaces.

2. Measure the initial length (L_0) and cross-sectional area (A_0) of the specimen using vernier calipers or a
micrometer.

3. Set up the universal testing machine and install the specimen securely.

4. Apply an increasing load or force to the specimen until it reaches the desired stress level or until failure occurs.

5. Record the applied load and measure the corresponding strain using an extensometer or strain gauge.

6. Repeat the measurements for different stress levels or until the material has been fully tested.

7. If available, use a data acquisition system to record and analyze the load and deformation data.

Solid State Physics Laboratory Lab

CALCULATIONS & RESULTS:

● Calculate the stress (σ) by dividing the applied load by the cross-sectional area of the specimen (A_0).

● Calculate the strain (ε) by dividing the change in length (ΔL) by the initial length (L_0).

● Plot a stress-strain curve using the calculated stress and strain values.

● Determine Young's modulus (E) by calculating the slope of the stress-strain curve within the elastic region.

● Identify the yield strength (σ_y) by observing the point where plastic deformation begins on the stress-strain curve.

1. Specimen dimensions: Inaccurate measurements of the specimen's length or cross-sectional area

can introduce errors in the calculated stress and strain values. Ensure precise measurements using
appropriate measuring tools.
SOURCES OF
ERROR: 2. Testing machine calibration: Improper calibration of the universal testing machine can affect the
The most common accuracy of the applied load and strain measurements. Regularly calibrate the machine and verify
sources of errors in its accuracy before conducting the experiment.
this experiment are:
3. Specimen defects: Inhomogeneities, surface imperfections, or material defects within the specimen
can influence the test results. Use high-quality specimens and visually inspect them for any defects
before testing.
 Physics Department
TITLE:

Band Gap Measurement

AIM
DEMONSTRATION SIMULATION

To measure the band gap of a semiconductor

material using optical absorption spectroscopy and
determine its energy band structure.

● Semiconductor sample (e.g., silicon, germanium)

● Light source (e.g., white light or monochromatic
light source)
APPARATUS

Solid-Sate Physics Laboratory Lab book

● Monochromator or wavelength filter
AND ● Photodetector or spectrometer
MATERIAL ● Optical setup (e.g., beam splitter, lenses, optical
REQUIRED: filters)
● Power supply
● Computer or data acquisition system (if available)

PRINCIPLE:
: The band gap is a fundamental property of semiconductor materials that determines their electrical and optical
behavior. It represents the energy difference between the valence band (highest energy band filled with electrons) and
the conduction band (lowest energy band that can conduct electricity).

The band gap energy (Eg) can be determined by measuring the absorption spectrum of the semiconductor material.
When light of varying energy (wavelength) is incident on the material, photons with energy equal to or greater than the
band gap energy are absorbed, resulting in a decrease in transmitted or reflected light intensity.

The relationship between the absorption coefficient (α), incident light intensity (I0), and transmitted or reflected light
intensity (I) is given by the Beer-Lambert law: [ I = I_0 \cdot e^{-αd} ] where:

● I is the transmitted or reflected light intensity

● d is the material thickness

By measuring the absorption coefficient (α) at different wavelengths, the band gap energy (Eg) can be determined.
 Physics Department TITLE:

Band Gap Measurement

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the optical setup, including the light source, monochromator or wavelength filter, and photodetector or
spectrometer.

2. Prepare the semiconductor sample by ensuring it has a smooth and clean surface.

3. Adjust the optical setup to direct the light beam onto the sample surface.

4. Measure the incident light intensity (I0) using the photodetector or spectrometer without the sample.

5. Measure the transmitted or reflected light intensity (I) as the light passes through or reflects off the sample.

6. Adjust the wavelength of the incident light using the monochromator or wavelength filter and repeat steps 4
and 5 at various wavelengths.

7. Calculate the absorption coefficient (α) using the measured intensities and the Beer-Lambert law.

Solid State Physics Laboratory Lab

8. Plot the absorption coefficient as a function of photon energy or wavelength.

9. Determine the band gap energy (Eg) by extrapolating the linear portion of the absorption coefficient vs.
energy/wavelength plot to the x-axis.

CALCULATIONS & RESULTS:

● Calculate the absorption coefficient (α) using the measured incident and transmitted/reflected light intensities.

● Plot the absorption coefficient as a function of photon energy or wavelength.

● Determine the band gap energy (Eg) by extrapolating the linear portion of the absorption coefficient vs. energy/wavelength
plot to the x-axis.

1. Sample preparation: Inadequate sample preparation, such as improper cleaning or surface defects,
can affect the accuracy of the absorption measurements. Ensure proper sample handling and
SOURCES OF cleaning techniques.
ERROR: 2. Light source stability: Variations in the light source intensity or spectral characteristics can introduce
The most common
errors in the measured absorption coefficient. Use a stable light source and ensure proper
sources of errors in
calibration.
this experiment are:
3. Measurement accuracy: Errors in the measurement of incident and transmitted/reflected light
intensities can affect the calculated absorption coefficient. Use precise and calibrated
photodetectors or spectrometers, and minimize external sources of noise or interference.
 Physics Department
TITLE:

Fermi Surface Mapping

AIM
DEMONSTRATION SIMULATION

To experimentally determine the Fermi surface of a

metal using the de Haas-van Alphen effect, and to
understand the concept of Fermi momentum and
Fermi energy.

● High magnetic field system

● Low-temperature cryostat
APPARATUS

Solid-Sate Physics Laboratory Lab book

● Sample of the metal to be tested
AND ● Sensitive magnetometer or Hall probe
MATERIAL ● Power supply
REQUIRED: ● Data acquisition system
● Computer for data analysis

PRINCIPLE:
The Fermi surface is a 3D surface in k-space that represents the locus of points in the reciprocal lattice space where the
energy of an electron is equal to the Fermi energy. The de Haas-van Alphen effect is an oscillatory change in the
magnetization of a metal when subjected to a magnetic field at low temperatures.

The oscillations arise due to the quantization of the electron energy levels in the presence of a magnetic field, leading to
discrete Landau levels. These oscillations can be used to experimentally map the Fermi surface of the metal. The
frequency of the oscillations is related to the extremal cross-sectional area of the Fermi surface in k-space.

The frequency of the de Haas-van Alphen oscillations, determined by the oscillatory magnetization, is related to the
extremal cross-sectional area of the Fermi surface according to the Onsager relation: [ F = \frac{{\Phi_0}}{{2\pi^2}} \cdot
A_F ] where:

● F is the frequency of the oscillations

● Φ_0 is the magnetic flux quantum

● A_F is the extremal cross-sectional area of the Fermi surface

 Physics Department TITLE:

Fermi Surface Mapping

PROCEDURE:

1. Prepare the sample by ensuring it is of high purity and suitable for low-temperature measurements.

2. Place the sample in the low-temperature cryostat and cool it to near absolute zero.

3. Apply a high magnetic field to the sample using the high magnetic field system.

4. Measure the magnetization of the sample as a function of the magnetic field strength using the sensitive
magnetometer or Hall probe.

5. Record the oscillatory magnetization data as the magnetic field strength is varied.

6. Use the data acquisition system to collect and store the magnetization data.

7. Analyze the recorded data using a computer to identify the frequencies and amplitudes of the de Haas-van
Alphen oscillations.

Solid State Physics Laboratory Lab

8. Calculate the extremal cross-sectional area of the Fermi surface using the identified frequencies according to
the Onsager relation.

CALCULATIONS & RESULTS:

● Calculate the extremal cross-sectional area of the Fermi surface (A_F) using the frequencies of the de Haas-van Alphen
oscillations and the Onsager relation.

● Plot the Fermi surface in reciprocal space using the calculated extremal cross-sectional areas.

● Analyze the Fermi surface topology and relate it to the electronic structure of the metal.

1. Sample impurities: Impurities in the sample can affect the accuracy of the measured de Haas-van
Alphen oscillations and the calculated Fermi surface. Use high-purity samples and ensure proper
sample handling and preparation.
SOURCES OF
ERROR: 2. Temperature fluctuations: Variations in the cryostat temperature can impact the measured
The most common magnetization and the observed de Haas-van Alphen oscillations. Ensure stable and low-
sources of errors in temperature conditions throughout the experiment.
this experiment are:
3. Magnetic field non-uniformity: Inhomogeneities in the applied magnetic field can distort the de
Haas-van Alphen oscillations and lead to errors in the calculated Fermi surface. Use a well-calibrated
magnetic field system and consider magnetic field corrections in the data analysis.
 Physics Department
TITLE:

Ferroelectric Polarization

AIM
DEMONSTRATION SIMULATION

To measure and understand the ferroelectric

polarization behavior of a material and investigate
its response to an external electric field.

● Ferroelectric material sample (e.g., lead zirconate

titanate, barium titanate)
APPARATUS

Solid-Sate Physics Laboratory Lab book

● High-voltage power supply
AND ● Capacitor
MATERIAL ● Electrometer or charge amplifier
REQUIRED: ● Data acquisition system
● Computer for data analysis

PRINCIPLE:
: Ferroelectric materials exhibit a spontaneous electric polarization that can be reversed by an external electric field.
The ferroelectric polarization behavior is characterized by hysteresis, where the polarization response depends on the
history of the applied electric field.

The ferroelectric polarization (P) is related to the applied electric field (E) through the polarization-electric field
hysteresis loop. The rela onship can be described by the following equa on: [ P = ε_0χE + P_s \cdot \le (1 -
\frac{T}{T_c}\right)^{β}E + \frac{ε_0E^3}{3E_c} ] where:

● P is the ferroelectric polarization

● ε_0 is the vacuum permittivity
● χ is the linear susceptibility
● P_s is the saturation polarization
● T is the temperature
● T_c is the Curie temperature
● β is the critical exponent
● E_c is the coercive field
 Physics Department TITLE:

Ferroelectric Polarization

PROCEDURE:

1. Prepare the ferroelectric sample by ensuring it is of high purity and suitable for polarization measurements.

2. Connect the sample to the high-voltage power supply and capacitor to apply an electric field.

3. Measure the polarization response of the sample as a function of the applied electric field using the
electrometer or charge amplifier.

4. Apply a range of electric field strengths to the sample and record the corresponding polarization values.

5. Reverse the direction of the electric field and repeat the measurements to observe the hysteresis behavior.

6. Use the data acquisition system to collect and store the polarization data.

7. Analyze the recorded data using a computer to plot the hysteresis loop and extract relevant parameters such as
coercive field and saturation polarization.

Solid State Physics Laboratory Lab

CALCULATIONS & RESULTS:

● Plot the ferroelectric polarization as a function of the applied electric field to observe the hysteresis loop.

● Determine the coercive field and saturation polarization from the hysteresis loop.

● Analyze the hysteresis behavior to understand the ferroelectric polarization response to the electric field.

1. Sample quality: Impurities or defects in the ferroelectric sample can affect the accuracy of the
measured polarization values and hysteresis behavior. Use high-quality samples and ensure proper
sample handling and preparation.
SOURCES OF
ERROR: 2. Electric field non-uniformity: Inhomogeneities in the applied electric field can distort the observed
The most common hysteresis loop and lead to errors in the extracted parameters. Use a well-calibrated high-voltage
sources of errors in power supply and consider electric field corrections in the data analysis.
this experiment are:
3. Measurement accuracy: Errors in the measurement of polarization values can impact the observed
hysteresis behavior and the extracted parameters. Use precise and calibrated electrometers or
charge amplifiers, and minimize external sources of noise or interference.
 Physics Department
TITLE:

Superconductivity Transition Temperature

AIM
DEMONSTRATION SIMULATION

To measure and analyze the transition

temperature of a superconducting material and
understand its behavior at the transition point.

● Superconducting material sample (e.g., lead,

niobium)
● Liquid nitrogen or other cryogenic cooling system
APPARATUS

Solid-Sate Physics Laboratory Lab book

● Thermometer or temperature sensor
AND ● Electrical leads and contacts
MATERIAL ● Power supply
REQUIRED: ● Ammeter
● Data acquisition system
● Computer for data analysis

PRINCIPLE:
Superconductivity is a phenomenon exhibited by certain materials at low temperatures where they exhibit zero
electrical resistance and expel magnetic fields (the Meissner effect). The transition to the superconducting state occurs
at a critical temperature (T_c), which is a characteristic property of the material.

The transition temperature can be measured by observing the electrical resistance of the superconducting material as a
function of temperature. Below the transition temperature, the resistance rapidly drops to zero as the material enters
the superconducting state.

The relationship between the critical temperature (T_c) and the superconducting energy gap (Δ) is given by the
Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory:

[ k_B T_c = 1.13 \Delta ]

where:

● k_B is the Boltzmann constant

 Physics Department TITLE:

Superconductivity Transition Temperature

PROCEDURE:

1. Prepare the superconducting sample and ensure it is of high purity and suitable for low-temperature
measurements.

2. Connect the sample to the electrical leads and contacts for resistance measurements.

3. Immerse the sample in liquid nitrogen or use a cryogenic cooling system to cool it to low temperatures.

4. Measure the electrical resistance of the sample as a function of temperature using the ammeter and data
acquisition system.

5. Record the resistance data as the temperature is varied through the transition temperature range.

6. Analyze the resistance data to identify the critical temperature (T_c) at which the resistance drops to zero.

CALCULATIONS & RESULTS:

Solid State Physics Laboratory Lab

● Plot the electrical resistance of the superconducting material as a function of temperature to observe the transition to the
superconducting state.

● Determine the critical temperature (T_c) from the resistance-temperature curve.

1. Sample impurities: Impurities or defects in the superconducting sample can affect the accuracy of
the measured transition temperature. Use high-purity samples and ensure proper sample handling
and preparation.
SOURCES OF
ERROR: 2. Temperature fluctuations: Variations in the cryogenic temperature can impact the observed
The most common resistance-temperature curve and the accuracy of the measured critical temperature. Ensure stable
sources of errors in and low-temperature conditions throughout the experiment.
this experiment are:
3. Measurement accuracy: Errors in the measurement of resistance values can impact the accuracy of
the identified critical temperature. Use precise and calibrated instrumentation, and minimize
external sources of noise or interference.
 Physics Department
TITLE:

Dielectric Constant Measurement

AIM
DEMONSTRATION SIMULATION

To measure the dielectric constant of a material

and understand its response to an electric field.

● Parallel plate capacitor

APPARATUS ● Dielectric material sample (e.g., ceramic, plastic)

Solid-Sate Physics Laboratory Lab book

AND ● Power supply
MATERIAL ● Multimeter or LCR meter
REQUIRED: ● Vernier calipers
● Insulating support for the capacitor plates

PRINCIPLE:
The dielectric constant, also known as the relative permittivity, is a measure of a material's ability to store electrical
energy in an electric field. It quantifies the extent to which an electric field can polarize the material and is defined as
the ratio of the electric displacement in the material to the electric field applied.

The relationship between the electric displacement (D), electric field strength (E), and dielectric constant (ε) can be
described by the equation: [ D = εE ] where:

● D is the electric displacement

● E is the electric field strength

● ε is the dielectric constant

The dielectric constant is an important parameter in the design and analysis of capacitors, insulators, and electronic
devices.
 Physics Department TITLE:

Dielectric Constant Measurement

PROCEDURE:

1. Construct the parallel plate capacitor using the insulating support to maintain a fixed separation between the
capacitor plates.

2. Measure the area (A) and separation distance (d) of the capacitor plates using vernier calipers.

3. Insert the dielectric material sample between the capacitor plates.

4. Apply a known voltage to the capacitor plates using the power supply.

5. Measure the electric displacement or capacitance of the capacitor with and without the dielectric material using
the multimeter or LCR meter.

6. Calculate the dielectric constant of the material using the measured capacitance values and the known
geometry of the capacitor.

Solid State Physics Laboratory Lab

CALCULATIONS & RESULTS:

● Calculate the dielectric constant (ε) of the material using the measured capacitance values and the known geometry of the
capacitor: [ ε = \frac{{C_0}}{{Aε_0/d}} ] where:

● C_0 is the capacitance of the capacitor with the dielectric material

● A is the area of the capacitor plates

● d is the separation distance of the capacitor plates

● ε_0 is the vacuum permittivity

1. Capacitor geometry: Inaccuracies in measuring the area and separation distance of the capacitor
plates can affect the accuracy of the calculated dielectric constant. Ensure precise measurements
using appropriate tools.
SOURCES OF
ERROR: 2. Dielectric material uniformity: Variations in the dielectric material's thickness or composition can
The most common lead to errors in the measured capacitance values. Use a uniform and well-prepared dielectric
sources of errors in sample.
this experiment are:
3. Measurement accuracy: Errors in the measurement of capacitance values can impact the accuracy
of the calculated dielectric constant. Use precise and calibrated multimeters or LCR meters, and
consider temperature effects on the measurements.