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Cities of the World

2
 Cities of the World

Regional Patterns and Urban Environments

SIXTH EDITION

EDITED BY
STANLEY D. BRUNN, JESSICA K. GRAYBILL, MAUREEN HAYS-MITCHELL,
AND DONALD J. ZEIGLER

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD

Lanham • Boulder • New York • London

3
Executive Editor: Susan McEachern
Assistant Editor: Audra Figgins
Senior Marketing Manager: Karin Cholak
Marketing Manager: Kim Lyons
Production Editor: Alden Perkins

Credits and acknowledgments of sources for material or information used with permission appear on the appropriate
page within the text.
Published by Rowman & Littlefield
A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.
4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706
www.rowman.com

Unit A, Whitacre Mews, 26-34 Stannary Street, London SE11 4AB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2016 by Rowman & Littlefield
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means,
including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a
reviewer who may quote passages in a review.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cities of the world : regional patterns and urban environments / edited by Stanley D. Brunn, Jessica K. Graybill,
Maureen Hays-Mitchell, and Donald J. Zeigler.—Sixth Edition.
pages cm
Revised edition of Cities of the world, 2012.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4422-4916-5 (cloth : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-1-4422-4917-2 (electronic) 1. Cities and towns. 2. City
planning. 3. Urbanization. 4. Urban policy. I. Brunn, Stanley D., editor. II. Graybill, Jessica K., 1973– editor. III.
Hays-Mitchell, Maureen, editor.
HT151.C569 2016
307.76—dc23
2015036537
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for
Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.
Printed in the United States of America

4
To a greener and more just future for planet Earth, its cities and residents.

5
 Contents

List of Illustrations
Preface
1 World Urban Development
Jessica K. Graybill, Maureen Hays-Mitchell, Donald J. Zeigler, and Stanley D. Brunn
The World Urban System: Prospects until 2050
World Urbanization: Past Trends
Early Urbanization: Antiquity to Fifth Century ce / The Middle Period: Fifth to
Seventeenth Century ce / Industrial and Postindustrial Urbanization: Eighteenth
Century to the Present
City Functions and Urban Economies
City Functions / Sectors of the Urban Economy / Basic and Nonbasic Economic
Activities
Theories on the Spatial Structure of Cities
The Concentric Zone Model / The Sector Model / The Multiple Nuclei Model /
The Inverse Concentric Zone Model
Urban Challenges
Managing the Environment / Managing Population Size and Growth / Managing
Urban Services / Managing Slums and Squatter Settlements / Managing Society /
Managing Unemployment / Managing Racial and Ethnic Issues / Managing
Privacy / Managing Modernization and Globalization / Managing Traffic /
Managing Urban Governance
Concepts, Terms, and Definitions
Capital City / City / Colonial City / Conurbation / Galactic Metropolis /
Industrial City / Megacity / Megalopolis / Metacity / Metropolis and Metropolitan
Area / New Town / Preindustrial City / Postindustrial City / Primate City / Rank-
Size Rule / Site and Situation / Socialist and Post-socialist City / Suburbia /
Sustainable City / Urbanism / Urbanization / Urban Agglomeration / Urban Area /
Urban Place / Urban Landscapes / World City
Suggested Readings
2 Cities of the United States and Canada
Lisa Benton-Short and Nathaniel M. Lewis
Historical Overview

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 Colonial Mercantilism: 1700–1840 / Industrial Capitalism: 1840–1970 /
Postindustrial Capitalism: 1975–present
Models of Urban Structure
Distinctive Cities
New York City: A Global Metropolis / Los Angeles: Outward Glitz, Inner Turmoil
/ Detroit and Cleveland: Shrinking Cities / Montreal: Moving Uphill from
Upheaval / Ottawa: A Capital of Compromise / Washington, DC: A New
Immigrant Gateway / New Orleans: Vulnerable City
Urban Problems and Prospects
Globalization and the Urban Hierarchy / Globalization and Localization /
Immigration and Increasing Diversity / Women in the City / Urban LGBTQ
Communities / Security and Urban Fortification / Rebuilding and
Memorialization
Urban Environmental Issues
Water / Air Pollution / Climate Change
Conclusions
Suggested Readings
3 Cities of Middle America and the Caribbean
Roberto Albandoz, Tim Brothers, Seth Dixon, Irma Escamilla, Joseph L. Scarpaci, and
Thomas Sigler
Historical Geography of Middle American and Caribbean Urbanization
Mexico / Central America / Caribbean
Models of Urban Structure
Distinctive Cities
Mexico City: Ancient Aztec Capital, Contemporary Megacity / San José: Cultural
Capital and Ecotourism Gateway / Havana: The Once and Future Hub of the
Caribbean? / Panama City: Child of Globalization / San Juan: American City
Under Stress
Urban Challenges
Shifting Patterns of City Growth / Social and Spatial Segregation / Natural
Disasters and Vulnerable Cities / Managing Flows: Tourism and Drug Trafficking
/ Gated Communities
Prospects for the Future
Economic Strengths and Vulnerability
Suggested Readings
4 Cities of South America
Brian J. Godfrey and Maureen Hays-Mitchell
Urban Patterns in South America
Contemporary Urban Trends / Critical Issues
Urban Primacy and Uneven Regional Development / Economic Polarization and Spatial Segregation /
Economic Restructuring, Structural Adjustment, and Social Movements / Declining Infrastructures and
Environmental Degradation
Historical Perspectives on South American Cities
Pre-Columbian Urbanism / Colonial Cities: Spanish versus Portuguese America /

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 Neocolonial Urbanization: Political Independence, Economic Dependence /
Twentieth Century: The Urbanizing Century
Distinctive Cities
Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo: Anchors of South America’s Megalopolis
Rio de Janeiro: The “Marvelous City” / São Paulo: The Making of a Megacity
Brasília: Continental Geopolitics and Planned Cities / Lima: Tempering
Hyperurbanization on South America’s Pacific Rim / Buenos Aires: Global City of
the Southern Cone / Curitiba and Bogotá: Planning For Sustainable Urban
Development
Urban Challenges and Prospects
The Urban Economy and Social Justice / Defensive Urbanism and Self-Help
Housing / Spatial Segregation, Land Use, and Environmental Injustices
An Eye toward the Future
Suggested Readings
5 Cities of Europe
Linda McCarthy and Corey Johnson
Historical Perspectives on Urban Development
Classical Period: 800 bce to 450 ce / Medieval Period: 450–1300 ce / Renaissance
and Baroque Periods: 1300–1760 ce / Industrial Period: 1760–1945 ce
Urban Patterns across Europe
Postwar Divergence and Convergence
Western Europe / Socialist Urbanization / Post-Socialist Changes
Core-Periphery Model
Immigration, Globalization, and Planning
The Challenge of Integrating Immigrants / European and Global Linkages / Urban
Policy and Planning
Characteristic Features within Cities
Town Squares / Major Landmarks / Complex Street Pattern / High Density and
Compact Form / Bustling City Centers / Low-Rise Skylines / Neighborhood
Stability and Change / Housing
Models of the European City
Northwestern European City Structure / Mediterranean City Structure / Central
and Eastern European City Structure
Distinctive Cities
London: Europe’s Global City / Paris: France’s Primate City Par Excellence /
Barcelona: Capital of Catalonia / Oslo: Low-Key Capital of Norway / Berlin: The
Past Always Present in Germany’s Capital / Bucharest: A New Paris of the East?
Urban Challenges
Suggested Readings
6 Cities of Russia
Jessica K. Graybill and Megan Dixon
Historical Evolution of the Russian Urban System
The Pre-Soviet Period: Birth of the Urban System / The Soviet Period: New
Urban Patterns / Urban and Regional Planning in the Soviet Period / The Urban

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 Environment in the Soviet Period / Late Soviet Period: The Beginning of Change
Contemporary Russia: Reconfiguring the Urban System
Political Urban Transformation / Changing Urban Structure and Function /
Sociocultural Urban Transformation / Twenty-first-Century Environmental
Concerns
Distinctive Cities
Moscow: Russia’s Past Meets Russia’s Future / St. Petersburg: Window on the
West—Again? / Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk: The International Power of Oil / Norilsk:
The Legacy of Heavy Industry / Kazan: Volga Port in Tatarstan / Vladivostok:
Russia’s Pacific Capital?
Prospects for the Future
Suggested Readings
7 Cities of the Greater Middle East
Zia Salim, Donald J. Zeigler, and Amal K. Ali
Foundations of the Urban System
Contemporary Urban Patterns
Models of Urban Structure
Urban Transects / Arab Cities on the Gulf
Form and Function on the Urban Landscape
From Arab Spring to Arab Winter
Distinctive Cities
Cairo: The Victorious / Jerusalem: City of Three Faiths / Dubai: Gulf Showplace /
Mecca: City of the Hajj / Istanbul: Transcontinental Hinge
Urban Problems and Prospects
Water / Environmental Degradation / Housing
Conclusion
Suggested Readings
8 Cities of Sub-Saharan Africa
Garth Myers, Francis Owusu, and Angela Gray Subulwa
African Urbanization
Historical Geography of Urban Development
Ancient and Medieval Precolonial Urban Centers / Urban Development after 1500
/ African Urbanization in the Era of Formal Colonial Rule / Postcolonial
Urbanization / Current Urbanization Trends
Distinctive Cities
Kinshasa: The Invisible City / Accra: African Neoliberal City? / Lagos: Largest
Megacity of SSA / Nairobi: Urban Legacies of Colonialism / Dakar: Senegal’s City
of Contradictions / Johannesburg: A Multicentered City of Gold
Urban Challenges
Urban Environmental Issues / Primate Cities / Rural-to-Urban Migration
A Hopeful Vignette
Suggested Readings

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9 Cities of South Asia
Ashok Dutt, George Pomeroy, Ishrat Islam, and Ipsita Chatterjee
Urban Patterns at the Regional Scale
Historical Perspectives on Urban Developments
Indus Valley Era / Aryan Hindu Impact / Dravidian Temple Cities / Muslim
Impact / Colonial Period / The Presidency Towns
Models of Urban Structure
The Colonial-Based City Model / The Bazaar-Based City Model / Planned Cities /
Mixtures of Colonial and Bazaar Models
Distinctive Cities
Mumbai: India’s Cultural and Economic Capital / Bengalūru and Hyderabad:
India’s Economic Frontier / Delhi: Who Controls Delhi Controls India / Kolkata:
Premier Presidency Town / Karachi: Port and Former Capital / Dhaka: Capital,
Port, and Primate City / Kathmandu, Colombo, and Kabul: Cities on the Edge
Globalization, City Marketing, and Urban Violence
Urban Challenges
Suggested Readings
10 Cities of Southeast Asia
James Tyner and Arnisson Andre Ortega
Urban Patterns at the Regional Scale
Historical Geography of Urban Development
Precolonial Patterns of Urbanization / Urbanization in Colonial Southeast Asia
Recent Urbanization Trends
Globalization, Urbanization, and the Middle Class
Models of Urban Structure
Distinctive Cities
Singapore: World City of Southeast Asia / Kuala Lumpur: Twin Towers and
Cyberspace / Jakarta: Megacity of Indonesia / Manila: Primate City of the
Philippines / Bangkok: The Los Angeles of the Tropics / Phnom Penh, Ho Chi
Minh City, Hanoi: Socialist Cities in Transition
Urban Challenges
An Eye to the Future
Suggested Readings
11 Cities of East Asia
Kam Wing Chan and Alana Boland
The Evolution of Cities
The Traditional or Preindustrial City / The Chinese City as Model: Japan and
Korea / Colonial Cities
First Footholds: The Portuguese and the Dutch / The Treaty Ports of China / The Japanese Impact / Hong Kong
/ Japan: The Asian Exception
Internal Structure of East Asian Cities
Distinctive Cities
Tokyo and the Tokaido Megalopolis: Unipolar Concentration / Beijing: The New

10
 “Forbidden City”? / Shanghai: “New York” of China? / Hong Kong: Business Not
as Usual / Taipei: In Search of an Identity? / Seoul: The “Phoenix” of Primate
Cities
Urban Problems and their Solutions
The Chinese Way / Other Paths in East Asia
Closing the Gap: Decentralization in Japan / Seoul: The Problems of Primacy / Taipei: Toward Balanced
Regional Development / The Greening of East Asian Cities
Prospects for the Future
Suggested Readings
12 Cities of Australia and the Pacific Islands
Robyn Dowling and Pauline McGuirk
Historical Foundations of Urbanism
Contemporary Urban Patterns and Processes
The Pacific Islands / Australia / Aotearoa/New Zealand
Distinctive Cities
Sydney: Australia’s World City / Perth: Isolated Millionaire / Gold Coast: Tourism
Urbanization / Auckland: Economic Hub of Aotearoa/New Zealand / Port
Moresby and Suva: Island Capitals
Trends and Challenges
Suggested Readings
13 Cities of the Future
Brian Edward Johnson and Benjamin Shultz
Urban Growth in the Global South
Causes of Urban Growth in the Global South / Challenges Posed by Urban
Growth in the Global South
Urban Change in the Global North
Urban Sustainability at Center Stage
Pollution Problems and Urban Futures / Climate Change and Urban Futures
Infrastructure to Mitigate Climate Change
Deindustrialization and Urban Futures / Urban Gardening and Urban Futures
The Geography of Connectivity and Talent
Cities as Virtual Crossroads / Cities as Nodes of Globalization / Cities Beyond the
Networked Core
Governance, GIS Use, and Security Provision
Governmental Cooperation / Geographic Information Systems / Surveillance of
Public Space
Conclusions
Urban Living at Its Best
Suggested Readings
Appendix
Cover Photo Credits
Geographical Index

11
Index to Subjects
About the Editors and Contributors

12
 List of Illustrations

Figures
1.1 Major Urban Agglomerations of the World.
1.2 Urban Environmental Risks. This conceptual diagram indicates the generalized, possible
risks and concerns for the environment of urban and urbanizing places at (i) local, regional
and global scales and (ii) across short- and long-term time horizons. Because individual
places will experience different suites of environmental concerns, this diagram is intended to
pique discussion of possible urban environmental changes.
1.3 Growth of World and Urban Population, 1950–2030.
1.4 Urban Population of World Regions, 1950, 2014, 2050.
1.5 Urban Population in MDCs versus LDCs by Size Class of Urban Settlement, 1975–2015.
1.6 Spread of Urbanization, Antiquity to Modern Times.
1.7 The original adobe wall around Bukhara, Uzbekistan is several meters thick, a reminder of
the ancient culture and history associated with this city along the Silk Route.
1.8 Labor Force Composition at Various Stages in Human History.
1.9 Street peddlers in Shakhrisabz, Uzbekistan, the birthplace of Tamerlane (Timur) sell goods
from China and Turkey to local Uzbek customers in this ancient Silk Route city.
1.10 Generalized Patterns of Internal Urban Structure.
1.11 These cartograms indicate the amount of territory classified as urban in countries worldwide
(not all countries are included).
1.12 The Frontenac Hotel was built by the Canadian Pacific Railway. As the most well-known
signature architecture of Quebec City, it still functions as tourist magnet even though most
no longer come by train.
1.13 Even in rich cities such as Macao, one of China’s Special Administrative Regions, scavengers
find a niche in the urban ecosystem by collecting cardboard and other items that have value
as recyclables.
1.14 Neuroscientists now tell us that the presence of water sharpens the intellect and enhances
feelings of well-being. Selecting a place along the Charles River in Boston might be the best
thing a student could do to maximize study time.
1.15 The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom took place under the leadership of Dr.
Martin Luther King, Jr., and others in 1963. The 50th anniversary of the march and the “I
Have a Dream” speech took place in 2013 to keep the dream alive.
1.16 Banksy is a well-known graffiti artist whose works materialize on the urban landscape while
no one is watching. In London, his unauthorized critique of CCTV appeared overnight on
Royal Mail Service property.
1.17 Urban Geography: Where It All Comes Together.
1.18 These heroic statues in front of the opera house in Novosibirsk, Russia, are typical of former

13
 socialist cities. Statues, paintings, posters were all designed to inspire the populace to
sacrifices lives of personal comfort for the sake of national welfare.
1.19 Matsu’s followers in Taipei love parades. With their big ears, these maidens remind everyone
to listen to the voices of enlightened beings. Matsu is the goddess honored over and above all
others on the island of Taiwan.
2.1 Major Urban Agglomerations of the United States and Canada.
2.2 Toronto’s unique City Hall was built in the 1960s to brand the city. Canada’s largest city is
also a hub for international travelers, such as these young men from India.
2.3 Skyscrapers, such as the Wrigley Building in Chicago, became the cathedrals of urban
commerce as steel-frame construction and the elevator enabled the design of ever taller
buildings.
2.4 Slater’s Mill is today an historical landmark in Pawtucket, Rhode Island; it marked the
beginning of the factory system in the United States.
2.5 The Erie Canal, running through downtown Syracuse, New York, was critical in pushing
New York City to the top of the U.S. urban hierarchy.
2.6 Signs of deindustrialization, such as this abandoned steel mill, marked the landscapes of
industrial-era cities such as Pittsburgh during the 1980s.
2.7 Pawn shops are examples of the parasitic economies that mark the poorer sections of many
American cities and suburbs.
2.8 Roads and highways take up an enormous one-fifth of urban land in the United States,
exemplified by this iconic photo of the Los Angeles freeway system.
2.9 “View of Savannah, as it stood the 29th March, A.D. 1734.”
2.10 As architecture critic Michael Sorkin has observed, “Like the suburban house that rejects the
sociability of front porches and sidewalks for private back yards, malls look inward, turning
their backs on the public street.”
2.11 Peter Woytuk sculptures, playing off of New York’s nickname, the Big Apple, became a
public art exhibit that extended all along Broadway, this one of the Upper West Side.
2.12 Migrants make their presence felt in numerous ways. In this case, there are sufficient
Brazilian immigrants for a Brazilian service at this Baptist Church outside Washington, DC.
2.13 In areas that were flooded during Katrina, houses have been raised above flood level in
anticipation of future threats.
2.14 New York’s Foreign-Born Population.
2.15 In 2014, DC hosted its first international pop-up picnic, called Diner en Blanc, for 1500
people. The concept, which originated in Paris, requires that guests wear all-white clothing
and bring their own food and chairs.
2.16 The Stonewall riots took place on June 28, 1969, outside the Stonewall Inn in New York’s
Greenwich Village. They are now regarded as the beginning of the gay and lesbian rights
movement in the United States.
2.17 Here, circled in blue, a security camera has been positioned atop the Jefferson Memorial in
the Washington, DC. What messages do surveillance cameras convey in a public space which
memorializes freedom, liberty and independence?
2.18 Chicago and many other cities remain racially segregated, and minorities are concerned
about police profiling and violence.
2.19 This view of the 9/11 Memorial shows one of the two reflecting pools that sit within the
footprints where the Twin Towers once stood.
2.20 On the Cincinnati waterfront, residents are reminded that the Ohio River is subject to
combined sewer overflows that create a danger to public health.
3.1 Major Urban Agglomerations of Middle America and the Caribbean.
3.2 Over 100 hotels in Cancún’s zona hotelera offer thousands of jobs to Mexico’s youth,

14
 preparing them to make a living in the service economy. Here they confront a native
inhabitant of the island.
3.3 A panoramic view of Monterrey illustrates how a distinctive topographic feature, the Cerro
de la Silla, can influence the shape of a metropolitan area.
3.4 Satellite image of the “sister” cities Quanaminthe (left) and Dajabón (right). The border
between Haiti and the Dominican Republic follows the Massacre River in the bottom half of
the image but leaves it in the top half to run more directly north. The industrial free zone,
visible as the row of large white buildings near the river at the top of the image, lies in a
political no man’s land between the border and the river.
3.5 Caribbean Urbanization by City Size, 1960 and 2010.
3.6 The Revised Griffin-Ford Model of Latin American City Structure.
3.7 The Zócalo (main square) in Mexico City is surrounded by colonial buildings, most notably
the Metropolitan Cathedral and the headquarters of the Federal and Capital Governments.
3.8 The elite western corridor connecting Chapultepec Park and the Zócalo is the preeminent
place to memorialize Mexican heritage and identity. Here in the Alameda is a monument
honoring Benito Juárez, a Zapotec Indian, in neoclassical style.
3.9 Mexico City’s federally subsidized subway system is incredibly congested at key transfer
stations like the Hidalgo interchange downtown.
3.10 A lighthouse at Moro Castle stands at the entrance to Havana harbor, while young Cubans
use the deteriorating sea wall as a recreational resource.
3.11 Here are two images of a Cuba frozen in time: Che Guevara, one of the leaders of the Cuban
Revolution of 1959, and a classic American sedan (one of many still on the road) that arrived
prior to the Revolution.
3.12 The polycentric city of Havana.
3.13 The fishing docks and the skyscrapers of Panama City reveal traditional and emerging
economic geographies.
3.14 The Casco Antiguo quarter in Panama City is currently undergoing the process of
gentrification.
3.15 The Plaza de Armas in San Juan, Puerto Rico, is now used not for drilling troops but for
enhancing urban life. Fountains are common components of plazas in Spanish cities.
3.16 Two aerial views of shantytowns (bidonvilles) in low-lying areas just north of the Port-au-
Prince, Haiti city center. Flooding occurred in these areas after Hurricane Noel struck the
island of Hispaniola on October 29–31, 2007. The storm claimed at least 30 lives in the
Dominican Republic and 20 in Haiti.
3.17 Former military airport north of Port-au-Prince city center, July 2009, six months before
January 2010 earthquake.
3.18 Tent camp at former military airport north of Port-au-Prince city center, November 2010,
ten months after January 2010 earthquake.
4.1 Major Urban Agglomerations of South America.
4.2 The Pelourinho historic district, named for the “pillory” formerly used to punish slaves,
indicates the strong Afro-Brazilian influence in Salvador da Bahia.
4.3 Stabroek Market is the main market in Georgetown, Guyana and always bustling with
activity.
4.4 Irrigators march through Cochabamba in celebration of the National Irrigators’ Congress, an
important milestone in the process of establishing new forms of water governance in the
wake of the water war.
4.5 Spanish conquistadores built Mediterranean-style structures atop Inca stone walls in pre-
Columbian cities such as Cuzco in present-day Peru.
4.6 At 4,000 meters above sea level, Bolivia’s capital city La Paz extends throughout and beyond

15
 its crater-like valley etched into the Altiplano. The metropolitan region encompasses more
than 2 million people and is the largest urban agglomeration in Bolivia. It includes El Alto, a
poor and dynamic community perched on the rim of La Paz valley that, with the influx of
unemployed tin miners and Aymara migrants, now surpasses La Paz city in population.
4.7 Money-changers on the streets of Lima’s historic center jostle to change dollars and Euros as
well as “rotos” and “deteriorados”—broken and deteriorated bills.
4.8 The Rio de Janeiro-São Paulo-Campinas extended metropolitan region.
4.9 This panoramic view of Rio de Janeiro includes Sugarloaf Mountain (Pão de Açúcar) at the
entrance to Guanabara Bay, Corcovado Mountain with its majestic statue, Rodrigo de
Freitas Lake, and the lush forests of Tijuca National Park.
4.10 A view of the Cantagalo district, located on steep hillsides between Copacabana and Ipanema
beaches, illustrates the informal, adaptive geography of Rio’s favelas.
4.11 Once lined by elite mansions, the Avenida Paulista became the city’s corporate “Miracle
Mile” after World War II.
4.12 The spectacular modern architecture of Brasília, designed by Brazilian architect Oscar
Niemeyer, highlights the federal buildings located along the Monumental Axis (Eixo
Monumental). Here we see the Ministry of Justice in the foreground with the iconic
congressional complex in the distance.
4.13 Map of Brasília.
4.14 Lima’s central plaza, known as the Plaza de Armas, dates to the city’s founding and served as
the central point from which streets extended in the four cardinal directions consistent with
the Laws of the Indies.
4.15 Growth of Lima, 1910–2000. 169–170
4.16 Villa El Salvador is among the oldest and most well-known shantytowns (asentimientos
humanos). Established as a land invasion south of Lima by migrant families from the
Andean highlands in 1970, it epitomizes the self-help housing movement. It was awarded
formal status as a district within metropolitan Lima in 1983. Today, it is home to some
400,000 people and hundreds of businesses. The pink buildings are schools.
4.17 Three young girls find time for fun as they assist their mothers who labor as ambulantes
(street vendors) in the informal economy of Huancayo, a city in the Peruvian central Andes.
4.18 The Diagonal Norte (Northern Diagonal Boulevard), officially the Avenida Presidente
Rouge Saenz Pena, highlights the imposing Obelisk monument in downtown Buenos Aires.
4.19 Recent renovation of Puerto Madero, long a deteriorated inner harbor, created a revitalized
waterfront district adjacent to the downtown of Buenos Aires.
4.20 Eje Ambiental in historic Bogotá, where a dechannelized stream is part of a linear park along
Avenida Jimenez.
5.1 Major Urban Agglomerations of Europe.
5.2 Roman Cities in Europe, second century ce.
5.3 Ljubljana, Slovenia, took advantage of the collapse of Communist rule to bring out the
medieval elements of the city’s center, including the Dragon Bridge and St. Nicholas
Cathedral.
5.4 Much of the coal that fired the industrialization of cities came through the Welsh port of
Cardiff. That era is commemorated with public art on the reclaimed waterfront, along with
one of the chimerical animals from a Bob Dylan poem.
5.5 The Rhine-Ruhr Conurbation in Germany.
5.6 The Randstad Conurbation of the Netherlands.
5.7 Nation building is a function of every capital city’s landscape. In Amsterdam, a statue says
thank you to Queen Wilhelmina, who gave her subjects hope during World War II. Next to
the Dutch flag is the U.S. flag.

16
5.8 Warsaw’s skyline, once dominated by the Stalinesque Palace of Culture and Science’s
“wedding cake” architectural style, and the tallest building in the Eastern Bloc outside of
Moscow, is today dwarfed by newer steel-and-glass skyscrapers.
5.9 Europe’s conurbations within the context of Europe’s “Blue Banana” and core-periphery
conceptualizations.
5.10 The salon de thé (tea house) is a common element of urban landscapes in French-speaking
North Africa. As Arab immigrants arrive in Brussels, they bring with them their preferences
for particular tastes and social settings.
5.11 Here on Ludgate Hill in the City of London, a new immigrant from Bangladesh directs
people to the nearest McDonald’s. In medieval times, this area would have been a shadowy
tangle of narrow alleys that passed for streets.
5.12 Busy, pedestrianized shopping streets, such as this one in the heart of Dublin, are typical of
the European city centers.
5.13 Model of Northwestern European City Structure.
5.14 Model of Mediterranean City Structure.
5.15 Model of Central and Eastern European City Structure.
5.16 The iron security gates at the entrance to Downing Street in London prevent the public
from getting close to the official residence of the Prime Minister.
5.17 Since the 1990s, terrorist threats have increased and so has the security zone in London’s
financial district, “The City.”
5.18 Paris evolved around an island in the Seine River: Île de la Cité. Today, it is most famous for
the cathedral of Notre Dame, whose spire is barely visible here.
5.19 Throughout Catalonia, signs of Catalan nationalism—and separatism—are to be found.
This banner, in Girona, speaks to the world in English.
5.20 Communism brought extensive industrial development (evident in the background) and
isolation to Plovdiv, but post-Communist cell phone networks now connect a new
generation of Bulgarians to the world.
6.1 Major Urban Agglomerations of Russia.
6.2 New construction in cities around Russia (Vladivostok is pictured) relegates Soviet urban
landscapes to the background as new commercial and residential buildings vie for valuable
real estate locations.
6.3 Renovations in GUM shopping center on Red Square make it a top destination for tourists
and Russia’s elite seeking high-end shopping experiences.
6.4 Since the fall of communism, automobile ownership in Moscow has soared, and with it has
come urban gridlock.
6.5 New microrayon developments, with varied architectural styles and imposing gates and
fences, are rapidly changing the face of Russia’s suburbs. This picture is from Balakovo.
6.6 Population Change in Russian Cities, 2002–2010.
6.7 The Church of Our Savior on the Spilled Blood, in St. Petersburg, was built on the spot
where Emperor Alexander II was assassinated in March 1881. Built from 1883 to 1907, the
Romanov family provided funds for this glamorous cathedral.
6.8 Comparative Density Profiles in the built-up areas of Moscow and Paris.
6.9 Historic buildings in Vladivostok’s urban core crumble today from neglect in the maritime
climate of this port city.
6.10 A submarine in Kaliningrad, a former secret military city in the former Soviet Union, is now
used as a tourist attraction.
6.11 Space around many Russian homes, such as this one near Moscow, and apartment buildings
is devoted to subsistence agriculture during the short summer season.

17
6.12 Opened in 2010, “City Mall” in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk is the largest shopping mall in the
Russian Far East and boasts a microbrewery for beer and loudspeaker announcements in
Russian and English.
6.13 Tsarist-era buildings in Vladivostok’s urban core are being revitalized in the post-Soviet era.
6.14 Street peddlers hawk a variety of fresh goods along the railroad tracks across eastern Sakhalin
Island.
6.15 Increasing consumption and lagging public services are reflected in the garbage-strewn
landscapes surrounding many Russian apartment buildings.
6.16 Iconic Moscow River and Kremlin view at night.
6.17 False-color image of Norilsk. Shades of pink and purple indicate bare ground (e.g., rock
formations, cities, quarries,) where vegetation is damaged from heavy pollution. Brilliant
greens show mostly healthy tundra-boreal forest. South and southwest of the city are
moderately to severely damaged ecosystems, and ecosystems northeast of the river and away
from the city and industrial centers are healthier.
6.18 New urban infrastructure (bridges, roads) in Vladivostok, built for the 2012 Asia-Pacific
Economic Cooperation Summit, revitalizes this regional capital and port city in the Far East.
6.19 Suburban development on the fringes of compact Soviet-era cities, such as Balakovo, brings
socioeconomic division and expansion into agricultural zones to previously mixed and
compact urban settings across Russia.
7.1 Major Urban Agglomerations of the Greater Middle East.
7.2 The Traditional Middle Eastern City.
7.3 Rising above every Middle Eastern city are the minarets of mosques. One of the most famous
is the Koutoubia, the largest mosque in Marrakech. By tradition, the muezzin issues the call
to prayers five times a day from the minaret.
7.4 The traditional markets of Marrakech, Morocco, are some of the most well-known in the
world. In Arabic-speaking countries they are known as souks or suqs.
7.5 The Armenians pre-dated the Roman Empire in becoming the world’s first officially
Christian nation in 301 ce. To commemorate that event’s 1700th anniversary, the Republic
of Armenia built a new cathedral in Yerevan, here seen on Palm Sunday.
7.6 The Urban Triangle of the Middle East shows the relative locations of major cities. These
cities are in their correct geographical locations, but shown without the base map
underneath.
7.7 As of 2015, there were 4 million refugees from Syria. Turkey has taken in almost 2 million,
with many housed in camps like this one near Karkamish on the border with the self-
proclaimed Islamic State, now in control of northern Syria.
7.8 Internal Structure of the Middle Eastern Metropolis.
7.9 The citadel, or cale, of Gaziantep, Turkey, occupies a strategically located hilltop that
dominates the fertile agricultural region near the Turkish-Syrian border.
7.10 The landscape of Amman, Jordan, shows the signs of global commercialization in the form
of this bilingual advertisement for Subway.
7.11 The skyline of Doha seems out of proportion to its role as capital city of a country, Qatar,
with only 2 million inhabitants.
7.12 Demonstrations to oust President Mohamed Morsi from power took place in cities around
the world as expat Egyptians took the streets of cities like Amsterdam, shown here on July 7,
2013. Although he was democratically elected, Morsi’s abuse of power enraged the public
and the Egyptian military.
7.13 Coptic Cairo, now the city’s Christian “quarter,” is one of the historical nucleations that has
survived from medieval times. Here communal urns provide the neighborhood with water
while political posters try to attract attention.

18
7.14 The Dome of the Rock (venerated by Muslims) and the Western Wall (venerated by Jews)
are symbols of a religiously divided Jerusalem.
7.15 In the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem, enough archaeological excavation has gone on to bring
back the Cardo, or main street, of the ancient Roman city.
7.16 Elements of traditional and modern Arab culture seem to blend harmoniously in the world’s
largest themed shopping mall, which was named after the medieval Arab geographer Ibn
Battuta. It is located in Dubai.
7.17 Palm Jumeirah is one of three palm-tree shaped islands that are being built as a reclamation
project in the Gulf. Dubai specializes in landscapes of spectacle that attract the attention of
the world.
7.18 Ataturk, the revered father of modern Turkey, continues to be memorialized on the urban
landscape. In this case, his visage is positioned to welcome those approaching Izmir from the
airport.
7.19 The Sorek seawater desalination plant, one of the largest in the world and one of five in
Israel, became operational in 2013. Israel is a world leader in the field despite the drawbacks:
the immense amount of energy needed for desalination and the environmental costs of
disposing of the brine.
7.20 When you have a business that is mobile, you can move with the market, which is exactly
what this street vendor of qanafeh (a sweet pastry always made in round pans) does in
Amman.
8.1 Major Urban Agglomerations of Sub-Saharan Africa.
8.2 Chronic flooding necessitates near-constant, major efforts to drain residential areas of Pikine,
an informal city on the outskirts of Dakar, Senegal. Many of SSA’s informal settlements are
flood-prone, yet their residents often experience the deprivation of limited access to clean
drinking water.
8.3 Bustling markets, such as this one in Monrovia, Liberia, are common features of Sub-
Saharan cities.
8.4 The Victoria and Albert Waterfront is a major shopping destination, center of tourist
activity, and gathering place for Cape Town’s diverse population.
8.5 Historical Centers of Urbanization in Africa.
8.6 The historic African CBD of Dar es Salaam, Kariakoo, has undergone rapid gentrification in
the twenty-first century, where the pace of new construction has outrun the ability of the
government to provide basic services.
8.7 A dramatic air photo of Lusaka, Zambia, today shows the formerly all-white township of
Roma.
8.8 A billboard advertising a new, high-security elite housing enclave, Silverest Gardens, on the
outskirts of Lusaka, built by the Henan-Guoji Development Company. It is one of nine such
neighborhoods built by this Chinese company in SSA cities since 2010.
8.9 Along Great East Road in Lusaka, Zambia, the informal economy punctuates the streets as
vendors sharpen the pitches that they need to clinch each sale.
8.10 A downtown shopping street in Dodoma, Tanzania. Tanzania’s socialist government
relocated the national capital from the colonial port of Dar es Salaam to the deliberately non-
monumental new capital of Dodoma, beginning in the 1970s, as an attempt to overturn the
colonial legacy.
8.11 A long line of drivers wait for gas at a station in Accra. One of the great ironies in many SSA
cities appears in situations where Africans experience shortages of a major export commodity
of their own country. Here, the irony is that Ghana is an exporter of petroleum, yet has not
been able to keep up with demand in its own capital city.
8.12 Fishing boats at Soumbedione fish market in Dakar.

19
8.13 The influence of Dakar extends well inland to the landlocked states of Mali, Burkina Faso,
and Niger via the Trans-Sahel Highway. These residents of Mali’s capital, Bamako, share a
language with the residents of Dakar: French.
8.14 African cities located in low-elevation coastal zones, such as Monrovia, Liberia, are
vulnerable to severe flooding from sea-level rise.
8.15 Principal Urban Centers of Sub-Saharan Africa, many of which are primate capital cities.
8.16 By using billboards to help change human behavior, Lusaka, Zambia, tries to create a greener
capital city as a role model for the nation.
8.17 Getting hair cut and styled is one of the basic services provided by every culture. Around
Kaunda Square in Lusaka, entrepreneurs earn a bit more by adding telephone services to
their business model.
8.18 Namushi and her grocery shop on Kaunda Square in Kinshasa.
9.1 Major Urban Agglomerations of South Asia.
9.2 As cities fill up with people, streets become more congested with not only cars, but bicycles
and camels as well.
9.3 The Golden Quadrilateral of express highways links the anchor cities of India’s urban
hierarchy: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai.
9.4 On a Delhi roadside, the driver of a cycle rickshaw takes time for a mid-day nap.
9.5 The Sikhs, neither Hindu nor Muslim, are a major part of India’s cultural diversity, seen
here in their main gurdwara, the place where they worship.
9.6 The dhobi-wallahs, or “washer-men” make their living washing (and drying) clothes.
9.7 The Taj Mahal has become the single most recognized icon of India. It was built in Agra as a
tomb for Shah Jahan’s wife and is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
9.8 The Red Fort, in Old Delhi, remains a potent feature of Indian nationalism.
9.9 To the left is a Muslim neighborhood and to the right a Hindu one in Old Delhi.
9.10 Labor is cheap in India, so porters are often called upon to transport bulk goods from one
part of the city (in this case, Mumbai) to another.
9.11 A Model of the Colonial-based city in South Asia.
9.12 A Model of the Bazaar-based City in South Asia.
9.13 A produce vendor in Chennai typifies the bazaar-based city.
9.14 “Bollywood” films are popular all across the Indian subcontinent and beyond, including here
in Calcutta.
9.15 Marine Drive, with Nariman Point in the background, serves as the setting for the annual
Mumbai Marathon.
9.16 Delhi and Shajahanabad (Old Delhi).
9.17 Any service you can think of is available on the streets of India’s cities. Here in the Karol
Bagh neighborhood of Delhi, for a few rupees, you can get your pants pressed.
9.18 Fishmongers are widespread in Kolkata. Not only does the city have a huge consuming
population, but it is also along the coast.
9.19 Infrastructure damage resulting from the Kathmandu earthquakes amounted to 10 billion
US dollars.
9.20 Three generations of women position themselves on the curb to sell what produce they can
to passersby in Mumbai.
10.1 Major Urban Agglomerations of Southeast Asia.
10.2 The Central Market in downtown Phnom Penh was built in 1937 in art deco style. It is the
soul of the city, a place where you can purchase just about anything.
10.3 “Plan of the Angkor Complex, ca. A.D. 1200.”
10.4 Angkor Wat, built between 1113 and 1150 by Suryavarman II, is one of but hundreds of

20
 wats spread throughout Cambodia. Because it symbolizes Cambodia’s golden age, its image
can also be found on the nation’s flag.
10.5 New residential, leisure, and commercial developments rise on the outskirts of Manila,
taking the place of former sugar cane plantations.
10.6 In Pleiku, Vietnam, a woman makes a living by selling fresh fruits and vegetables—proudly
displayed as in an American supermarket—to shoppers in the early morning hours.
10.7 For 130 years, Malacca was a Portuguese colony. Today, a miniature version of the fort has
been rebuilt, primarily to enhance Malacca’s status as a World Heritage City.
10.8 A statue in Manila honors Raja Solayman, the city’s Muslim prince, who defended the town
against the Spaniards in the 1500s.
10.9 Urban Growth in Southeast Asia, 1900–2005.
10.10 Fast food—or “good food fast”—is widely available on the streets of Southeast Asian cities.
Here, early morning breakfast is served in Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon).
10.11 Bricktown is one of the historic, and now gentrified, neighborhoods of Kuala Lumpur. It
was settled by Indians, mostly Tamils, brought in by the British to make bricks.
10.12 A Generalized Model of Major Land Use in the Large Southeast Asian City.
10.13 The Singapore River was at the very heart of commercial life in Singapore. A hundred years
ago, it would have been packed with junks, with wharves and warehouses along both sides.
10.14 This colorful and finely detailed Indian temple in Singapore is one of the best-known
cultural landmarks of the city.
10.15 When Kuala Lumpur’s Petronas Towers opened in 1999, they became the world’s tallest, a
title they held until 2004.
10.16 A mosque, Jamek Bandaraya, backed by the downtown skyline, now occupies the original
site of Kuala Lumpur, a “muddy confluence” of two streams seen in this picture.
10.17 Motorbikes are one way of breaking through traffic jams on Bangkok’s overcrowded streets.
10.18 Traditional Manila contrast with modern Manila as the city attempts to accommodate the
rapidly expanding population by going up and spilling out onto the city’s streets.
10.19 If Ronald McDonald wants to sell fast food in Bangkok, he must adapt to Thai culture.
Globalization is not a one-way street.
11.1 Major Urban Agglomerations of East Asia.
11.2 Foreign Penetration of China in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries.
11.3 Map showing urbanized areas in Pearl River Delta and Hong Kong. Pink represents urban
areas.
11.4 The Osaka castle in the center of Osaka city played a major role in the unification of Japan
during the sixteenth century.
11.5 With Taipei 101, Taiwan’s capital reaches for new skylines, in stark contrast to twentieth-
century socialist-era development.
11.6 Tokyo Metropolitan Area and change in population density, 1970–2005.
11.7 One of Tokyo’s busy narrow side streets, with commercial and residential land use in close
proximity. Streets of this size and mix are quite common still even in the busy core of Tokyo
and other large Japanese cities.
11.8 Beijing metropolitan area has been expanding outward, fueled by in-migration and local
residents moving from the city center to the suburbs. The map shows population growth
rates by subdistrict unit in the urbanized part of Beijing based on census data for 1982 and
2010.
11.9 Pockets of traditional courtyard houses remain in hutongs, or alleys, in the inner city of
Beijing. Many of them have been torn down to make room for high-rise apartments and
offices. Some “saved” are converted into shops in main hutongs.

21
11.10 Model of the City in the PRC.
11.11 Millions of migrants eke out their living on the urban fringes of Beijing; some live in run-
down village houses like this one. The photo was taken after a major rainstorm in summer
2012 in Chengzhongcun.
11.12 Shanghai’s economic influence extends to a network of cities and smaller towns beyond its
boundaries. In this satellite image, pink highlights areas of concentrated commercial and
residential use.
11.13 Since the early 1990s, Shanghai’s new CBD has arisen across the river in Pudong, centered
on the futuristic TV tower surrounded by ultramodern skyscrapers. Pudong CBD is China’s
financial district.
11.14 This view of Hong Kong Island, taken from Kowloon across the harbor, dramatically
conveys the modernity and wealth of today’s Hong Kong. The Central Plaza building towers
over the wave-like profile of the Convention Center, where the ceremony of the handover to
China took place in 1997.
11.15 Also called the “Umbrella Movement,” the Occupy Central protest in 2014 was the largest
civil disobedience movement since 1967. The protest was against the proposed “universal
suffrage” system, which critics consider as not genuine.
11.16 Map of Taiwan.
11.17 The Potala Palace dominates Lhasa, the capital of Tibet. This city used to be the home of
Tibet’s traditional ruler, the Dalai Lama.
11.18 Migrant workers shine shoes on a street in Wuhan, the largest city in central China. “Rural
migrant workers,” numbered about 170 million in 2014, are everywhere in China’s major
cities, doing all kinds of work. The huge army of cheap migrant labor is crucial to China’s
success in being the “world’s factory.”
11.19 Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration project in downtown Seoul during the Lantern
Festival.
12.1 Major Urban Agglomerations of Australia and the Pacific Islands.
12.2 One of The Travelers on Melbourne’s Sandridge Bridge represents the convict era in
Australian history. The former railroad bridge is now a pedestrian crossing and sculpture
garden.
12.3 Adelaide is the state capital and primate city of South Australia. It was founded as a planned
capital city for a new British colony in the 1830s.
12.4 Canberra’s distinctive but controversial Parliament House is difficult to appreciate from the
outside because much of the structure is underground. The inside is breathtaking, filled with
beautiful art and materials native to Australia.
12.5 Built on an isthmus and connected to a rich hinterland, Auckland now hosts many activities
found in major world cities, including the famous Sky Tower that dominates the skyline.
12.6 The Papua New Guinea High Commission, with its distinctive Pacific aesthetic, is located in
Australia’s national capital, Canberra. Members of the Commonwealth of Nations exchange
High Commissioners instead of Ambassadors.
12.7 Melbourne’s traditional image is being shattered today by skyscrapers like Eureka Tower
(world’s tallest residential building when built) and Deborah Halpern’s Angel, a sculpture
with roots in the aboriginal aesthetic of Australia.
12.8 Sydney is known as a city of suburbs and single-family homes such as this one.
12.9 New roles for women, and new problems, have emerged in Australian cities over the past
three decades.
12.10 The advantage of high population density and compact urban form is that you can walk or
bike to Old Victoria Market in Melbourne for the freshest of fruits, and vegetables.
12.11 Changes over the past three decades have produced new types of urban localities in Australia.

22
12.12 Completed in 1932, the Sydney Harbour Bridge opened up the city’s North Shore. Tourists,
tethered by lifelines, have been climbing the arch since 1998.
12.13 Now a UNESCO World Heritage site, the Sydney Opera House has become a symbol of the
island continent.
12.14 Sydney’s skyline, typical of a world city, dominates the capacious harbor. Can you identify
Sydney Tower?
12.15 Kings Park in Perth offers a view of the skyline that serves the commercial interests of
Western Australia and the Indian Ocean rim.
12.16 Ponsonby Road is now a focal point of chic eateries and boutique shopping in Auckland.
12.17 Located on Auckland’s North Shore, Devonport’s landscape has been almost completely
transformed by suburbanization. Nevertheless, a few visual reminders of the original
inhabitants remain, including this Maori warrior.
12.18 In Newcastle, NSW, this ClimateCam billboard broadcasts figures on the city’s electricity
consumption. These are updated hourly as a way of raising awareness about the city’s
contribution to resource use, GHG emissions and climate change.
12.19 One of the challenges of urban governance in Australia is maintaining safe streets. Signs like
this one in Sydney have been increasing rapidly as people everywhere become more security
conscious.
13.1 Urban Populations: 1950, 2000, and 2050.
13.2 Global Urban Population: 2010–2050.
13.3 At close of business on Fridays in Portland, Oregon, placards are out to remind commuters
to enjoy their weekend. It’s good for their health.
13.4 Repurposing old buildings to serve as apartments and condominiums in the heart of
downtown is bringing life back to central cities. Every CBD has signs like this, but this one
happens to be in Cincinnati, Ohio.
13.5 2015 commemorated the 50th anniversary of the “March on Washington for Jobs and
Freedom” led by Martin Luther King, Jr. Here at his memorial on the National Mall, a new
generation looks up to Dr. King.
13.6 In Seoul, Korea, open space is green space. Although it’s one of the world’s megacities, Seoul
has made living with nature a priority of life and governance.
13.7 Even short rainstorms bring flooding to Norfolk’s streets and underpasses. The problem
promises to worsen as sea levels rise and much of Norfolk subsides.
13.8 Is this carbon-neutral office building in Melbourne, Australia, the future of sustainable urban
architecture? The colorful panels on the outside are components of the sun-shade system.
What you can’t see are the night cooling windows, the green roof, the vacuum toilets, and
the anaerobic digester.
13.9 The Shard, completed in 2012, is the latest addition to London’s collection of skyscrapers
and the tallest building in the European Union. Globalization has bid a whole new
generation of skyscrapers into construction.
13.10 Wireless networks, cell phones, and matrix barcodes bring urban landscapes to life, tell the
stories of times past, and signal advances in technology that mark world cities. London is so
wired, you can even talk to the long-gone goats.
13.11 What would you build here? Let your voice be heard. Here, people along 14th Street in
Washington, DC, are being challenged to create the neighborhood they want by voting on
ideas that they themselves come up with.
13.12 Ecumenopolis: The Global City.
13.13 The creative class responds to culture and the arts. Without them, cities decline. That’s why
the Chrysler Museum in Norfolk, Virginia, just invested $24 million in an upgrade and
brought to town Florentijn Hofman’s Rubber Duck, at least for a short visit.

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Boxes
1.1 Globalization and World Cities
1.2 Jellied Eels for the Urban Palate
1.3 Performance Art and Psychogeography
1.4 Cities and Stormwater Runoff
1.5 Planning for Blue Space
2.1 Neoliberal-Parasitic Economies in Chicago
2.2 The Death of the Shopping Mall?
2.3 Suburbs Still in Crisis
2.4 Returning to the Tap
2.5 Staying Cool in Toronto
3.1 From Cancún to Belize City
3.2 Industrial Free Zones and Transnational Urbanization
3.3 Gangs: A Violent Urban Social Development
4.1 Ethnic Geography of the Guianas
4.2 Water Wars in Cochabamba, Bolivia
4.3 Mega-Events: The 2014 FIFA World Cup and the 2016 Olympics in
Brazil
4.4 Street Working Children in the Andes
4.5 Urban Security and Human Rights
5.1 Venice and the Challenges of Climate Change
5.2 Growing Power: Urban Agriculture in Europe
5.3 Security and Surveillance in London
5.4 Making the Spectacular Happen: Mega-events in European Cities
5.5 Urban Graffiti: Is the Writing on the Wall?
6.1 Where does Soviet Influence Begin or End?
6.2 New Capital Cities in the Post-Soviet Sphere: Astana’s Amazing Growth
6.3 Russia in Ukraine: Understanding the Annexation of Crimea
6.4 Islam, Language, and Space in Moscow
7.1 Green Space in Beirut
7.2 Home Space in Tehran
7.3 Istanbul’s Double-edged Crisis of Urban Ecology and Democracy
7.4 A Hopeful Vignette: Cairo’s Al-Azhar Park
8.1 Water, Water, Everywhere
8.2 Multiple Livelihoods Strategies
8.3 BRICS, Urban Investment, and the Middle Class
8.4 Kinshasa’s Imaginative and Generative Side
8.5 Crisis Mapping from Kenya to the Globe
9.1 Call Centers, SEZs, and Sweatshops
9.2 The Humble Rickshaw
9.3 Two Billion Life Years Lost
9.4 Festivals in City Life
9.5 Devastation in the Kathmandu Valley
10.1 A Geography of Everyday Life
10.2 From Hacienda to Mixed-Use Suburbia
10.3 A Thirsty Singapore

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10.4 Satellite Cities in Southeast Asia
10.5 Water Security and Urban Wastewater
11.1 Japan’s Aging Cities
11.2 “Cities with Invisible Walls:” the Hukou System in China
11.3 “Orphans” of China’s Urbanization?
11.4 Isolation: Peripheral Cities
11.5 A Stream Returns to the City of Seoul
12.1 Hobart as a Gateway to Antarctica
12.2 The Geography of Everyday Life in Suburban Sydney
12.3 Green Buildings
12.4 Multiculturalism and Local Government in Australia
12.5 Gentrification and Ponsonby Road, Auckland
13.1 Engineering Earth Futures
13.2 Living with Water
13.3 Human Geographies of the Twenty-first Century
13.4 Seeing Cities on the Soles of Your Feet

Tables
1.1 Urban Patterns in More Developed Regions and Less Developed Regions (in thousands)
1.2 The Largest Cities in History
2.1 Megalopolitan Areas of the United States and Canada
2.2 The World’s Most Globally Engaged, Competitive, and Connected Cities
3.1 The U.S.-Mexican Border Twin Cities Phenomenon: Population and Employment, 2009,
2010
3.2 Levels of Urbanization in Central America
4.1 Urbanization in South American Countries, 1850–2015
4.2 Major Metropolitan Populations of South America, 1930–2015
4.3 Percentage of National Population in Largest Metropolis, 1950–2015
5.1 Top 10 Boys’ and Girls’ Names in London
5.2 Popular Ethnic Food in European Cities
5.3 European Green City Index: Top 10 Cities
6.1 Percent Urban Population in Each Federal Okrug
7.1 Megalopolises of the Greater Middle East
8.1 Female and Male, age 15–24, in Informal Employment
8.2 Urban Population as Percentage of Total Population
9.1 South Asia’s Twelve Largest Urban Agglomerations
9.2 Topological Characteristics of South Asian Cities
9.3 Earthquake Occurrences in Nepal
10.1 Components of Urban Growth in Southeast Asia (percentage of urban growth)
12.1 Australia and Aotearoa/New Zealand: Changes in Distribution of National Population
12.2 Population of Pacific Island Cities
13.1 World’s Most Populous Cities in 2015
13.2 World’s Most Populous Cities in 2030
13.3 Quality of Living and Eco-City Rankings

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 Preface

In 1982, Cities of the World debuted. It presented an innovative approach to the study of
urban geography. Renowned urban geographers, who were regional specialists, shared their
knowledge of and insight into the history, patterns, challenges, and prospects for cities in
eleven world regions. Cities of the World was an immediate success. Subsequent editions
built on this model—revising, updating, modifying, and enhancing the approach. With
each edition, the popularity of the book swelled. It is commonly found in courses on urban
geography, urban and regional planning, as well as courses in global affairs, anthropology,
history, and economics, at both the undergraduate and graduate levels.
Thirty-four years later, we present the sixth edition of Cities of the World—and we present
it in color! Color photographs, regional maps, and graphics provide a more appealing and
accurate depiction of many dimensions of the urban regions under study. Just as each
subsequent edition of Cities of the World has embraced the changes encountered in the
global and regional urban systems, so too does this sixth edition. In this, we deepen our
focus on urban environmental issues, social and economic injustice, security and conflict,
and daily life. Building on 2015 as the Year of Water, we have introduced urban water
issues and concerns as a common undercurrent running through all chapters. Author teams
explore how “water” affects cities and how cities affect water in their respective regions—
from glacier loss to increasing aridity, sea-level rise, increased flooding, potable water
scarcity, and beyond. We hope our new subtitle “Regional Patterns and Urban
Environments” captures these innovations.
All thirteen chapters in this sixth edition have been substantially revised, and some
introduce new author teams, whom we welcome warmly. They bring fresh perspectives and
expertise to the project. Most authors have done extensive fieldwork in their region and also
traveled extensively in both rural and urban areas. The organization of this edition is similar
to the previous five. The “book end” chapters explore contemporary world urbanization
(chapter 1) and the future of cities (chapter 13). The remaining eleven chapters are devoted
to urbanization and cities in major world regions. Each chapter begins with two facing
pages; on the left side, a regional map that shows the major cities and, on the right, a table
of basic statistical information about cities and urbanization in each region and a list of ten
salient points about that region’s urban experience are provided. The regional chapters
conclude with a list of references that can be used by the student and instructor for
additional information about cities in that region or specific cities.
We owe a debt of gratitude to many individuals who played major roles in helping this

26
sixth edition see the light of day. We thank all chapter authors for providing timely,
insightful, and well-written chapters and Alexis Ellis for her valuable cartographic
contribution, and Donna Gilbreath for her assistance in preparing the index. Susan
McEachern of Rowman and Littlefield has provided long-standing support for this volume
and previous ones. Her eye for detail, continuity, and change is unmatched. Susan’s team at
Rowman and Littlefield worked to ensure the high quality of this edition, and we thank
them for their commitment, timely support, and attention to detail throughout the process.
Finally, we thank our families whose enthusiastic and selfless support made this project
enjoyable and possible.
As always, we welcome feedback from students and teachers on ways to ensure that
subsequent editions will make learning about the world’s cities and global urbanization
more useful, appealing, challenging, and rewarding. We hope you enjoy this latest edition.

Stanley D. Brunn
Jessica K. Graybill
Maureen Hays-Mitchell
Donald J. Zeigler

27
Cities of the World

28
Figure 1.1 Major Urban Agglomerations of the World. Source: United Nations, World
Urbanization Prospects: 2014 Revision.

29
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implements of labour slung over their shoulders, and their tin pans
containing the precious metal in their hands. We learned that the “dry
diggings” for which we had started, were three miles further into the
mountains, that there was a great scarcity of water, and that but very little
could be accomplished before the commencement of the rainy reason.
Finding some old friends here, who generously offered us a “chance” upon
the mud floor of their log cabin, we remained with them for the night, and
stretching our blankets upon the floor and lighting our pipes, were soon
engaged in an interesting conversation on the all-absorbing topic.
Next morning our party arrived with the team, and from the
representations of our friends, we concluded to remain at Weaver’s Creek,
and pitched our tent on the banks of the stream. Our teamster’s bill was
something of an item to men who were not as yet accustomed to “gold-mine
prices.” We paid three hundred dollars for the transportation, about fifty
miles, of three barrels of flour, one of pork, and about two hundred pounds
of small stores, being at the rate of thirty dollars per cwt. This was the
regular price charged by teamsters at that time, and of course there was no
alternative but to pay, which we did, although it exhausted the last dollar
belonging to our party. But there, before us, on the banks of that pretty
stream and in the neighbouring gorges, lay the treasures that were to
replenish our pockets, and the sigh for its departure was changed by this
thought into a hope that our fondest wishes might be realized in our new
and exciting occupation.
 CHAPTER IV.

Our Log Cabin—Pi-pita-tua—Increase of our Party—The Dry Diggings of Weaver’s Creek

—The “Pockets” and “Nests”—Theory of the Gold Region—My First Day’s Labour in
the Placers—Extravagant Reports from the Middle Fork—Start for Culoma—Approach
of the Rainy Season—The “Devil’s Punch-Bowl.”

The day after our arrival, in anticipation of the immediate

commencement of the rainy season (a time dreaded by strangers in all
California, and particularly in the northern region), we determined to build
a log house, and were about to commence operations, when we received an
offer for the sale of one. We examined it, and found a little box of unhewn
logs, about twenty feet long by ten wide, which was offered us at the
moderate price of five hundred dollars. The terms, however, were
accommodating, being ten days’ credit for the whole amount. With the
reasonable expectation that we could pay for our house by gold-digging in a
less time than it would require to build one, we purchased it, and ere
nightfall were duly installed in the premises.
Our party now consisted of ten, viz.: Higgins and a Marquesas Islander
he had picked up somewhere, and who had changed his heathenish
appellation of Pi-pita-tua to the more Christian and civilized name of
“Bob;” five of our disbanded volunteers; a man by the name of Russell, the
same of whom Dana speaks in his “Two Years before the Mast,” and who
had persuaded us to allow him to join us; the captain of the little launch
“Ann,” who had determined to leave the sea to try his fortune at gold-
hunting, and myself. We were a queer-looking party. I had thrown aside all
the little ornaments of dress, and made my best bow before the gold-digging
public in red flannel and corduroy. Bob was the only member of the
concern who retained what he had always in his own land considered his
peculiar ornament. Right glad would he have been to rid himself of it now,
poor fellow, but it was too indelibly stamped to allow of removal. It was a
broad piece of blue tattooing that covered his eye on one side, and the
whole cheek on the other, and gave him the appearance of a man looking
from behind a blue screen. Our partnership did not extend to a community
of labour in gold-digging, but only to a sharing of the expenses, trials, and
labours of our winter life.
 The “dry diggings” of Weaver’s Creek being a fair specimen of dry
diggings in all parts of the mining region, a description of them will give
the reader a general idea of the various diggings of the same kind in
California. They are called “dry” in contradistinction to the “wet” diggings,
or those lying directly on the banks of streams, and where all the gold is
procured by washing. As I before said, the stream coursed between lofty
tree-clad hills, broken on both sides of the river into little ravines or gorges.
In these ravines most of the gold was found. The loose stones and top earth
being thrown off, the gravelly clay that followed it was usually laid aside
for washing, and the digging continued until the bottom rock of the ravine
was reached, commonly at a depth of from one to six feet. The surface of
this rock was carefully cleared off, and usually found to contain little
crevices and holes, the hitter in miner’s parlance called “pockets,” and in
which the gold was found concealed, sparkling like the treasures in the cave
of Monte Cristo. A careful examination of the rock being made, and every
little crevice and pocket being searched with a sharp pointed-knife, gold in
greater or less quantities invariably made its appearance. I shall never forget
the delight with which I first struck and worked out a crevice. It was the
second day after our installation in our little log hut; the first having been
employed in what is called “prospecting,” or searching for the most
favourable place at which to commence operations. I had slung pick,
shovel, and bar upon my shoulder, and trudged merrily away to a ravine
about a mile from our house. Pick, shovel, and bar did their duty, and I soon
had a large rock in view. Getting down into the excavation I had made, and
seating myself upon the rock, I commenced a careful search for a crevice,
and at last found one extending longitudinally along the rock. It appeared to
be filled with a hard, bluish clay and gravel, which I took out with my
knife, and there at the bottom, strewn along the whole length of the rock,
was bright, yellow gold, in little pieces about the size and shape of a grain
of barley. Eureka! Oh how my heart beat! I sat still and looked at it some
minutes before I touched it, greedily drinking in the pleasure of gazing upon
gold that was in my very grasp, and feeling a sort of independent bravado in
allowing it to remain there. When my eyes were sufficiently feasted, I
scooped it out with the point of my knife and an iron spoon, and placing it
in my pan, ran home with it very much delighted. I weighed it, and found
that my first day’s labour in the mines had made me thirty-one dollars richer
than I was in the morning.
 The gold, which, by some great volcanic eruption, has been scattered
upon the soil over an extensive territory, by the continual rains of the winter
season has been sunk into the hills, until it has reached either a hard clay
which it cannot penetrate, or a rock on which it rests. The gold in the hills,
by the continual rains, has been washing lower and lower, until it has
reached the ravines. It has washed down the ravines until it has there
reached the rock, and thence, it has washed along the bed of the ravines
until it has found some little crevice in which it rests, where the water can
carry it no farther. Here it gathers, and thus are formed the “pockets” and
“nests” of gold, one of which presents such a glowing golden sight to the
eye of the miner, and such a field for his imagination to revel in. How often,
when I have struck one of these, have I fondly wished that it might reach to
the centre of the earth, and be filled as it was at its mouth with pure, bright,
yellow gold.
Our party’s first day’s labour produced one hundred and fifty dollars, I
having been the most successful of all. But we were satisfied, although our
experience had not fulfilled the golden stories we had heard previous to our
reaching the placers. Finding the average amount of gold dug on Weaver’s
Creek at that time to be about an ounce per day to a man, we were content
so long as we could keep pace with our neighbours. There is a spirit of
emulation among miners which prevents them from being ever satisfied
with success whilst others around them are more successful. We continued
our labours for a week, and found, at the end of that time, our whole party
had dug out more than a thousand dollars; and after paying for our house,
and settling between ourselves our little private expenses, we were again on
a clear track, unencumbered by debt, and in the heart of a region where
treasures of unknown wealth were lying hidden in the earth on which we
daily trod.
About this time, the most extravagant reports reached us from the
Middle Fork, distant in a northerly direction about thirty miles from
Weaver’s Creek. Parties who had been there described the river as being
lined with gold of the finest quality. One and two hundred dollars was not
considered a great day’s labour, and now was the time to take advantage of
it, while in its pristine richness. The news was too blooming for me to
withstand. I threw down my pickaxe, and leaving a half-wrought crevice for
some other digger to work out, I packed up and held myself in readiness to
proceed by the earliest opportunity, and with the first party ready to go for
the Middle Fork. An opportunity soon offered itself, as a party of three who
had already been there and returned, were about proceeding thither again.
We considered it a great act of generosity on their part to allow us to
accompany them on their second trip, as during their first exploration on the
river they had found a place where no white man had ever before trod, and
where gold was said to exist in large pockets and huge bulky masses. One
of my companions and myself determined to go, and if successful inform
our whole party, who were then to follow.
It was now near the middle of December, and the dreaded rainy season
we knew must soon commence. Occasional black clouds dimming the
clearness of that mountain sky gave us warning of it; but strong in health,
and stronger still in hope and determination, we heeded no warning; put our
instruments of labour on the backs of two sorry-looking mules, and
shouldering our rifles started away from Weaver’s Creek on a fine
afternoon, the clear sunshine and cooling autumn breeze playing through
the lofty oak and cypress trees, giving us new vigour and new hope.
Our road for the first three miles lay across a lofty hill, which formed the
dividing line (although that hill was anything but an “imaginary point
extended”) between our little community at Weaver’s Creek and the “Dry
Diggings” par excellence of that vicinity. On descending the hill, we found
the dry diggings in a pretty little valley surrounded by hills, and forming a
town of about fifty log houses. Very little was doing there, however, at that
time, as the gold was so intermixed with a clayey soil, that water was
necessary to separate it, and the miners were patiently waiting for the rainy
season to set in. Many had thrown up huge mountain-like piles of earth, and
making thereby a large excavation intended, when the rain came, to catch
the water in which the golden earth was to be washed. I will give a history
of the discovery and progress of these “diggings” in another part of the
volume.
Passing to the northward of the Dry Diggings, we encamped at dusk in a
little oak grove about three miles from Sutter’s Mill, killed a deer, ate a
hearty supper, spread our blankets on the ground, and slept quietly and
peacefully beneath a star-studded and cloudless heaven. Next morning we
went into Culoma, the Indian name for the territory around Sutter’s Mill,
and here we were to purchase our provisions previous to going to the river.
Three stores only, at that time, disputed the trade at what is now the great
centre of the northern mining region; and where now are busy streets, and
long rows of tents and houses, was a beautiful hollow, which, in our
romantic version, we named as we were entering it, “The Devil’s Punch-
Bowl.” Surrounded on all sides by lofty mountains, its ingress and egress
guarded by an ascent and descent through narrow passes, it seemed like a
huge bowl which some lofty spirit might seize, and placing it to his lips,
quaff the waters of the golden stream that circled through it. Here it was
that gold was first discovered in California; this was the locality where was
commenced a new era, and where a new page was opened in the history of
mankind; and it is proper that I should turn out my mules to browse on the
sunny hill-side shrubbery, while I stop to tell how, from this remote corner
of the globe, a secret was revealed to the eyes of a wondering world.
 CHAPTER V.
Sutter’s Mill—Discovery of the Placers—Marshall and Bennett—Great Excitement—
Desertion of the Pueblos, and general Rush for the Mines—Gold Mine Prices—Descent
into a Cañon—Banks of the Middle Fork—Pan Washing—Good Luck—Our Camp—
Terrific Rain Storm—Sudden Rise of the River.

During the month of January, 1848, two men, named Marshall and
Bennett, were engaged in the erection of a saw-mill located by John A.
Sutter on the South Fork of the American River, at a point, where oak, pine,
cypress, and cedar trees covered the surrounding hills, and where Indian
labour was to be procured at a mere nominal price. These were the motives
that prompted Sutter to establish a mill and trading post in this, then
unknown, region. Little did he imagine or foresee that, in the hands of an
overruling Providence, he was to be the instrument to disclose to mankind
riches of which the most sanguine day-dreamer never dreamt, and open
caves in which the wonderful lamp of Aladdin would have been dimmed by
the surrounding brightness.
One morning Marshall, while examining the tail-race of the mill,
discovered, much to his astonishment, some small shining particles in the
sand at the bottom of the race, which upon examination he became satisfied
were gold. Not content, however, with his own investigations, some
specimens which were found throughout the whole race were sent to San
Francisco by Bennett, where an assayer removed all doubt of their nature
and purity. The discovery was kept a profound secret while Bennett
proceeded to Monterey and tried to obtain a grant of the land on which the
gold had been found from Colonel Mason, then Governor of the Territory.
Colonel Mason informed him, however, that he had no authority to make
any such conveyance, and Bennett returned to San Francisco, where he
exhibited his specimens to Sam. Brannan, Mr. Hastings, and several others.
A number of persons immediately visited the spot, and satisfied their
curiosity. Captain Sutter himself came to San Francisco, and confirmed the
statements of Bennett, and about the 1st of April, the story became public
property. Of course, the news spread like wild fire, and in less than one
week after the news reached Monterey, one thousand people were on their
way to the gold region. The more staid and sensible citizens affected to
view it as an illusion, and cautioned the people against the fearful reaction
that would inevitably ensue. Yet many a man who one day boldly
pronounced the discovery a humbug, and the gold-hunters little better than
maniacs, was seen on the morrow stealthily wending his way, with a tin pan
and shovel concealed beneath his cloak or serape, to a launch about
proceeding up the golden Sacramento. Before the middle of July, the whole
lower country was depopulated. Rancheros left their herds to revel in
delightful liberty upon the hills of their ranchos; merchants closed their
stores, lawyers left their clients, doctors their patients, soldiers took “French
leave.” Colonel Mason, then Governor of California, was himself seized
with the “mania,” and taking his adjutant and an escort, started for the
mines, “in order to be better able to make a report to the Government.” The
alcalde of San Francisco stopped the wheels of justice, and went also. Every
idler in the country, who could purchase, beg, or steal, a horse, was off, and
ere the first of August the principal towns were entirely deserted.
In San Francisco, the very headquarters of all the business in California,
there were, at this time, but seven male inhabitants, and but one store open.
In the mean time the most extravagant stories were in circulation. Hundreds
and sometimes even thousands of dollars were spoken of as the reward of a
day’s labour. Indians were said to pay readily a hundred dollars for a
blanket, sixteen for a bottle of grog, and everything else in proportion. In
the mean time, new discoveries had been made at Mormon Island, as far
north as the Yuba River, and as far south as the Stanislaus; and the mining
population had swelled to about three thousand. The stories that had been
put in circulation in regard to the richness of the placers were in the main
true. A few months after their discovery I saw men, in whom I placed the
utmost confidence, who assured me that for days in succession they had dug
from the bowels of the earth over five hundred dollars a day.
But I have digressed in my narrative, and must now return to Culoma.
We purchased from one of the stores two hundred pounds of flour, for
which we paid three hundred dollars, one hundred pounds of pork for two
hundred dollars, and sugar and coffee at a dollar a pound, amounting to
another hundred dollars, making in all six hundred dollars expended for
about two months’ provisions. We crossed the South Fork, and mounting a
lofty hill overlooking the river, encamped for the night on its summit. The
next day we descended the hill, and passing through a long and watered
valley, struck the “divide” or ridge, which overhangs the river at a point
three miles above the “Spanish Bar,” at dusk. We again encamped, anxious
for a long and invigorating sleep to prepare us for a descent in the morning.
The hill was so steep and entirely trackless and covered with such a thick
scrubby brush, that we abandoned the idea which we had entertained of
leading our mules with their packs on down to the river; and distributing the
load, each one took his share of the half of it, and commenced the terrible
descent into the canon. A jolly good fellow, named M’Gee, a brother officer
of mine in the regiment, had a good-sized buck we had killed in the
morning allotted as his burden, and, pioneer like, started ahead; I followed
with a bag of flour, and the remainder variously burdened, brought up the
rear. The hill was so steep, and so craggy, that in many places we arrived at
jagged rocks where a perpendicular descent was to be made. At one of
these, Mac, who was a wild, harum-scarum fellow, had found himself just
upon its very verge, from a run or slide he had made above it. He was in a
dangerous position, his buck slung over his shoulders, and his only hope
was to precipitate the animal down the crag into a gulf that yawned below.
Down went the buck, and Mac as quickly as possible followed it; he found
it two or three hundred yards below us, rendered amazingly tender by its
voyage. The descent was a terrible and tedious one, and when about half
way down, we first discovered the river, looking like a little rivulet,
winding through its rock-girdled banks. About noon, after a two hours’
tiresome travel, we reached our camping-place on the narrow river bank,
and, depositing our loads, again ascended for the remainder of our
provisions.
The banks of the Middle Fork, on which we encamped, were rugged and
rocky. Awful and mysterious mountains of huge granite boulders towered
aloft with solemn grandeur, seeming piled up upon each other as though
some destroying angel had stood on the summit of the lofty hills and cast
promiscuously these rocks headlong down the steep.
What a wild scene was before us! A river rapidly coursing through a pile
of rocks, and on each side of it hills that seemed to reach the clouds. The
mountains that overlook this river are about two miles in height, and are
probably as difficult of travel as any in the world.
It puzzled us greatly to find a camping-place, although we had no tent to
pitch, and only wanted room to spread our blankets on a rock. I searched
the river up and down for fifty yards in this laudable endeavour, and finally
succeeded in finding a little triangular crevice, formed by two boulders
resting against each other, into which I crept, and slept that night, with the
pleasant anticipation that the rocks above might possibly give way, in which
case my gold-digging dreams would meet with a woful denouement by my
being crushed to atoms. No such fate overtook me, however, and the next
morning I arose fresh and hearty, to commence my first day’s labour on the
golden banks of the Middle Fork.
We had packed on the back of one of our mules a sufficient number of
boards from Culoma to construct a machine, and the morning after our
arrival placed two of our party at work for this purpose, while the rest of us
were to dig; and, taking our pans, crowbars, and picks, we commenced
operations. Our first attempt was to search around the base of a lofty
boulder, which weighed probably some twenty tons, in hopes of finding a
crevice in the rock on which it rested, in which a deposit of gold might have
been made; nor were we unsuccessful. Around the base of the rock was a
filling up of gravel and clay, which we removed with much labour, when
our eyes were gladdened with the sight of gold strewn all over its surface,
and intermixed with a blackish sand. This we gathered up and washed in
our pans, and ere night four of us had dug and washed twenty-six ounces of
gold, being about four hundred and sixteen dollars. The process of pan-
washing is the simplest mode of separating the golden particles from the
earth with which it is amalgamated. A common-sized tin pan is filled with
the soil containing the gold. This is taken to the nearest water and sunk until
the water overspreads the surface of the pan. The earth is then thoroughly
mixed with water and the stones taken out with the hand. A half rotary
motion is given to the pan with both hands; and, as it is filled, it is lifted
from the water, and the loose light dirt which rises to the surface washed
out, until the bottom of the pan is nearly reached. The gold being heavier
than the earth, sinks by its own weight to the bottom, and is there found at
the close of the washing, mixed with a heavy black sand. This is placed in a
cup or another pan till the day’s labour is finished, when the whole is dried
before the fire and the sand carefully blown away. The gold which we found
the first day was principally procured by washing, although two pieces, one
weighing thirteen and the other seventeen dollars, were taken from a little
pocket on the rock. We returned to camp exceedingly elated with our first
attempt; and gathering some green branches of trees built a fire, cooked
some venison, crawled into our holes and went to sleep.
 The next day, our machine being ready, we looked for a place to work it,
and soon found a little beach, which extended back some five or six yards
before it reached the rocks. The upper soil was a light black sand, on the
surface of which we could see the particles of gold shining, and could in
fact gather them up with our fingers. In digging below this, we struck a red,
stony gravel that appeared perfectly alive with gold, shining and pure. We
threw off the top earth and commenced our washings with the gravel, which
proved so rich, that, excited by curiosity, we weighed the gold extracted
from the first washing of fifty pansful of earth, and found seventy-five
dollars, or nearly five ounces of gold to be the result. We made six washings
during the day, and placed in our common purse that night a little over two
pounds,—about four hundred dollars worth of gold dust.
Our camp was merry that night. Seated on the surface of a huge rock, we
cooked and ate our venison, drank our coffee, and revelled in the idea that
we had stolen away from the peopled world, and were living in an obscure
corner, unseen by its inhabitants, with no living being within many miles of
us, and in a spot where gold was almost as plentiful as the pebble stones
that covered it.
After working three days with the machine, the earth we had been
washing began to give out, and it became necessary for us to look for a new
place: accordingly on the fourth morning, we commenced “prospecting.”
Three of us started down, and three up the river. I sauntered on ahead of the
party on the lower expedition until, about three hundred yards from camp, I
found a pile of rocks that I thought afforded a reasonable “prospect.” I
started down to the river bank, and seated myself at the foot of a vast rock
to look around me. I observed above me, and running in a direct course
down the rocky bank, a large crevice, which I carefully searched as high up
as I could reach, but found only a very small quantity of gold. Being
disappointed in this, I determined to trace the crevice to its outlet, confident
that there a deposit of gold must have been made. I traced the crevice down
nearly to the edge of the water, where it terminated in a large hole or
pocket, on the face of a rock which was filled with closely packed gravel.
With a knife and spoon I dug this out, and till when near the bottom of the
pocket, I found the earth which I brought up in my spoon contained gold,
and the last spoonful I took from the pocket was nearly pure gold in little
lumpy pieces. I gathered up all the loose gold, when I reached the stony
bottom of the pocket, which appeared to be of pure gold, but upon probing
it, I found it to be only a thin covering which by its own weight and the
pressure above it, had spread and attached itself to the rock. Crossing the
river, I continued my search, and, after digging some time, struck upon a
hard, reddish clay, a few feet from the surface. After two hours’ work, I
succeeded in finding a “pocket” out of which I extracted three lumps of
pure gold, and one small piece mixed with oxydized quartz. Elated with my
good luck, I returned to camp, and weighing the gold, found the first lot
amounted to twelve and a half ounces, or two hundred dollars, and the four
lumps last found, to weigh sixteen and three quarter ounces. The largest
pieces weighed no less than seven ounces troy. My success this day was, of
course, entirely the result of accident; but another of the party had also
found a pocket containing about two hundred and seventy dollars, and a
place which promised a rich harvest for our machine.
The gold thus found in pockets and crevices upon the river banks, is
washed from the hills above them. In searching for the course of the metal,
I have found small quantities by digging on the hill-tops, and am fully
persuaded that the gold is washed by the rains, until seeking, as it always
does, a permanent bottom, it rests in any pocket or crevice that can prevent
it from being washed further, or falls into a stream running at the base of the
hills, to find a resting-place in its bed, or be again deposited on its banks. If
this theory be true, the beds of the rivers whose banks contain gold must be
very rich in the precious metal, and recent labours in damming and turning
the courses of certain portions of them, have so proved. The richest deposits
of gold upon the rivers are found on what are called the “bars.” These bars
are places where there is an extension of the bank into the river, and round
which the stream winds, leaving, of course, a greater amount of surface than
there is upon the bank generally. They are covered with large rocks deeply
imbedded in the soil, which upon most of them is a red gravel, extending to
the solid formation of rock beneath.
There are two theories upon which the superior richness of the bars can
be accounted for. The first is, that the river in its annual overflows has made
the deposits of gold here, and that being more level and broad than the
river’s banks, they retain a larger quantity of the gold thus deposited. The
other, and the only one that accounts for the formation of the bars
themselves, is, that where they now are, the river formerly ran; and that
they were once the river’s bed, but that from some natural cause, the
channel has been changed and a new one made; and thus, are left dry, these
large portions of the river’s bed which annually receive fresh deposits of
gold from it in its overflow.
We were all ready to commence operations on our new place in the
morning, when, on waking, we found the sky hazy, and soon after breakfast
a severe rain set in. We crept into our holes and remained there through the
day, hoping for a cessation of the rain before the morning, but it continued
pouring in torrents. Never have I seen rain come down as it did then and
there; not only the “windows” but the very floodgates “of heaven” seemed
opened upon us, and through that doleful night we lay upon our blanketed
rocks, listening to the solemn music of the swollen river rushing rapidly by
us, and the big rain torrents pouring upon its breast. In the morning we
found that the river had risen four feet, and observing, high above our
camp, the marks of the height to which it had attained during previous
seasons, we judged it prudent to be looking for higher quarters. The rain
continued raising the river through the second and third days, nearly three
feet more, until it nearly reached our rock-couches. We talked the matter
over, and determined to leave the next day, and return to our winter quarters
on Weaver’s Creek. We felt, of course, a profound sorrow at leaving our
rich spot, after having satisfied ourselves that a few months’ labour in it
would make us all wealthy men,—after having succeeded, with great
labour, in transporting to it two or three months’ provisions, and having
suffered so much by resting (if resting it could be called) our labour-
wearied bones upon rocks of the most unaccommodating and inelastic
character. But the dreaded rainy season we knew had commenced, and rosy
health was better than the brightest gold, so we stowed away our provisions
with the exception of what we supposed would be requisite for our journey
homeward, and on the fourth morning after the rain commenced, took our
line of march up the formidable hill.
 CHAPTER VI.

Mormon Exploration of the Middle Fork—Headquarters of the Gold-hunters—The North

Fork—Smith’s Bar—Damming—Great Luck of a Frenchman and his Son—Kelsey’s Bar
—Rise and Fall of the Rivers—Return to Weaver’s Creek—Agricultural Prospects—
Culoma Sawmill—An Extensive and Expensive Breakfast—“Prospecting” on the South
Fork—Winter Quarters—Snow-storm—A Robbery—Summary Justice—Garcia, Bissi,
and Manuel—Lynch Law—Trial for attempt to Murder—Execution of the Accused—
Fine Weather—How the Gold became distributed—Volcanic Craters.

The banks of the Middle Fork have proved richer than those of any other
tributary of the Sacramento River. The fork is the central one of three
streams, which rise in the Sierra Nevada, and course their way to the
American Fork, a large branch of the Sacramento, into which they empty.
The first exploration of the Middle Fork was made in the latter part of June,
1848, by a party of Mormons who had been at work upon the South Fork,
and had left them for the hills in search of richer deposits than were found
there. The first diggings were made at the Spanish Bar, which is about
twelve miles in a direct line from Sutter’s Mill, and has yielded at least a
million of dollars. The Middle Fork has now been explored to its very
source in the Sierra, but has not been found so rich above as it was below.
Since my first trip there, I have travelled for thirty miles on both its banks,
and never yet washed a pan of its earth without finding gold in it. When the
immense tide of emigration began to pour in from the United States, the
Middle Fork was the grand headquarters of the enthusiastic gold-hunters,
and its banks have been torn to their very bottoms, and incalculable
treasures taken from them. Within the past summer and fall, at least ten
thousand people have been at work upon this river, and at the fair average
of one ounce, or even ten dollars per day to a man, more than ten millions
of dollars worth of gold dust have been extracted on this river alone. Its
banks having ceased to furnish a very large amount of gold, the river itself
has in many places been diverted from its wonted course, a channel dug for
it through a bar, and its bed wrought,—in many cases yielding an immense
quantity of the precious metal, and in others, comparatively nothing. This is
now about the only profitable labour that can be performed here, as the
banks of the stream have been completely riddled; but when companies
with capital and scientific mining apparatus shall commence operations
here, a rich harvest will follow.
About ten miles beyond the Middle Fork, and coursing in the same
direction, is another stream, the North Fork, whose banks have proved
nearly equal in richness to those of the Middle Fork. Within the past spring
and summer some fifteen points on this river have been dammed, the
channel turned, and the bed of the river dug. In one case, a party of five
dammed the river near what is now called “Smith’s Bar.” The time
employed in damming off a space of some thirty feet was about two weeks,
after which from one to two thousand dollars a day were taken out by the
party, for the space of ten days,—the whole amount of gold extracted being
fifteen thousand dollars. Another party above them made another dam, and
in one week took out five thousand dollars. In other cases, where
unfavourable points in the river were selected, little or no gold was found;
and a fair average of the amount taken out, in parts of the river which were
dammed, I think I can safely state at fifty dollars per day to a man.
Here is an immense field for a combination of capital and labour. As yet
no scientific apparatus has been introduced, and severe manual labour alone
has produced such golden results. When steam and money are united for the
purpose, I doubt not that the whole waters of the North and Middle Forks
will be turned from their channels, and immense canals dug through the
rugged mountains to bear them off. There are placers upon the Middle Fork,
where, within a space of twenty square feet, are lying undisturbed pounds
of gold. This may appear startling; but facts and experience have led me to
an analogical mode of reasoning, which has proved it to my own mind
conclusively. A Frenchman and his boy, who were working on the Middle
Fork in November, 1848, found a place in the river where they could scrape
from the bottom the sands which had gathered in the crevices and pockets
of the rocks. These were washed in a machine, and in four days’ time the
father and son had taken from the river’s bed three thousand dollars, and
this with nothing but a hoe and spade. Two men on Kelsey’s Bar, on the
Middle Fork, adopted the same process, and in two days washed from the
earth, thus procured, fifty pounds of gold, amounting to nearly ten thousand
dollars. The great difficulty in the way of labouring in this manner is, that
there are very few places where the water is sufficiently shallow to permit
it, and the river bed is so rocky, and the current so strong, that it is only in
places where it becomes a pool of still water that the soil can be taken from
its bottom.
The width of the Middle Fork is in most places about thirty feet, and that
of the North a little less. The current of both rivers is very strong, being at
the rate of five or six miles an hour. The beds of these rivers are composed
of huge rocks, tumbled together as they are upon the banks; and it is in the
crevices and pockets of these rocks that the gold has secreted itself. Where
the stream is narrow and the current strong, the probability is that there is
but little gold; but where it expands, and the water becomes more quiet, the
gold has settled peacefully, there to remain till the hand of some irreverent
Yankee shall remove it from its hiding-place.
During the months of September, October, and November, and
sometimes a part of December, the rivers are at their lowest ebb, when the
water is from three to eight feet deep in the Middle and North Forks. In the
latter part of December, or the early part of January, when the yearly rains
commence, the rivers become swollen, sometimes rising eight or ten feet in
the course of a week’s rain. During the winter the rivers are continually
rising and falling, as the rains cease or commence again. About the first of
March, the snows which have fallen during the winter begin to melt on the
mountains, and flow in little streams down the mountain sides. Every warm
day raises the rivers perceptibly, sometimes to the extent of four feet in a
single day, so that in the heat of summer they are fifteen feet higher than in
the fall. The only practicable time for damming is in the fall, or early in the
spring.
When I dropped the thread of this narrative, I left myself about to start
up the hill on my return with the remainder of the party to Weaver’s Creek.
We found the journey up more toilsome than it had been before, as the soil
was reduced to a pasty consistency, into which we sank ankle deep at every
step, and the rocks were rendered so slimy and slippery by the rain, that it
was with great difficulty we could maintain our foothold when climbing
over them. After a tedious three hours’ struggle, however, we succeeded in
reaching the top, where we encamped again, and the next day travelled to
the summit of the hill which overlooks Culoma. There we again encamped,
and the following morning entered the settlement. The country between the
mill and the Middle Fork is made up of a succession of hills, covered with
oak trees, and interspersed with beautifully watered valleys. In these valleys
the soil is a rich black loam, while the hills are barren, and of a red, gravelly
soil. As yet no attempts at agriculture have been made in this region, but I
am satisfied that the valleys would produce the common field crops in great
profusion.
We reached the mill about nine o’clock in the morning, a little too late to
get a breakfast at one of the stores, where sometimes the proprietor was
sufficiently generous to accommodate a traveller with a meal for the
moderate price of five dollars. The only resource was to lay a cloth on the
storekeeper’s counter, and make a breakfast on crackers, cheese, and
sardines. In order not to make a rush upon the trade, we divided ourselves
into three parties, each going to a different store. Mac and myself went
together, and made a breakfast from the following items;—one box of
sardines, one pound of sea-biscuit, one pound of butter, a half-pound of
cheese, and two bottles of ale. We ate and drank with great gusto, and, when
we had concluded our repast called for the bill. It was such a curiosity in the
annals of a retail grocery business, that I preserved it, and here are the
items. It may remind some of Falstaff’s famous bill for bread and sack.
One box of sardines, $16 00
One pound of hard bread, 2 00
One pound of butter, 6 00
A half-pound of cheese, 3 00
Two bottles of ale, 16 00
Total, $43 00
A pretty expensive breakfast, thought we! If I ever get out of these hills,
and sit and sip my coffee and eat an omelet, at a mere nominal expense, in a
marble palace, with a hundred waiters at my back, I shall send back a
glance of memory at the breakfast I ate at Culoma saw-mill.
We laid over at the mill during the day, and travelled a mile or two up
and down the South Fork “prospecting.” It appeared remarkable that here,
where the gold was first discovered, and while hundreds and thousands
were crowding to the mines, not a single man was at work upon the South
Fork. But very little digging has ever been done at the mill, although I
doubt not there will yet be found vast deposits of gold on the banks of the
South Fork. We tried several places, and invariably found gold, but in such
small quantities that we thought it would not be profitable to work there;
and the day after, as the rain had ceased, we went into Weaver’s Creek, with
a huge load of blankets on our backs, sweating under a broiling sun.
We found our companions there, anxiously waiting for our return, and
eager to listen to the glowing report we made them of our early success, but
disappointed almost as much as we were at the unfortunate ending of the
affair. We determined to settle down quietly for the rest of the winter in our
log house, and take our chance among the dry diggings. It had by this time
commenced snowing; and from the first until the fifteenth of January it
continued falling heavily, so that by the middle of January it was about four
feet deep on a level. All labour was of course suspended, and we lay by in
our log house, and amused ourselves by playing cards, reading, washing our
clothing, and speculating on the future results of gold-digging. By the
middle of January the snow ceased, and the rain again commenced; and in a
few days, the snow having been entirely washed off the surface, we
anticipated being soon able to recommence operations.
A scene occurred about this time that exhibits in a striking light, the
summary manner in which “justice” is dispensed in a community where
there are no legal tribunals. We received a report on the afternoon of
January 20th, that five men had been arrested at the dry diggings, and were
under trial for a robbery. The circumstances were these:—A Mexican
gambler, named Lopez, having in his possession a large amount of money,
retired to his room at night, and was surprised about midnight by five men
rushing into his apartment, one of whom applied a pistol to his head, while
the others barred the door and proceeded to rifle his trunk. An alarm being
given, some of the citizens rushed in, and arrested the whole party. Next
day they were tried by a jury chosen from among the citizens, and
sentenced to receive thirty-nine lashes each, on the following morning.
Never having witnessed a punishment inflicted by Lynch-law, I went over
to the dry diggings on a clear Sunday morning, and on my arrival, found a
large crowd collected around an oak tree, to which was lashed a man with a
bared back, while another was applying a raw cowhide to his already gored
flesh. A guard of a dozen men, with loaded rifles pointed at the prisoners,
stood ready to fire in case of an attempt being made to escape. After the
whole had been flogged, some fresh charges were preferred against three of
the men—two Frenchmen, named Garcia and Bissi, and a Chileno, named
Manuel. These were charged with a robbery and attempt to murder, on the
Stanislaus River, during the previous fall. The unhappy men were removed
to a neighbouring house, and being so weak from their punishment as to be
unable to stand, were laid stretched upon the floor. As it was not possible
for them to attend, they were tried in the open air, in their absence, by a
crowd of some two hundred men, who had organized themselves into a jury,
and appointed a pro tempore judge. The charges against them were well
substantiated, but amounted to nothing more than an attempt at robbery and
murder; no overt act being even alleged. They were known to be bad men,
however, and a general sentiment seemed to prevail in the crowd that they
ought to be got rid of. At the close of the trial, which lasted some thirty
minutes, the Judge put to vote the question whether they had been proved
guilty. A universal affirmative was the response; and then the question,
“What punishment shall be inflicted?” was asked. A brutal-looking fellow
in the crowd, cried out, “Hang them.” The proposition was seconded, and
met with almost universal approbation. I mounted a stump, and in the name
of God, humanity, and law, protested against such a course of proceeding;
but the crowd, by this time excited by frequent and deep potations of liquor
from a neighbouring groggery, would listen to nothing contrary to their
brutal desires, and even threatened to hang me if I did not immediately
desist from any further remarks. Somewhat fearful that such might be my
fate, and seeing the utter uselessness of further argument with them, I
ceased, and prepared to witness the horrible tragedy. Thirty minutes only
were allowed the unhappy victims to prepare themselves to enter on the
scenes of eternity. Three ropes were procured, and attached to the limb of a
tree. The prisoners were marched out, placed upon a wagon, and the ropes
put round their necks. No time was given them for explanation. They vainly
tried to speak, but none of them understanding English, they were obliged
to employ their native tongues, which but few of those assembled
understood. Vainly they called for an interpreter, for their cries were
drowned by the yells of a now infuriated mob. A black handkerchief was
bound around the eyes of each; their arms were pinioned, and at a given
signal, without priest or prayer-book, the wagon was drawn from under
them, and they were launched into eternity. Their graves were dug ready to
receive them, and when life was entirely extinct, they were cut down and
buried in their blankets. This was the first execution I ever witnessed.—God
grant that it may be the last!
The bad weather had cleared off, and our gold-digging life was again
commenced; and the little ravines that ran down from the hillsides afforded
us ample field for labour. The regularity and extent with which the gold is
scattered in California is remarkable. When wearied with our continual
labour in the immediate vicinity of our house, we would sometimes start on
a “prospecting” expedition some five or six miles distant. During all these
searches I have never yet struck a pickaxe into a ravine without finding
gold,—sometimes, however, in such small quantities as not to justify the
expenditure of individual manual labour. Through this vast territory it is
scattered everywhere, as plentifully as the rich blessings of the Providence
that created it. Our labours usually yielded us sixteen dollars per day to
each man throughout the whole winter.
Various have been the speculations upon the manner in which the gold
became distributed in the gold-region of California. Some have supposed
that, like the stones that cover the earth’s surface, it was always there; and
others, that it has sprung from some great fountain-head, and by a
tremendous volcanic eruption been scattered over an extensive territory.
With these latter I agree; and observation and experience have proved to me
most conclusively the truth of this theory. The gold found in every placer in
California bears the most indubitable marks of having, at some time, been
in a molten state. In many parts it is closely intermixed with quartz, into
which it has evidently been injected while in a state of fusion; and I have
myself seen many pieces of gold completely coated with a black cement
that resembled the lava of a volcano. The variety of form, which the placer
gold of California has assumed, is in itself sufficient evidence of the fact
that it has been thrown over the surface while in a melted state. The earliest
comparisons of the California gold were to pieces of molten lead dropped
into water. The whole territory of the gold region bears the plainest and
most distinct marks of being volcanic. The soil is of a red, brick colour, in
many places entirely barren, and covered with a flinty rock or pebble,
entirely parched in the summer, and during the rainy season becoming a
perfect mire. The formation of the hills, the succession of gorges, the entire
absence of fertility in many portions, distinctly exhibit the result of a great
up-heaving during past times. But there is one phenomenon in the mining
region which defies all geological research founded upon any other
premises than volcanic formation. Throughout the whole territory, so
generally that it has become an indication of the presence of gold, a white
slate rock is found, and is the principal kind of rock in the mining region.
This rock, instead of lying, as slate rock does in other portions of the earth,