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Textbook Computational Modelling of Concrete Structures Proceedings of The Conference On Computational Modelling of Concrete and Concrete Structures 1St Edition Gunther Meschke Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Computational Modelling of Concrete Structures Proceedings of The Conference On Computational Modelling of Concrete and Concrete Structures 1St Edition Gunther Meschke Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Computational Modelling of Concrete Structures Proceedings of The Conference On Computational Modelling of Concrete and Concrete Structures 1St Edition Gunther Meschke Ebook All Chapter PDF
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COMPUTATIONAL MODELLING OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
PROCEEDINGS OF THE CONFERENCE ON COMPUTATIONAL MODELLING OF
CONCRETE AND CONCRETE STRUCTURES (EURO-C 2018), 26 FEBRUARY – 1 MARCH 2018,
BAD HOFGASTEIN, AUSTRIA
Editors
Günther Meschke
Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
Bernhard Pichler
Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
Jan G. Rots
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
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persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.
Table of contents
Preface xiii
Plenary lectures
Molecular dynamics-based structural mechanics of buildings’ resilience 3
F.-J. Ulm, K. Keremidis, R.J.-M. Pellenq & M.J.A. Qomi
Century-long durability of concrete structures: Expansiveness of hydration
and chemo-mechanics of autogenous shrinkage and swelling 15
Z.P. Bažant & S. Rahimi-Aghdam
Regularized continuum damage formulations acting as localization limiters 25
M. Jirásek
Erection of bridges and shells without formwork—challenges for the computational modelling 43
J. Kollegger, B. Kromoser & D. Suza
Network modelling of fracture processes in fibre-reinforced quasi-brittle materials 55
P. Grassl & A. Antonelli
New damage model to simulate ballistic impact on concrete targets 63
L. Pereira, L.J. Sluys & J. Weerheijm
v
Multi-scale modelling of the mechanics of concrete based on the cement paste properties 137
G. Lifshitz Sherzer, E. Gal, E. Schlangen & G. Ye
Sensitivity estimation of cement paste properties in the microstructural characteristics 141
J.-S. Kim & T.-S. Han
Elastic-plastic multi scale approach for localization problems—the embedded unit cell 149
M. Grigorovitch & E. Gal
A continuum damage model for the simulation of concrete under cyclic loading 155
V. Kindrachuk, T. Titscher, V. Hirthammer & J.F. Unger
From slender columns to branching structures 165
R. Krč, J. Podroužek & R. Wan-Wendner
vi
A coupled chemo-mechanical damage-healing model for cementitious materials 285
A.D. Jefferson & R.E. Davies
Flow in fibrous composite materials: Numerical simulations 289
J. Kang & J. Bolander
Modeling water absorption in cement-based composites with SAP additions 295
C. Romero Rodríguez, S. Chaves Figueiredo, E. Schlangen & D. Snoeck
Full coupling between diffusion and mechanical analysis in a discrete computational
framework 305
F. Bousikhane, W. Li, G. Di Luzio & G. Cusatis
Alternative parameter to characterize pore distribution in cement paste, and its relation
to mechanical properties 311
T.-S. Han & J.-S. Kim
Influence of air voids in multiphase modelling for service life prediction of partially
saturated concrete 317
D. Eriksson & T. Gasch
Concrete frost damage due to cyclic environmental loading—experimental and numerical study 327
M. Koniorczyk, D. Gawin, A. Wieczorek & F. Pesavento
Computational modeling of combined frost damage and alkali-silica reaction to
the durability of RC bridge decks 335
F. Gong, Y. Takahashi & K. Maekawa
Multiscale modelling of ASR induced degradation in concrete 345
T. Iskhakov, J.J. Timothy & G. Meschke
Nonlinear coupling models of alkali-silica reaction and multi-directional cracked
reinforced concrete 353
Y. Takahashi, S. Ogawa, Y. Tanaka & K. Maekawa
Coupled C-M meso-scale model for ASR expansion in concrete 363
J. Liaudat, C.M. López & I. Carol
Numerical strategies for the modelling of reinforced concrete structures affected by internal
swelling in variable thermo-hydric conditions 371
B. Nedjar & C. Rospars
A finite element implementation of delayed ettringite formation in concrete structures 377
M. Malbois, B. Nedjar, L. Divet, S. Lavaud & J.-M. Torrenti
Determination of critical anodic and cathodic areas in corrosion processes of steel
reinforcement in concrete 387
J. Ožbolt, E. Sola & G. Balabanić
Challenges in corrosion detection based on numerical and experimental studies 395
M. Kwapisz, A. Vorwagner, A. Lechner & M. Rebhan
vii
Size effect in concrete under splitting tension 437
J. Suchorzewski & J. Tejchman
Numerical prediction of deterministic size effect in concrete bars and beams 447
A. Wosatko, J. Pamin & A. Winnicki
Numerical investigations on early indicators of fracture in concrete at meso-scale 457
M. Nitka & J. Tejchman
Incremental sequentially linear analysis of a notched beam 465
C. Yu, P.C.J. Hoogenboom & J.G. Rots
Cohesive crack model in discontinuous Galerkin method 473
J. Jaśkowiec
Mesoscopic simulations of crack propagation in concrete using cohesive elements 481
W. Trawiński, J. Tejchman & J. Bobiński
Configurational forces for modelling cohesive fracture in concrete 491
C.J. Pearce, A. Amar & Ł. Kaczmarczyk
A constitutive law for concrete with smooth transition from continuous into discontinuous
cracks’ description 499
J. Bobiński & J. Tejchman
Nonlocal damage formulation with evolving internal length: The Eikonal
nonlocal approach 509
G. Rastiello, C. Giry, F. Gatuingt, F. Thierry & R. Desmorat
Response scatter control for discrete element models 517
J. Podroužek, M. Marcon, J. Vorel & R. Wan-Wendner
Enhancement of multifiber beam elements in the case of reinforced concrete structures for
taking into account the lateral confinement of concrete due to stirrup 525
N. Khoder, S. Grange & Y. Sieffert
viii
Characterising the shear behaviour of steel fibre-reinforced concrete 605
S. Zeranka & G.PA.G. van Zijl
Shear behavior of full-scale RC slabs without shear stirrups in nuclear buildings: Experimental
and numerical modeling 615
W.S.A. Nana, S. Limam, T.T. Bui, A. Limam & S. Abouri
Numerical lower bound analysis of plate bending problems containing requirements on
shear capacity and shear-bending interaction 625
T.W. Jensen, P.N. Poulsen & L.C. Hoang
Simulation of reinforced HPFRCC deformation capacity under flexure- and
shear-dominated stress states 633
M. Pokhrel & M.J. Bandelt
Computer-aided stress field analysis of discontinuity concrete regions 641
J. Mata-Falcón, D.T. Tran, W. Kaufmann & J. Navrátil
Investigations on strength and fracture in RC beams scaled along height or length 651
J. Suchorzewski, I. Marzec, J. Tejchman & E. Korol
Modeling of quasi-brittle materials cracking using a lattice discrete element approach 661
E. Zafati, C. Oliver-Leblond & F. Ragueneau
Evaluation of safety formats for structural assessment based on nonlinear analysis 669
J. Červenka, V. Červenka, M. Sýkora & J. Mlčoch
Modelling boundary conditions imposed by loads and supports in 3D D-regions 679
C. Meléndez & P.F. Miguel
Parameter identification as the basis for finite element simulations of ultimate limit states
of concrete hinges 689
J. Kalliauer, T. Schlappal, H.A. Mang & B. Pichler
Rotational capacity of concrete beams using a crack process band 697
J.P. Ulfkjaer
An embedded rebar model for computational analysis of reinforced concrete structures
with applications to longitudinal joints in precast tunnel lining segments 705
V.E. Gall, S.N. Butt, G.E. Neu & G. Meschke
Robust design of hybrid steel fiber reinforced concrete tunnel lining segments 715
G.E. Neu, V.E. Gall, S. Freitag & G. Meschke
Structural analysis of segmented tunnel rings: A combination of transfer relations
with an interface law 725
J.L. Zhang, H.A. Mang, X. Liu, Y. Yuan & B. Pichler
ix
Simulation of interface behavior between steel and concrete to study loss of bond due
to reinforcement corrosion 785
B. Sanz, J. Planas & J.M. Sancho
Modeling of localization and softening behavior of passively confined concrete using
coupled RBSM and nonlinear shell FEM 795
R. Mendoza Jr., Y. Yamamoto, H. Nakamura & T. Miura
Simulation of reinforced ductile cement-based composite beams under cyclic loads 805
S.L. Billington, Y. Shao, T.E. Frank, M.J. Bandelt & D.M. Moreno
The use of trilinear softening functions for modelling the cracking of fibre reinforced concrete 813
A. Enfedaque, M.G. Alberti & J.C. Gálvez
Model comparisons for a shell structure made of textile reinforced concrete 819
T. Senckpiel & U. Häussler-Combe
Finite element research of reinforced concrete structures strengthened with Textile
Reinforced Concrete (TRC) 829
A. Schumann, R. Zobel & M. Curbach
Probabilistic multiple cracking model of elastic-brittle matrix composite reflecting
randomness in matrix, reinforcement and bond 839
M. Vořechovský, R. Chudoba, Y. Li & R. Rypl
Numerical modelling of textile reinforced concrete sandwich panels 849
I.G. Colombo, M. Colombo & M. di Prisco
A two-phased and multi-scale finite element analysis of the tensile creep behavior
of polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete 857
R. Vrijdaghs, E. Verstrynge, L. Vandewalle & M. di Prisco
Numerical simulation of the fracture behaviour of glass fibre reinforced cement:
A cohesive crack approach 867
A. Enfedaque, M.G. Alberti & J.C. Gálvez
Multiscale modeling of steel fiber reinforced concrete based on the use of coupling finite
elements and mesh fragmentation technique 877
L.A.G. Bitencourt Jr., Y.T. Trindade, T.N. Bittencourt, O.L. Manzoli & E.A. Rodrigues
Nonlinear finite element analysis of steel fiber-reinforced concrete coupling beams 889
S.-W. Kim, H.-D. Yun, S.-J. Jang, W.-S. Park, Y.-I. Jang & C.-S. Choi
Micromechanics based modelling of fibre reinforced cementitious composites 895
I.C. Mihai, A.D. Jefferson & P. Lyons
Tensile viscous response of Strain Hardening UHPFRC under high restraint
and isothermal conditions 903
M.A. Hafiz & E. Denarié
A beam-particle model to identify constitutive laws for quasi-brittle materials under complex
loading: From concrete to masonry 913
C. Oliver-Leblond, C. Giry, C. Limoge, M. Vassaux, E. Anglade & F. Ragueneau
The adobe delta damage model 921
T. Li Piani, J. Weerheijm, L. Koene & L.J. Sluys
Non-proportional loading for 3-D stress situations in sequentially linear analysis 931
M. Pari, J.G. Rots & M.A.N. Hendriks
Shear-sliding behavior of masonry: Numerical micro-modeling of triplet tests 941
F. Ferretti, C. Mazzotti, R. Esposito & J.G. Rots
x
FEM analysis of post-installed adhesive anchors under combined stress 963
Y. Ishida, H. Sakata, Y. Takase, Y. Maida, Y. Shirai & T. Sato
Mechanical model of shear stress transfer of roughened concrete surface for R/C
existing member 973
T. Isozaki, U. Musya, Y. Takase, T. Abe, K. Sakamoto, T. Hiwatashi & K. Katori
A practical design method to retrofit existing RC buildings with viscous dampers 983
R. Gobirahavan & A.C. Wijeyewickrema
An improved RSA procedure to compute shear force in tall RC shear wall buildings 993
K. Khy, C. Chintanapakdee & A.C. Wijeyewickrema
Introduction of shear warping in fibre beam elements for the computation of
the nonlinear behaviour of concrete beams 1003
S. Capdevielle, S. Grange, F. Dufour & C. Desprez
Characterization of cracks of damaged concrete structures in dynamics 1009
R. Akiki, C. Giry & F. Gatuingt
High-dynamic strengthening of cementitious materials subjected to uniaxial compression 1017
E. Binder, H.A. Mang, Y. Yuan & B. Pichler
Modelling of reinforced concrete members for high impulsive loading 1023
Y. Lu & J. Xu
xi
Computational Modelling of Concrete Structures – Meschke, Pichler & Rots (Eds)
© 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-74117-1
Preface
EURO-C 2018 represents the continuation of a series of conferences on computational methods and
numerical models for the analysis of concrete and concrete structures. EURO-C 2018 is dedicated
to Nenad Bićanić († 2016), who was one of the founding fathers of this conference series and whose
contributions significantly enriched the field of computational concrete modelling and whose influences
are still felt today. Nenad was not only an inspirational scientist, but also a warm-hearted colleague and
a dear friend. Ever since the first conference in 1984 in Split, Croatia, he was always curious about new
trends in computational modelling. He enjoyed bringing together the concrete mechanics community by
organizing unforgettable sessions, such as the “Betonstüberl” discussions, and the traditional EURO-C
skiing races. Nenad’s passing has been a great loss to his family and to all of us.
We are trying to keep his spirit alive! EURO-C 2018 will take place in Austria, in Bad Hofgastein,
from February 26 to March 1, 2018, maintaining the tradition of previous successful conferences in the
EURO-C conference series (Innsbruck 1994, Bad Gastein 1998, St. Johann im Pongau 2003, Mayrhofen
2006, Schladming 2010, St. Anton am Arlberg 2014). This series emerged as a joint activity, following
early developments in nonlinear finite element analysis and softening models for concrete, generated at
the time of the ICC 1984 conference in Split, the SCI-C conference in Zell am See and the two IABSE
Concrete Mechanics Colloquia in Delft, 1981 and 1987.
The Proceedings of EURO-C 2018 comprise 6 papers of Plenary Lecturers as well as 112 contributed
papers, grouped into 6 sections: (1) Multi-scale cement and concrete research: experiments and modelling,
(2) Aging concrete: from very early ages to decades-long durability, (3) Advances in material modelling
of plane concrete, (4) Analysis of reinforced concrete structures, (5) Steel-concrete interaction, fibre-
reinforced concrete, and masonry, as well as (6) Dynamic behavior: from seismic retrofit to impact simula-
tion. As compared to previous conferences, there are still many contributions on robustness and precision
of numerical models at the structural scale. However, trends towards the materials scale with new fibres
and 3D printable concretes, multi-scale and multi-physics frameworks, and life-cycle oriented models for
ageing and durability of existing and new concrete infrastructure are clearly visible.
We are grateful to the members of the Scientific Advisory Committee (Zdenek Bažant, Sarah Billington,
Gianluca Cusatis, Guillermo Etse, Dariusz Gawin, Christian Hellmich, Günter Hofstetter, Tony Jefferson,
Milan Jirásek, Koichi Maekawa, Jacky Mazars, Javier Oliver, Chris Pearce, Gilles Pijaudier-Cabot,
xiii
Marco Di Prisco, Ekkehard Ramm, Victor Saouma, Bert Sluys, Jean-Michel Torrenti, Franz-Josef Ulm,
Kaspar Willam, Yong Yuan) for their support and substantial efforts in the reviewing process of over
150 abstracts.
In addition to a special memorial session for Prof. Nenad Bićanić, the role of Prof. Zdenek Bažant as
the founding father of concrete fracture mechanics and a key contributor to all previous EURO-C events
will be recognized in the context of his 80th birthday.
We sincerely hope that the EURO-C 2018 Proceedings will serve as a major reference, stimulating new
research directions in the field of computational modelling of concrete and its application to the analysis
of concrete structures.
xiv
Plenary lectures
Computational Modelling of Concrete Structures – Meschke, Pichler & Rots (Eds)
© 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-74117-1
M.J.A. Qomi
University of California, Irvine, Irvine CA, USA
ABSTRACT: Making use of the tool-box of statistical physics, a Molecular Dynamics (MD) -based
Structural Mechanics approach is proposed that is suitable for the assessment of resilience of buildings.
The paper summarizes recent developments of the approach; namely Potential of Mean Force (PMF)
expressions suitable for structural members for both two-body (stretch) and three-body (bending) interac-
tions; an original potential parameter calibration procedure based on frequency spectra of structures; an
illustration of the approach for a large-scale structure for the identification of the progressive structural
collapse and fragility curves. It is shown that the proposed MD approach through its focus on interaction
potentials is able not only to reproduce classical structural dynamics results. Most importantly, by redefin-
ing structural mechanics within the context of statistical physics, the approach provides a powerful means
of determining a damage (bond-loss) inventory of buildings required for the assessment of resilience of
buildings.
3
some sample structures showing both the com- where −ε i0 defines the well depth of the poten-
monality and the added value of the MD-based tial in the reference configuration, while ε ijn is
approach w.r.t. classical approaches for the assess- the energy parameter activated by two-pair inter- ij
ment of fragility curves of buildings subject to actions due to the stretch
ij λ ij = ( / lij )( rij − rij ) en
0
where mi is the mass of mass point i. The key input
∂U ij
Fi =− s = 4F
∂ri
j
Fi ,max e p ( β ij λij )( ( ij ij )) e
ij
n
4
where Fi , max β ijj ε i0 lij ) is the maximum force
ϑ jjk
occurring at λij β ij , which provides a link M i jk m i ;
with strength and/or fracture behavior. ϑ i jjk
5
Consider thus a ‘measured’ discrete frequency
Gcδ Γ ij ε0 1
spectrum of a structure, ω lexxp (l M ). This meas- λij ≤ 2 = 2 i = (16)
urement can be obtained either from the Fourier ε ij
n
ε ij β ij
analysis of actual dynamic measurements on the
structure, or from a frequency analysis obtained by Similar stretch-based rupture relations can be
other continuum-element based linear-elastic anal- derived for non-harmonic potentials; for instance,
ysis of a structure, such as Finite Element Method. for the Morse potential, Eq. (5),
Provided that the measured frequency spectrum
has a sufficient number of frequencies, a minimi- 1 Gcδ Γ ij
zation of the error between ‘measured’ and ‘model’ λij ≤ − ln(1 − α i ) α i = (17)
frequencies thus provides a means to calibrate 3 N β ij ε i0
local stretch and bending energies, ε ijn and C ijk:
Otherwise said, knowledge of the critical stretch
∑ (ω ) and the (material) fracture energy provides a means
3N 2
min ω exp
x (14)
ε ijn ,C ijk m =1 m n
to calibrate the ground-state energy ε i0 (noting that
the two-body stretch energy ε ijn is known from the
where ω nexxp is the ‘experimental’ frequency asso- frequency calibration; see Section 2.2.1).
ciated with the n-th experimental eigenmode, for A similar approach can be employed for rupture
exp
x of the three-body interactions leading to restrict-
which the experimental eigenvector, vn pairs
with the m-th model eigenvector vm ; that is, mak- ing the angle norm to a critical value; e.g. for a har-
ing use of the orthogonality of eigenvectors: monic potential (7):
n argma
g xl ,M (vnexpx vm ) (15) ε0
ϑ i jk ≤ 2 i =
1
(18)
C ijk : 1 β ijk
Since frequency values are integrated values that
account for a large range of eigenmodes ranging Similarly for the Morse potential (9):
from collective to local eigenmodes, the discre-
tized structure thus captures the same frequency 1 Gcδ Γ ij
content as the “real” structure within the limits ϑ i jk ≤ − ln(1 − α i ) α i = (19)
imposed by the level of mass point discretization. β ijk ε i0
This approach for potential parameter calibra-
tion has much in common with what is known, in
solid state physics, as the vibrational densities of 2.3 Examples
state (or phonon density of state) at low tempera-
The relevance of the PMF approach for struc-
tures (see e.g. Qomi et al. 2015). These collective
tural elements is illustrated here for two types of
harmonic vibrations, the so-called phonons, are
structural elements, namely for bending moment
closely related via the Hessian (i.e. Eq. 13) to the
bearing fastener connections employed in timber
free energy of a molecular system, and thus to the
and steel structures; and steel-reinforced concrete
energy parameters of the system. Which is why the
sections.
frequency approach (Eqn. 14 and 15), employed
here—by analogy—for structural systems, pro-
2.3.1 Timber-moment connections
vides a convenient way to calibrate the energy
In timber structures, connections are critical struc-
parameters of the structural system that define the
tural elements which often limit the load bearing
(close-to-) equilibrium state.
capacity of the members they connect. Such con-
nections are achieved with different fastener tech-
2.2.2 Fracture property calibration niques ranging from riveted nail connections (see
When a link ruptures, the energy that is stored Fig. 2), to dowels and bolted connections. Given
into the link between the equilibrium position the importance of these connections, a wealth
and rupture is dissipated into the creation of frac- of experimental research has been dedicated to
ture surface δΓij, with GcδΓij the dissipated energy assessing the moment-angle relations ( )
per link rupture, entailing a release of the energy of such connections (Hattar et al. 1995; Gehloff
U i U sij → 0. That is, if the stretch potential et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2015). In such tests, two
expression is specified, the dissipated energy pro- timber members connected with a specific fastener
vides a means to define a link-fracture criterion. are subjected to a bending moment and corre-
For purpose of illustration consider the harmonic sponding angles are recorded. A typical example
expression (3). For U i U sij → 0, we readily obtain is shown in Figure 2, together with the Morse-
a stretch criterion for rupture; that is: fit obtained from fitting the experimental energy
6
Figure 2. Illustration of Morse-fit of Moment-angle
relationships for wood connections. Shown is a riveted
connection (composed of a steel plate and nails, shown
in the bottom right, lengths in mm) of two beams made
of glued laminated Alberta spruce, tested by Hattar and
Cheng (1995). The Morse parameters obtained by fit-
ting the energy are βijk = 8.47; ε i0 = 5.18 kNm; αi = 0.52.
The reported maximum experimental moment was max
maxMexp = 22.0 kNm [1 kNm = 1 kJ].
U ijk ∫M expx
dϑ to the Morse-potential expression
(9). The fit provides values for the Morse-curvature
parameter, βijkj , from which the ground-state energy, Figure 3. Moment-Curvature Relationship for a
εi β ijkj , and the dimensionless frac- 0.4 × 0.4 m2 concrete section of concrete compressive
ture parameter, α i ( )
β ijkϑ cexxp , [with ϑ cexxp strength 25 MPa, steel reinforced with ρ = 3.5%,
according to Charif et al. (2015). The Morse energy
the angle at failure], are obtained.
fit is obtained for β ijk ij ε i0 liij0 31.3 kN, and
αi = 0.64. The maximum moment max Mexp = 384 kNm.
2.3.2 Reinforced concrete sections [1 kNm = 1 kJ].
It is common practice in reinforced concrete struc-
tural engineering to represent the moment-load
bearing capacity in terms of non-linear moment-
curvature relations. In contrast to moment-angle moment capacity. The calibrated values, ε i0 / li0j
relationships which define the interaction at a and β ijk liij0 , are then rescaled, in structural simula-
specific structural connection, moment-curvature tions, for a specific mass-point discretization lij0 .
relations are section properties that encapsulate The quality of such an energy calibration using the
the non-linear stress-strain responses of the con- Morse potential is shown in Figure 3 as well.
stituent materials; i.e. concrete and reinforcing These examples thus illustrate that molecular
steel in the case of reinforced concrete members. potentials devised to capture the potential energy
A typical example is shown in Figure 3, com- of interatomic bonds can be effectively employed
posed of an initial linear branch, followed by a for structural elements. Shown here for the har-
monotonic increasing segment up to a maximum monic case and the Morse potential, there is a
moment-section capacity and a descending branch wealth of other potential expressions to capture a
before the section fails. For such section properties, large range of relevant structural behaviors.
it is appropriate
to calibrate the Morse-potential
by letting || ϑ i jk || κ liij0 in Eqn. (9) and (19), with
κ the curvature. The Morse parameters which are 3 APPLICATION
thus obtained from fitting the three-body interac-
tion energy U ijk lij0 ∫M dκ are the ground state With a closed-system of relations for the calibra-
energy per unit length, ε i ij β ijk liij0 ), tion of the potential parameters thus established,
and the curvature parameter, β ijk liij0 , where max this section aims at applying the MD-inspired
Mexp is the maximum (experimental) section structural mechanics approach to a resilience
7
Figure 4. DOE-inspired office building (top) and dif- Figure 5. Frequency calibration of potential parame-
h lij0 = 5 and
ferent discretization levels (bottom), N h/ ters of DOE-building: Model vs. ‘measured’ fundamental
N = 10 (with h the storey height). periods for different discretization levels, N h/ lij0 .
‘Measured’ frequencies were obtained from finite element
simulations of the structure using beam elements for col-
evaluation of a typical office building, inspired umns and plate elements (with both dispalcement and
from the Department of Energy Reference Build- rotational degrees of freedom, and a FE-discretization
ing Library for Medium Offices (Fig. 4): a 3-storey of N = 5). The average quadratic error vs. discretization
building of slab size 24 × 24 m2, 0.1 m slab thick- level of the calibration is displayed in the inlet, showing
ness, and storey height h = 3.35 m, resting on 16 the convergence of the discrete approach with increasing
columns of cross-sectional area 0.4 × 0.4 m2. Dif- mass discretization.
ferent levels of discretization are herein employed
to check the sensitivity and convergence of the dis- showing the high efficiency of the MD-inspired
crete approach. approach compared to classical continuum-based
approaches around the equilibrium state.
3.1 Calibration
3.2 Progressive collapse due to pressure loading
The building is discretized considering 4 con-
stant discretization lengths (columns and slabs): Figure 6 displays a sample output of one MD-sim-
N h / lij0 = , 5,10 and 15. For the elastic cali- ulations, when the structure is subjected to a pres-
bration, we consider, as ‘experimental’ frequency sure load (modeled as concentrated forces on mass
spectrum, the fundamental frequencies (eigenval- points with a load ramp fast enough to avoid a
ues and eigenvectors) obtained by Finite Element dynamic rebounce). The figure shows the evolution
Analysis of the same structure discretized by beam of the free energy Uijk of all three-body interactions
and plate elements exhibiting both displacement and of the external work achieved by prescribed
and rotational degrees of freedom (in contrast to pressure load along mass point displacements, as
the discrete approach which has only displacement well as the deflection of the top floor in function
degrees of freedom defined by the position vector of the potential energy. Following a quasi-linear
of each mass point). load-displacement response which entails (1) a
Figure 5 displays the results of the frequency quadratic evolution of the potential energy in
calibration procedure, Eqn. (14–15), together function of the prescribed forces respectively dis-
with the average quadratic error in function of placement, the structure reaches (2) its maximum
the discretization level (inlet of Fig. 5). The error capacity to store externally supplied work (by
in frequency reduces with the discretization level pressure forces) into recoverable free energy. As
close to ∼N−2, showing the high convergence rate a consequence, bending bonds break leading to a
of the discrete approach with increase in discreti- successive drop of the bending interaction energy
zation levels. That is, the discrete approach with (curve labeled ‘free energy’), which continues until
∼3N degrees-of-freedom accurately captures the elastic storage capacity is exhausted. This results
frequency spectrum of a structure defined by ∼6N in (3) the external work to approach the potential
displacement and rotational degrees of freedom, energy (1:1 – line).
8
Figure 7. Progressive collapse analysis of structure:
Potential energy and bond energy release rate vs. number
of (unbroken) bonds. For μ > 0, the bond-rupture
process can be considered as (1) stable as long as the
Figure 6. Sample output of MD-calculations in terms
slope ∂μ/∂Nb ≥ 0; and for (2) ∂μ/∂Nb < 0, is it unstable;
of free (bending) energy, external work by pressure forces
which can be associated with a progressive collapse. (here
applied to mass points, and deflection all in function of
for a potential energy Epot ≈ 1.4 MJ, thus well beyond the
the overall potential energy of the structure.
maximum free energy peak shown in Figure 6).
An important engineering question is what it is mechanics, to which one can refer as bond energy
the load that defines the onset of progressive struc- release rate: it is the thermodynamic driving force
tural failure. In a first approach, it is of interest of the bond breakage dNb ≤ 0, and derives from the
to analyze the evolution of the potential energy systems potential energy Epot = F – WF (with F ≈ U
in function of the number of bonds, Nb. This is the Helmholtz free energy and WF the work by
shown in Figure 7. To fully appreciate the dis- prescribed forces along mass point displacements,
played result, it is of importance to realize that the ri ri 0 . Herein, we assume that the average kinetic
simulation are carried out in the so-called micro- energy of all mass points, Ek, is negligible as far as
canonical or NVE-ensemble, where N stands for the evaluation of the free energy is concerned; that
the number of mass points, V for the volume of is, F = U – TS ≈ U, with T ∼ Ek the temperature
the simulation box and E for the overall energy, i.e. and S the entropy.) With a focus on the bending
potential energy and kinetic energy; all assumed interaction energies, this is precisely what Figure 7
constant in the chosen NVE ensemble. Implicitly, displays: the potential energy of the structure vs.
this ensemble is the “engineering ensemble” of the number of bonds, and the derived bond-energy
choice for structural dynamics simulations. In fact, release rate according to Eq. (20). It is then intrigu-
a constant number of mass points simply means ing to push the fracture mechanics analogy, at the
that no mass can leave the simulation box (closed structural scale, one step further and define the
system), even if all bonds to its neighbors are bro- rules of structural bond breakage by analogy with
ken; a constant volume simply specifies the size fracture mechanics in the form:
of the box in which the structure resides; whereas
a constant energy means that the sole source of d b ≤ 0; ( μ − μ ) dNb = 0
μ − μc ≤ 0 dN (21)
internal energy dissipation is due to irreversible
damage, fracture or plastic evolutions; and that the where μc is the critical bond energy release rate
dissipated energy by bond breakage is transferred (analogue of the fracture energy) at which bond
into kinetic energy. With this “engineering ensem- breakage occurs. It is a structural property defining
ble” definition in mind, it is of interest to consider a structural energy dissipation capacity, such that
two successive states, and calculate the internal dis- −μcdNb is the energy dissipated in the creation of
sipation due to bond breakage; that is—by analogy broken bonds. Consider then a situation in which
with classical fracture mechanics: μ(Nb) = μc. For that any additional bond breakage,
Nb + dNb < Nb occurs in a stable manner, it must
∂E pot be μ(Nb + dNb) ≤ μc; thus, considering a Taylor
dD = − μdN
dNb ≥ 0 μ = (20)
∂N b expansion:
9
That is, much akin to the stability analysis of whereas σ is the standard deviation. For purpose of
fracture processes (while noting that dNb < 0): example, we consider a coefficient of variation of
CV = 50% for wood structure with, and CV = 30%
∂μ ∂ 2 E pot for RC structures. The results are displayed in Fig-
= ≥0 (23) ure 8, in terms of the cumulative distribution func-
∂N b ∂N b 2
tion (CDF) of the failure load, expressed here in
corresponding wind-speeds V p.
p An interesting
As the bond-energy release rate thus increases in
observation is that a CV of 30% for RC structures
the process of bond rupture (dNb < 0), the collapse
translates into a CV of the failure load of only 7%
can be considered to be progressive. This is shown
(wind speed CV = 7%); whereas a CV of 50% for
in Figure 7.
wood structures entails a CV of the failure load
of 13% (CV = 3%). This significant reduction in
3.3 Fragility curves uncertainty from the bond-level to the structural
scale highlights the capacity of the structural sys-
With a computationally efficient tool thus in place,
tem to redistribute externally supplied energy (load)
it becomes possible to develop fragility curves by
throughout the system, thus showing the value of
considering—for a typical class of structures—a
heterogeneity on limit loads related to bond fracture.
variability of the bond energy input parameters.
Similar results have been found for highly heteroge-
This is illustrated here for, respectively, a RC—and
neous porous materials (Laubie et al., 2017b,c).
a wood structure, designed—deterministically-
for similar limit loads. To obtain fragility curves,
400 simulations are carried out for each structure
with randomly assigned, normally distributed limit 4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
angles for wood structures and limit curvatures for
RC-structures; that is, The need for accurate predictions of resilience of
buildings subject to extreme events requires a new
ϑ i jk ( )
κ liij0 ≤ ε (ϑ c σ ) (24) generation of engineering tools that permit a damage
assessment below the limit loads for which structures
are classically designed. This damage of structures
where ϑ c is the mean value defined by Eq. (19) of both non-structural and structural members can
calibrated from experimental data (Figs. 2 and 3), be viewed as a sequence of bond breakage. The MD-
inspired method here proposed addresses this bond
breakage explicitly in a discrete way: rather than
extending the classical realm of continuum based
structural members into the non-linear regime, the
MD-approach focusses on the elastic and in-elastic
interactions between mass points that discretize the
bulk of the structure. Provided a sufficient level of
discretization, the MD-approach provides an effi-
cient way to capture the energy transformations
witnessed by a structure when subject to load. The
following points deserves attention:
1. There are several advantages of the MD-
method compared to e.g. Finite-Element-based
continuum approaches; such as the absence of
instabilities in MD, related in FEM to the loss
of positive definiteness of the stiffness matrix
and associated mesh-dependency issues; effi-
ciency (O(N) for MD vs. O(N2) ÷ O(N log (N) of
Figure 8. Example of fragility curves for a a reinforced FEM; ease of bond removal etc., which makes
concrete structure and a wood structure with timber-mo- the MD-based method highly efficient for large-
ment connections. The curves represents the cumulative scale recursive simulations required for e.g. fra-
distribution function (CDF) of the velocity correspond- gility curve determination.
ing to wind limit loads of the structures with randomly
assigned normally distributed rupture angles (for wood)
2. With a focus on internal interaction energy
and rupture curvature (for RC-structures). [For reference, description, the MD-approach permits a
reported wind speeds of the September 19, 2017 Hurri- straightforward link with other energy-based
can Maria that devastated Puerto Rico were 90–125 mph, mechanics approaches, such as elasticity and
with wind gusts of 175 mph]. linear and non-linear fracture mechanics. This
10
common denominator provides a clear path for support was provided by ICoME2 Labex (ANR-
calibration of the interaction potentials, from 11-LABX-0053) and the A*MIDEX projects
measured frequency spectra for energy parame- (ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02) cofunded by the French
ters defining the equilibrium configuration, and program “Investissements d’Avenir,” which is man-
from almost classical test data (such as moment- aged by the ANR, the French National Research
curvature curves) for bond energy parameters. Agency. All simulations were carried out with the
Existing interatomic potential expressions are open source code LAMMPS (Large-scale Atomic/
readily adapted to permit a representation of Molecular Massively Parallel Simulator), dis-
bond-forces and moments. Similarly, based tributed by Sandia National Laboratories, a US
upon thermodynamics derivations, the occur- Department of Energy laboratory.
rence of progressive collapse mechanisms can be
detected and used for structural optimization.
3. The simulation results presented in this paper REFERENCES
were obtained within the context of NVE-
ensemble simulations. This means that any Barbato M, Petrini F, Unnikrishnan VU, Ciampoli M.
form of energy dissipation is restricted to bond- 2013. Performance-based hurricane engineering
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of dissipation, such as viscous phenomena. The reinforced lightweight concrete beams and columns.
application of the proposed technique within Lat. Am. J. Solids & Structures 2015, 11, 1251–1274.
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sion. For instance, considering an NVT ensem- work for analytical quantification of disaster resil-
ble (where T stands for the temperature of an ience. Eng Struct 2010;32:3639–49.
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velocity-dependent damping in the equation of Gehloff M., Closen M., Lam F. 2010. Reduced edge
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4. The fragility curves thus determined can be used F.J. 2017a, Effective potentials and elastic properties in
in convolution expressions with probability of the Lattice-Element Method: Isotropy and Transverse
load occurrence to provide a rational criterion Isotropy, J. Nanomech. Micromech. 7(3): 04017007.
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These probabilities have become key to evalu- of highly disordered porous materials, J. Mech. Phys.
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and become now available for a much larger class Laubie, H., Radjai, F., Pellenq R., Ulm, F.J. 2017c, Stress
transmission and failure in disordered porous materi-
of structures. Ultimately, we envision that such als, Phys. Rev. Lett. 119, 075501.
MD-based structural simulations can be used Laubie, H., Radjai, F., Pellenq R., Ulm, F.J. 2017d,
together with CFD simulations to evaluate the A potential-of-mean-force approach for fracture
resilience of a city’s building stock—an urgent mechanics of heterogeneous materials using the lat-
task in view of the perils of global warming. tice element method. Journal of the Mechanics and
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Monfared, S., Laubie, H., Radjai, F., Pellenq R., Ulm,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT F.-J. 2017, Mesoscale poroelasticity of heterogeneous
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Multihazard Mitigation Council 2005. NATURAL
This research was carried out by the Concrete HAZARD MITIGATION SAVES: An Independent
Sustainability Hub (CSHub@MIT), with funding Study to Assess the Future Savings from Mitigation
provided by the Portland Cement Association Activities Volume 1 -- Findings, Conclusions, and
(PCA) and the Ready Mixed Concrete Research & Recommendations. 2005.
Education Foundation (RMC E&F). The CSHub@ Noshadravan, A., Miller T.R., Gregory J.G. 2017, A Life-
MIT is solely responsible for content. Additional cycle Cost Analysis of Residential Buildings Including
11
Natural Hazard Risk, Journal of Construction Engi- APPENDIX II: FROM 2-BODY
neering and Management 143 (7), 04017017. BENDING INTERACTIONS TO 3-BODY
Papadopoulos A. 2016. Resilience -- The Ultimate INTERACTIONS—LINK WITH BEAM
Sustainability -- Lessons from Failing to Develop a THEORY
Stronger and Safer Built Environment. Resilience
Action Fund.
Qomi MJA., Ulm F.J., Pellenq R. 2015. Physical ori- There are different ways to account for three-body
gins of thermal properties of cement paste. Physical interactions related to bending, namely one that
Review Applied 2015; 3, 064010. starts at the bond level ij, the other by considering
Shinozuka M, Feng MQ, Lee J, Naganuma T. (2000) jumps in angular variations at all mass points. The
Statistical analysis of fragility curves. J Eng Mech first approach forms much of the basis of classical
2000;126:1224–31. beam theory; whereas the second is at the core of
Walker GR. 2011. Modelling the vulnerability of build- MD-type approaches, expressed e.g. by Eq. (7). This
ings to wind—a review. Can J Civ Eng 2011;38:1031–9. appendix shows the formal link between the two
Wang M., Song X., Gu X., Zhang Y., Luo L. 2015. Rota-
tional behavior of bolted beam-to-column connec-
approaches in the context of harmonic potentials.
tions with locally cross-laminated glulam. J. Struct. More specifically, the bond-level approach con-
Eng. 2015, 141(4), 04014121. siders, in addition to the stretch potential, U sij , a
Yeo DH, Simiu E. 2011. High-Rise Reinforced Concrete bending potential, U bij , constructed in a way to
Structures. Database-Assisted Design for Wind. J. satisfy per (mass-less) link ij the force and moment
Struct. Engrg 2011; 137(11): 1340–1349. balance equations (Laubie et al. 2017a):
Eqn. (A-1) to (A-3) thus exclude simulations at where ε ijb and ε ijt are bending inter-
(or close to) zero (Kelvin) temperature. A similar action energyy parameters,
and M i j l M i j ⋅ elij
restriction applies to the Lattice Element Method and M j il
M j ⋅ el (l = t,bb) . If we let ε ij =
i ij b
(see Laubie et al. 2017d). 12EII bb / lij , ij 12 EItt / lij , we readily recognize
12
that expressions (A-6) and (A-7) are nothing but [of the form Uτij 12 ij (ϑ j ϑ i ) enij = 2κ1iij (M i j n )2
the (free and complementary) bending energy of [with M i j M i j ⋅ enij M ij ⋅ enij the link’s tor-
a linear elastic beam finite element with displace- sion moments satisfying momentum balance], one
ment and rotation degrees of freedom. obtains expression (8) of the rotational stiffness
The previous 2-body bending interaction expres- tensor C ijk .
sions can be recast in terms of a 3-body interaction Since the link energy expressions U bij and Uτij
energy of a mass point i connected to two other satisfy moment equilibrium (A-5), the global angu-
mass points j and k, when equating the energies of lar momentum is automatically satisfied; for which
the two links: reason the MD-approach requires only satisfying
the linear momentum (2) and thus the determina-
1
U bijk (1 ij
2
) ( )
U b + U bik = ϑ i jkj ⋅ C ijk
2
b
⋅ ϑ i jjk (A-7)
tion of the forces from Eqn. (6) and (10):
N ∂U
ijj
N ∂U
ijk
Fi = − ∑ j s + ∑ j
where ϑ i jk ϑ i j − ϑ ik is the jump in angle at point ∂ri ∂ri
i, whereas C ijk b
is the second order tensor of rota-
N ∂ϑ jjk
= ∑ j Fi j enij + ∑ j M i jk ⋅ i
N
tional stiffness that relates to the link energies (A-9)
( ijb , ε ijt , ε ikb , ε ikt ) by: ∂ri
⎡1 1 where M i jk = C ijk ⋅ ϑ i jjk ; and, for small rotations
( )
−1
b
C ijk = 6 ⎢ b etij ⊗ etij + t ebij ⊗ ebij (around the equilibrium position, for which
ε
⎣ ij ε iij
harmonic expressions hold; see Fig. 1):
1 ik k 1 ik ik ⎤
+ b et ⊗ t + t eb ⊗ eb ⎥ (A-8)
ε iik ε iik ⎦ rij × riik − rij0 × riik0
ϑ i jk ≅ (A-10)
rij0 riik0
If, in addition, harmonic torsion terms are
considered in the link interaction potential
13
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Language: Finnish
Kirj.
Marja Salmela
SISÄLLYS:
I.
Tunsin kuinka hän vapisi rintaani vasten. Ajattelin taaskin sitä, että
hän oli vain yksi lukemattomien joukosta. Mutta se, että näin hänet
osana kärsivää kokonaisuutta, ei suinkaan siirtänyt häntä
etäämmälle minusta. Päinvastoin. Suuri suru opettaa meitä suuresti
rakastamaan ei ainoastaan muutamia, vaan kaikkia. Sinä on sen
siunaus.