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Chemistry of
Biomolecules
Second Edition
Chemistry of
Biomolecules
Second Edition
S. P. Bhutani
Formerly Associate Professor
Department of Chemistry, Rajdhani College
University of Delhi, India
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
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Preface xxi
1. CARBOHYDRATES 1-85
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Occurrence and Biological Importance 2
1.3 Definitions
1.4 Formation of Carbohydrates in Plants 3
1.5 Classification of Carbohydrates 4
A. Monosaccharides 4
B. Oligosaccharides 5
C. Polysaccharides 8
1.6 Configurational Relationship of Monosaccharides 8
A. Correlation of the Configuration of D-Glucose and
D-Glyceraldehyde 8
B. Aldotetroses 9
C. Erythro and Threo Diastereomers 10
D. Aldopentoses 11
E. Aldohexoses 12
1.7 Epimers 13
1.8 Structure and Properties of D-Glucose 15
A. Open-Chain Structure of D-Glucose 15
B. Configuration of D (+)-Glucose 17
C. Cyclic Structure of D(+)-Glucose 20
D. Conformations of D(+) Glucose 24
1.9 Determination of the Ring Size of Glucose 25
A. Evidence for the Pyranose Structure of D(+)-Glucose 25
B. Evidence for the Furanose Structure of D(+)-Glucose 26
C. Determination of Ring Size by Oxidations with
Periodic Acid 28
1.10 Mutarotation 29
1.11 Osazone Formation 31
1.12 Ketohexoses 33
1.13 Structure of D(–)-Fructose 33
viii Contents
A. Configuration of D-Fructose 34
B. Cyclic Structure of D-Fructose 35
1.14 Reactions of Monosaccharides 36
A. Esterification 36
B. Ether Formation 36
C. Formation of Glycosides 37
D. Esters of Phosphoric Acid 38
E. Oxidation of Monosaccharides 41
F. Reduction of Monosaccharides 46
1.15 Lengthening the Carbon Chain of Aldoses–The
Kiliani-Fischer Synthesis 47
1.16 Shortening the Carbon Chain of Aldoses 49
A. The Wohl Degradation 49
B. The Ruff Degradation 49
C. Weermann Degradation 50
1.17 Interconversions 51
A. The Interconversion of Glucose, Mannose and Fructose 51
B. Conversion of an Aldose to the Corresponding Ketose 51
C. Conversion of an Aldose to its Epimer 52
D. Conversion of a Ketose into the Corresponding Aldose 52
1.18 Maltose 53
1.19 Lactose 56
1.20 Cellobiose 59
1.21 Sucrose 60
1.22 Aldopentoses—The Sugars of Nucleic Acids 62
A. Deoxy Sugars 2-Deoxy-D-Ribose 62
B. D-Ribose 64
1.23 Polysaccharides 65
A. Cellulose 65
B. Starch 67
C. Glycogen 70
D. Chitin 71
E. Heparin 72
1.24 Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates—The Calvin Cycle 72
A. Stage 1 73
B. Stage 2 73
C. Stage 3 74
1.25 Natural Products Derived from Carbohydrates 76
A. Ascorbic Acid 76
B. Some Natural Glycosides 78
C. Anthocyanins—Natural Colouring Matters 79
D. Anthraquinone Glycosides 80
Contents ix
D. Bradykinin 174
E. Oxytocin 174
F. Vasopressin 175
G. Gramicidin S and Tyrocidine A 176
H. Insulin 177
2.25 Importance and Biological functions of
Proteins and polypeptides 178
2.26 Classification of Proteins 180
A. Classification of Proteins on the Basis of their Shape 180
B. Classification of Proteins on the Basis of Structure 181
2.27 Molecular Shape of Proteins 183
2.28 Factors that Influence Molecular Shape 184
2.29 Some Features of Fibrous Proteins 185
2.30 Some Features of Globular Proteins 186
2.31 Structure of Proteins 187
A. Primary Structure 187
B. Secondary Structure 187
C. Tertiary Structure 190
D. Quaternary Structure 191
2.32 Denaturation of Proteins 192
3. Enzymes 193-246
3.1 Introduction 194
3.2 Nomenclature and Classification of Enzymes 194
A. Systematic Names 195
B. Major Classes of Enzymes 195
C. Oxido-reductases 196
D. Hydrolases 197
E. Transferases 199
3.3 Characteristics of Enzymes 199
A. Catalytic Power 199
B. Control of Enzyme Action 200
C. Enzyme Specificity 201
D. Stereospecificity 202
3.4 Factors Influencing Enzyme Activity 204
A. Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity 204
B. Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity 205
C. Effect of Substrate Concentration 207
D. Effect of Enzyme Concentration 208
3.5 Cofactors–Coenzymes 208
A. Definition 208
B. Coenzymes 209
xii Contents
C. Cofactors 209
D. Functions of Coenzymes 209
E. Coenzyme Classification 210
F. Inorganic Cofactors 211
3.6 Structure and Functions of Various Coenzymes 211
A. NAD+ and NADP+ 211
Learning Objectives
In this chapter we will study
• Carbohydrates – Occurrence in Nature and Definitions
• Formation of Carbohydrates in Plants
• Classification of Carbohydrates-Monosaccharides, Oligosaccharides and
Polysaccharides
• Configurational Relationship of Monosaccharides—Aldotetroses, Aldopentoses
and Aldohexoses
• Epimers
• Structure and Properties of D-Glucose—Open-Chain Structure, Cyclic
Structure, Configuration of D-Glucose, Haworth-Projections, Conformations
of D-Glucose
• Determination of Ring size of D-Glucose
• Mutarotation and its Mechanism
• Osazone Formation and its Mechanism
• Ketohexoses-Structure of D-Fructose
• Reactions of Monosaccharides
• Lengthening and Shortening of Carbon Chain of Aldoses
• Interconversions
• Structure of Various Disaccharides—Maltose, Lactose, Cellobiose and Sucrose
• Aldopentoses—The sugars of Nucleic Acids
• Polysaccharides-Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen, Chitin and Heparin
• Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates
• Some Natural Products derived from Carbohydrates including Ascobic Acid,
Anthocyanisns, Cardiac Glycosides etc.
2 Chemistry of Biomolecules
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrates are one of the essential food ingredients which we all require.
Every one of us is quite familiar with the words glucose and cane sugar. They are
simple carbohydrates. We consume carbohydrates in one form or the other every
time we take our meals, whether it is breakfast, lunch or dinner. They are the
primary source of energy in our body and constitute an important part of any well-
balanced diet. We encounter carbohydrates at every turn of our lives. The paper we
use for writing, the cotton clothes we wear and the wooden furniture around us are
all made of cellulose. The bread we eat, rice, potatoes, peas, etc., all contain starch.
The sweetening agents in fruits are nothing but simple carbohydrates.
1.3 DEFINITIONS
Originally, the name carbohydrate was given to all such compounds having the
general formula Cx(H2O)y i.e., they were considered to be hydrates of carbon. Now,
we know that carbohydrates are not simply hydrates of carbon but have a variety
of other structural features. They are usually defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes
and ketones or substances that hydrolyse to yield polyhydroxy aldehydes and
ketones. We shall see later that this definition is not entirely satisfactory as they
exist primarily as hemiacetals and acetals or as hemiketals and ketals.
Carbohydrates 3
Polyhydroxy aldehyes are also called aldoses and polyhydroxy ketones are called
ketoses. Here ald- is taken for aldehydes and ket- for ketones and -ose is the
common suffix used for these.
Low molecular weight carbohydrates are also called as sugars or saccharides,
e.g., glucose and sucrose are simple sugars. More common sugars like glucose
and fructose, and some less common sugars also occur in the combined state
with various hydroxy compounds. Such derivatives are called glycosides and
the non-sugar component is called ‘aglycone’. When we have glucose as the
sugar component, the compound is called glucoside, if fructose is present, it is a
fructoside and so on.
Glycosides are widely distributed in plants and animals. Structurally, these
compounds are related to simple methyl glucosides. When the sugar moiety forms
an ether linkage with the aglycone, it is called O-glycoside and when there is a
formation of a C—C bond, it is called C-glycoside.
The plant carries out a series of enzyme-catalysed reactions which result in the
synthesis of simple sugars like glucose and more complex ones like starch and
cellulose. Glucose is the most imporant key product in photosynthesis. It is usually
4 Chemistry of Biomolecules
stored in the plants in the form of starch to serve as food energy or to support the
framework of the plant and is present as cellulose (Fig. 1.1)
Fig. 1.1
Thus, in glucose nature stores the energy utilised in the photosynthetic process.
This serves as the main source of energy in the living organisms. When we
consume starch it is converted into glucose in our body and provides us energy.
The remaining glucose in the body gets converted into animal starch, known
as glycogen, which is stored in the muscle tissues. When we require energy at
times when we are on fast, the glycogen is broken down once again into glucose
molecules.
Besides providing energy, a major metabolic product of glucose is acetyl
Coenzyme A, which acts as a starting point for the synthesis of fats, fatty acids,
amino acids and a large number of other important compounds required by our
body (Fig. 1.2)
Fig. 1.2
and six carbons respectively. For example, glucose is a hexose but it is completely
characterised as an aldohexose, which means it is a six carbon sugar containing an
aldehyde group. Similarly, fructose is a ketohexose and arabinose an aldopentose.
In aldoses, the aldehyde group is at the top of the chain and the aldehyde carbon is
considered as carbon number 1.
All naturally occurring ketoses have the keto group on the second carbon in the chain.
The simplest sugars have three carbon atoms and are called trioses. The simplest
aldose is glyceraldehyde, an aldotriose, and the simplest ketose is dihydroxy
acetone, a ketotriose.
B. Oligosaccharides
These are low molecular weight condensation polymers containing 2-9
monosaccharide units. More often the monosaccharide units are hexoses.
Oligosaccharides can be further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides,
tetrasaccharides, etc., depending upon the number of monosaccharide units obtained
on hydrolysis.
i. Disaccharides
A sugar that yields two monosaccharide units on hydrolysis is known as a
disaccharide.
6 Chemistry of Biomolecules
For example, sucrose, the common table sugar is a disaccharide because on hydrolysis
it produces one mole of glucose and one mole of fructose. The disaccharides maltose
and cellobiose both produce two moles of glucose on hydrolysis. They differ in
the linkage between the two units. Lactose has glucose and galactose as the two
monosaccharide units.
H2O
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
H2O
Maltose Glucose + Glucose
H2O
Cellobiose Glucose + Glucose
H2O
Lactose Glucose + Galactose
TABLE 1.1. Classification of Carbohydrates (Some Common Examples)
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