Holozoic Nutrition

Introduction:
- Living cells require food to perform biological functions and obtain energy
for growth and repair.
- Nutrients are essential substances required by cells for various biological
functions.
Heterotrophic Nutrition:
- Organisms depend on ready-made food prepared by other organisms.
- Holozoic nutrition is a type of heterotrophic nutrition commonly found in
animals.
Holozoic Nutrition:
- Definition:
- Ingestion or intake of solid or liquid food from the environment.
- Stages:
1. Ingestion:
- Process of taking in food into the cell (unicellular) or body (multicellular).
- Occurs through cell surface or specific opening, such as the mouth.
2. Digestion:
- Breakdown of complex food into simple molecules.
- Chemical and mechanical processes aided by enzymes.
3. Absorption:
- Soluble food molecules absorbed by digestive membranes (e.g., intestinal
lining).
- Molecules utilized during metabolic activities.
4. Assimilation:
- Utilization of absorbed molecules in cell metabolism.
5. Egestion:
- Removal of undigested food from the cell or body.

These processes collectively enable organisms to obtain nutrients, energy,

and materials for growth and maintenance of biological functions.

- Intracellular Digestion:
- Occurs in single-celled organisms like protozoa.
- Food particles are taken in through the cell surface or plasma membrane.
- Digestion happens inside the cell without releasing enzymes outside.
- Termed as intracellular digestion.

- Extracellular Digestion:
- Found in multicellular animals like roundworms, insects, and mammals.
- Food is taken into a digestive tract or gut due to the large size of particles.
- Enzymes are released into the gut where digestion occurs outside the cells.
- Known as extracellular digestion.

- Mechanical and Chemical Digestion:

- Both types involve breaking down food.
- Chemical digestion: enzymatic conversion.
- Mechanical digestion: physical breakdown (e.g., mastication, peristalsis).
- Water is essential for hydrolytic breakdown in chemical digestion.

- Sac-like vs. Tube-like Digestive System:

- Tube-like Digestive System:
- Found in advanced organisms.
- Two openings for food entrance and waste removal.
- Complete digestive system with associated glands and organs.
- Active mechanical and chemical digestion.
- Variable pH in digestive tract due to complex food.
- Abundant enzymes act on food components.
- Well-supported by muscles.
- Sac-like Digestive System:
- Found in lower organisms.
- Single opening for both food entrance and waste removal.
- Incomplete digestive system without associated glands and organs.
- Mostly chemical digestion occurs.
- Less variable pH due to simple food.
- Fewer enzymes act on food components.
- Less well-supported by muscles.

- Amoeba:
- Unicellular, eukaryotic organism belonging to Protozoa.
- Microphagous feeder, feeds on minute food particles and microscopic
organisms like bacteria.
- Ingestion:
- Food captured and ingested through pseudopodia, temporary finger-like
extensions of cytoplasm.
- Pseudopodia extend towards food, forming a cup-like structure or food cup.
- Food particles trapped in the food cup, tips move together to enclose the
food.
- Enclosed food forms a sphere, termed as a food vacuole.
- Process termed as ingestion.

- Intracellular Digestion:
- Food vacuole moves inside the cytoplasm, attached with lysosomes
containing hydrolytic enzymes.
- Enzymes act on food particles inside the vacuole at varying pH (5.6 to 7.3),
initiating digestion.
- Food digestion occurs within the food vacuole.
- Digestive vacuole moves deeper into the cytoplasm via streaming
movement (cyclosis).
- Absorption and Assimilation:
- After digestion, food vacuole releases fine, cytoplasmic canals.
- Diffusible food particles move into these canals for absorption.
- Absorbed food particles diffuse into different parts of the cytoplasm for
assimilation.
- Digested food may form new protoplasm or broken down to liberate
energy.

This process highlights the intricate mechanisms involved in digestion and

nutrient absorption in amoeba, illustrating the efficiency of unicellular
organisms in acquiring nutrients for survival and growth.

- Planaria:
- Free-living flatworm belonging to Phylum Platyhelminthes.
- Found in wet places under rocks, close to streams, and in brackish water.
- Soft, elongated, flat body with a simple digestive system.
- Digestive System:
- Considered incomplete or sac-like.
- Mouth on a small, muscular tube, with the pharynx almost in the middle of
the body.
- Pharynx connected to the intestine via a short esophagus.
- Intestine divides into three blind branches, with numerous diverticula and
ramification.
- Feeding Behavior:
- Carnivorous, feeding on small larvae, insects, etc.
- Prey trapped in thick mucus secreted from the pharynx and sucked into the
pharynx through the mouth.
- Glandular cells secrete enzymes for extracellular digestion from the
pharynx to the intestine.
- Digestion Process:
- Muscular action of the body pushes food throughout the intestine.
- Food particles break into smaller ones and are taken up by cells lining the
gastrovascular cavity through endocytosis.
- Intracellular digestion occurs inside cells of the gastrovascular cavity.
- Digested food diffuses into mesenchyme cells from the gastrovascular
cavity.
- Intestine's branching system aids quick disposal of food to all body cells,
serving as an alternate circulatory system.
- Egestion:
- Undigested food in the intestine egested through the mouth.
This process outlines the digestion mechanism in planaria, highlighting both
intracellular and extracellular digestion and the role of the intestine in food
distribution throughout the body.

Human Digestive System

- Overview:
- Human digestive system is complete, consisting of a tube-like gut with two
openings: mouth and anus.
- Also known as the gastro-intestinal tract (G.I.T.), it begins with the mouth
and ends at the anus.
- Comprises digestive tract and accessory glands like salivary glands, liver,
and pancreas.
- Components of Human Digestive System:
- Mouth, oral cavity (buccal cavity), pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and anus.
- Associated glands: salivary glands, liver, and pancreas.
- Mouth:
- Anterior opening of alimentary canal bounded by upper and lower lips.
- Meant for ingestion of food.
- Oral Cavity:
- Wide space formed by upper and lower jaws.
- Contains a muscular tongue, hard palate, soft palate, and uvula.
- Cheeks laterally; connected posteriorly with the pharynx.
- Rows of teeth in both jaws for mechanical digestion.
- Upper jaw fixed, lower jaw movable.
- Teeth:
- Embedded in sockets along the length of lower and upper jaws (thecodont
condition).
- Two sets of teeth during lifetime (diphyodont condition): deciduous (milk)
teeth and permanent teeth.
- Deciduous teeth: 20; permanent teeth: 32 (heterodont condition).
- Types of permanent teeth: incisors, canines, premolars, and molars.
- Incisors for cutting and biting, canines for tearing flesh, premolars and
molars for grinding and crushing food.
- Tongue:
- Muscular organ attached to the floor of the oral cavity.
- Numerous papillae on upper surface containing taste buds.
- Frenulum, a fold of mucous membrane, on the underside.
- Functions in mastication, swallowing, taste, and speech.
- Salivary Glands:
- Secrete saliva, a watery secretion containing mucin and salivary amylase.
- Lubricates food and initiates chemical digestion of starch into maltose.
- Helps in killing bacteria through lysozyme enzyme.
- Three pairs of major salivary glands: Parotid, Sublingual, and
Submandibular.
Salivary glands are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, and saliva
secretion is normally constant.
- Pharynx:
- Connected anteriorly to the oral cavity and nasal cavity, and posteriorly to
the esophagus and larynx.
- Allows passage of swallowed food into the esophagus and conducts air to
and from the trachea during respiration.
- Connects with the middle ear cavity via the Eustachian tube, aiding in
equalization of air pressure.
- Principal muscles involved in swallowing are the three pharyngeal
constrictors, which form the musculature of the side and rear pharyngeal
walls.
- Swallowing (Deglutition):
- After chewing and mixing with saliva, food forms a soft, lubricated ball
called bolus.
- Bolus is pushed by the tongue into the pharynx, initiating swallowing.
- Swallowing is a voluntary process involving cessation of mastication and
temporary blocking of the airway.
- Soft palate elevates against the posterior pharyngeal wall to prevent entry
of bolus into nasal pharynx.
- Larynx moves upward and forward under the base of the tongue, and the
epiglottis diverts the bolus to the esophagus.
- Peristalsis:
- Involuntary, rhythmic movement of contraction and relaxation of gut
muscles.
- Propels food forward inside the gut and occurs throughout the digestive
tract.
- Stimulus for peristalsis is distension of the gut wall due to bolus.
- Circular muscles behind the bolus relax while longitudinal muscles
contract, producing a propulsive force.
- Antiperistalsis:
- Reverse involuntary movement of smooth muscles, unlike peristalsis.
- Can occur due to overeating or excessive gastrointestinal irritation, leading
to nausea and vomiting.
- Stomach is squeezed, and the gastro-pharyngeal sphincter relaxes, causing
contents to move upward through the esophagus.
- Esophagus:
- Tubular structure leading from the pharynx to the stomach, located
between the trachea and spinal cord.
- Internally lubricated by mucous, facilitating passage of food.
- Food is propelled through the esophagus into the stomach via peristalsis.
- Passes through the diaphragm before entering the stomach, where no
mechanical or chemical digestion occurs.
The pharynx and esophagus play crucial roles in the swallowing process,
facilitating the movement of food from the mouth to the stomach.

Stomach:
- Anatomy:
- The stomach is a "J" shaped muscular pouch located in the upper left of the
abdominal cavity.
- It connects to the esophagus anteriorly and the duodenum posteriorly.
- The top of the stomach lies against the diaphragm, and its both ends are
guarded by valves: the cardiac sphincter anteriorly and the pyloric sphincter
posteriorly.
- Function:
- Main organ for both mechanical and chemical digestion.
- Can store food for several hours and turns it into paste-like acidic chyme.
- Internally divided into four regions: cardia, fundus, corpus (body), and
pylorus.
- Receives food from the esophagus and empties gastric contents into the
duodenum through the pyloric sphincter.
- Structure:
- Four layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa.
- Mucosa contains numerous tubular glands and mucoid cells that secrete
mucous and bicarbonate ions for lubrication and protection.
- Histological regions: cardia (mucous secretion), fundic glands (main
mucoid and parietal cells for HCl secretion), and pyloric glands (mucous and
gastrin hormone secretion).
- Mechanical digestion facilitated by three layers of smooth muscles: oblique,
circular, and longitudinal.
- Chemical Digestion:
- Gastric juice released into the lumen of the stomach contains HCl and
pepsinogen.
- HCl softens food, kills germs, and activates pepsinogen into pepsin, which
breaks down proteins into peptones.
- Mucous layer protects stomach from HCl action.
- Factors affecting gastric juice secretion: neuronal, mechanical, and
hormonal (gastrin).
- In infants, rennin or chymosin secreted for digestion of milk protein
caseinogen.
- Peristaltic movements churn and mix food with gastric juice, transporting it
to the duodenum as chyme.
- Absorptive Role:
- Stomach also absorbs some digestive products, water, glucose, simple
sugars, amino acids, and fat-soluble substances.

Summary:
The stomach is a key digestive organ performing both mechanical and
chemical digestion. Its muscular walls churn and mix food with gastric juice,
creating chyme. Chemical digestion involves the action of gastric juice
containing HCl and pepsinogen, while the mucous layer protects the stomach
lining. Additionally, the stomach plays a minor role in absorption, absorbing
certain nutrients and water

The small intestine is indeed fascinating! It's where the majority of

digestion and absorption of nutrients takes place. Let's break down some key
points:
1. Duodenum: This is the first part of the small intestine, where chyme from
the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas and bile from the
liver. These juices contain enzymes that break down carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats into smaller molecules. Hormones like cholecystokinin and secretin
help regulate this process by stimulating the release of digestive enzymes
and bile.
2. Jejunum: The jejunum is the middle part of the small intestine and is
responsible for further digestion and absorption. It secretes enzymes like
maltase, sucrase, and lactase to break down complex carbohydrates into
simple sugars, and peptidases to break down peptides into amino acids. This
region also absorbs nutrients like amino acids, monosaccharides, and some
vitamins and minerals into the bloodstream through tiny finger-like
projections called villi.
3. Ileum: The ileum is the final part of the small intestine and plays a crucial
role in absorbing bile salts, vitamin B12, and any remaining nutrients that
were not absorbed in the jejunum. It also contains lymphoid tissue that helps
with immune function.
Moving on to the large intestine:
1. Caecum: This is where the small intestine joins the large intestine, and the
ileocecal valve controls the passage of material between them. Water and
salts are absorbed here, and the vermiform appendix, although a vestigial
organ, may have a role in immune function.
2. Colon: The colon consists of several segments: the ascending colon,
transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon. It primarily absorbs
water, electrolytes, and vitamins produced by gut bacteria. These bacteria
also help ferment indigestible carbohydrates, producing gases and short-
chain fatty acids.
3. Rectum and Anal Canal: The rectum stores feces until defecation occurs.
The anal canal contains internal and external sphincter muscles that control
the release of feces. In adults, defecation involves the relaxation of the
internal anal sphincter followed by voluntary contraction of the external anal
sphincter.
Overall, the small intestine is where most digestion and absorption occur,
while the large intestine focuses on water absorption and the formation of
feces. It's a beautifully orchestrated system that ensures we extract the
nutrients we need from our food while eliminating waste efficiently.

disorders
1. Ulcer (Peptic Ulcer): Sores that develop in the gastrointestinal tract,
caused by erosion of the protective mucous layer by gastric juices. Symptoms
include abdominal pain, loss of appetite, nausea, and vomiting. Treatment
involves antibiotics and proton-pump inhibitors to reduce acid secretion.
2. Food Poisoning: Illness caused by consuming contaminated, spoilt, or
toxic food, often due to bacteria, viruses, parasites, or other pathogens.
Symptoms include stomach cramps, vomiting, fever, and diarrhea. Treatment
includes rehydration, electrolyte solutions, and sometimes antibiotics.
3. Dyspepsia (Indigestion): Discomfort or pain in the upper abdomen after
eating or drinking, accompanied by bloating, nausea, and abdominal fullness.
It may cause heartburn due to acid reflux.
4. Obesity: Accumulation of excessive body fat, increasing the risk of
diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and certain cancers.
Treatment involves long-term lifestyle changes such as proper diet habits,
increased physical activity, and regular exercise.
5. Anorexia Nervosa: A psychological disorder characterized by an intense
fear of gaining weight, leading to refusal to eat adequately and resulting in
weight loss. It may be accompanied by induced vomiting.
6. Bulimia Nervosa: Involves binge eating followed by purging through
induced vomiting. Complications can lead to kidney failure, heart problems,
teeth decay, and electrolyte imbalances.
These disorders underscore the importance of maintaining a balanced diet,
healthy eating habits, and seeking medical help for psychological issues
related to food and body image.

Liver: The liver, the largest gland in the body, plays crucial roles in
metabolism, storage, and detoxification. It receives blood supply from the
hepatic artery (oxygenated blood) and the hepatic portal vein (nutrient-rich
blood). Key functions include:
- Secretion of Bile: Synthesized by hepatocytes, bile consists of bile salts,
bile pigments, and cholesterol, aiding in digestion.

- Metabolism & Homeostasis: Converts glucose into glycogen (insulin

secretion) for storage and back to glucose (glucagon secretion) for energy.
Metabolizes fats, amino acids, and genetic material, and synthesizes plasma
proteins, blood clotting factors, and vitamin A from carotene.
- Breakdown: Involved in breaking down worn-out erythrocytes.
- Defense: Carried out by Kupffer cells (hepatic macrophages) in the
sinusoids.
- Detoxification: Processes and detoxifies drugs, alcohol, and toxins
produced by microbes.
- Inactivation of Hormones: Modulates insulin, glucagon, cortisol,
aldosterone, thyroid, and sex hormones.
- Production of Heat: Utilizes energy, has a high metabolic rate, and
generates heat.
- Storage: Stores fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K), iron, copper, and some
water-soluble vitamins.
The liver is susceptible to various diseases, including hepatitis
(inflammation) and jaundice (bilirubin accumulation). Proper liver function
is essential for overall health and well-being.