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Peijian Paul Sun
Chinese as a
Second Language
Multilinguals’
Speech Competence
and Speech
Performance
Cognitive, Affective, and Sociocultural
Perspectives
Chinese as a Second Language Multilinguals’
Speech Competence and Speech Performance
Peijian Paul Sun
Chinese as a Second
Language Multilinguals’
Speech Competence
and Speech Performance
Cognitive, Affective, and Sociocultural
Perspectives
123
Peijian Paul Sun
Department of Linguistics
Zhejiang University
Hangzhou, China
ISBN 978-981-15-6940-1 ISBN 978-981-15-6941-8 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6941-8
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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Acknowledgments
The book is widely based on my Ph.D. thesis, which I completed at the University
of Auckland under my two wonderful supervisors: Prof. Lawrence Jun Zhang and
Dr. Susan M. Gray. I would not be able to finish my Ph.D. project without their
professional guidance and intellectual support. I am also extremely grateful for the
joint full scholarship from the China Scholarship Council and the University of
Auckland, which made the entire study possible.
The book also draws on three articles that I published. One is “Development and
Validation of the Speaking Strategy Inventory for Learners of Chinese (SSILC) as a
Second/Foreign Language” in Asia-Pacific Education Researcher. Another is
“Profiling Perceptual Learning Styles of Chinese as a Second Language Learners in
University Settings” in Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. The last one is
“A Multidimensional Perspectives on Individual Differences in Multilingual
Learners’ L2 Chinese Speech Production” in Frontiers in Psychology.
v
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Research Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Research Significance and Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Research Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 The Development of CSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 The CSL Teaching Syllabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 The CSL Teaching Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Overview of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Affective Filter Hypothesis and Automaticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.1 Affective Filter Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.2 Automaticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.3 Summing Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Willingness to Communicate Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 The Pyramid Model of L2 WTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Critiques of L2 WTC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.3 Summing Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 L2 Motivational Self System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.1 Reconceptualization of Integrativeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.2 L2 Motivational Self-system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.3 Summing Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Speech Production Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4.1 Levelt’s and de Bot’s Speech Production Models . . . . . . . 22
2.4.2 Critiques of the Bilingual Language Production
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 24
2.4.3 Segalowitz’s L2 Speech Production Model . . . . . ....... 25
vii
viii Contents
2.4.4 Critiques of the L2 Speech Production Model . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.4.5 Summing Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 Speech Competence and Speech Performance: A Literature
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 Competence and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.1 Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.2 Congruence and Disparities on Competence . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.3 CSL Speech Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.4 Performance and CSL Speech Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.5 Necessity for Reexamination of Competence
and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2 Competence and Performance Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 Principles and Dimensions of L2 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4 L2 Learning and Speaking: A Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1 Cognitive Perspectives on L2 Learning and Speaking . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1.1 L2 Speech Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.1.2 Learning Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.3 Speaking Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2 Affective Perspectives on L2 Learning and Speaking . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2.1 Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2.2 Self-efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2.3 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2.4 WTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3 Sociocultural Perspectives on L2 Learning and Speaking . . . . . . . 79
4.3.1 Definitions of Attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.2 Constructs and Measures of Attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.3 Research on Sociocultural Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3.4 Summing Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4 Multilingualism in L2 Learning and Speaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5 Research Design and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.1 Research Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.2 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.3 Research Instruments Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.3.1 Quantitative Data Collection Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.3.2 Qualitative Data Collection Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Contents ix
5.4 Instruments Piloting and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

5.4.1 Questionnaire Piloting and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4.2 Tests Piloting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.4.3 Interviews Piloting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.5 Data Collection and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.5.1 Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.5.2 Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.6 Ethical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.7 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6 Quantitative Results and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.1 Background Information Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.2 Reliability and Validity of the CSLLQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.2.1 Reliability and Validity of the PLSPQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.2.2 Reliability and Validity of the SSQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2.3 Reliability and Validity of the ASAQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.3 Quantitative Findings for Research Question 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.3.1 Quantitative Results of Research Question 1 . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.3.2 Summary of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.4.1 Differences Between the Intermediate
and the Advanced Speech Competence Groups
of CSL Multilinguals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.4.2 Differences Between the Intermediate
and the Advanced Speech Performance Groups
of CSL Multilinguals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.5.1 Results of the General Cognitive Features of CSL
Multilinguals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.5.2 Results of the Relationships Between Cognitive
Factors and Speech Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.5.3 Results of the Relationships Between Cognitive
Factors and Speech Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.6.1 Results of the General Affective Features of CSL
Multilinguals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.6.2 Results of the Relationships Between Affective
6.6.3 Results of the Relationships Between Affective
x Contents

6.7.1 Results of the General Sociocultural Features of CSL
Multilinguals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.7.2 Results of the Relationships Between Sociocultural
6.7.3 Results of the Relationships Between Sociocultural
6.8 Discussion of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.8.1 Relationship Between Speech Competence
and Speech Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.8.2 Differences Between the Intermediate and the Advanced
CSL Multilinguals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.8.3 Influences of Cognitive Factors on CSL Multilinguals’
Speech Competence and Speech Performance . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.8.4 Influences of Affective Factors on CSL Multilinguals’
6.8.5 Influences of Sociocultural Factors on CSL Multilinguals’
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7 Qualitative Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.1 Background Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.2 Qualitative Findings and Discussion of Research Question 1 . . . . . 168
7.2.1 Intermediate CSL Multilinguals’ Perspectives
on Speech Competence and Speech Performance . . . . . . . . 168
7.2.2 Advanced CSL Multilinguals’ Perspectives on Speech
Competence and Speech Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.2.3 Summary and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.4.1 Intermediate CSL Multilinguals’ Perspectives on
Learning Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.4.2 Advanced CSL Multilinguals’ Perspectives
on Learning Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
on Speaking Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
on Speaking Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.4.5 CSL Multilinguals’ Perspectives on Age
and Processing Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Contents xi

7.5.1 Intermediate CSL Multilinguals’ Perspective
on Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
on Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.5.3 Intermediate CSL Multilinguals’ Perspectives on L2
Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.5.4 Advanced CSL Multilinguals’ Perspectives on L2
Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Speaking Self-efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Speaking Self-efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
WTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
on L2 WTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Cultural Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Cultural Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.6.3 Intermediate CSL Multillinguals’ Perspectives
on Attitudes Toward L2 Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.6.4 Advanced CSL Multilinguals’ Perspectives on Attitudes
Toward L2 Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
on Attitudes Toward L2 Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.6.6 Advanced CSL Multilinguals’ Perspectives on Attitudes
Toward L2 Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.7 Multilingualism Influence on L2 Chinese Speech
Competence/Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
8 Conclusion, Implication, Limitation, and Recommendation . . . . . . . 225
8.1 Quantitative Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.2 Qualitative Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
8.3 Brief Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
8.4 Theoretical Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
xii Contents
8.5 Practical Implications ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

8.6 Limitations . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
8.7 Recommendations for Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
References . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Appendix A: Chinese as Second Language Learner Questionnaire

(Pilot Version) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Appendix B: The Six-Factor Structure of the PLSPQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Appendix C: Factor Loadings of the Four-Factor Structure
of the PLSPQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Appendix D: Item-Total Correlation in the PLSPQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Appendix E: Factor Loadings of the Three-Factor Structure
of the SSQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Appendix F: Factor Loadings of the Seven-Factor Structure
of the ASAQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Appendix G: Chinese as Second Language Learner Questionnaire
(Finalized) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Appendix H: Qualitative Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Appendix I: The Four-Factor Structure of the PLSPQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Appendix J: The Three-Factor Structure of the SSQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Appendix K: The Seven-Factor Structure of the ASAQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
List of Figures
Fig. 2.1 Operation of the affective filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12

Fig. 2.2 L2 WTC pyramid model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
Fig. 2.3 Relationships between the motivational variables
and the criterion measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Fig. 2.4 Speech production model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 2.5 L2 speech production model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig. 3.1 Models of performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Fig. 3.2 Characteristics of performance assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fig. 7.1 Factors relating to the intermediate CSL multilinguals’
speech competence/performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fig. 7.2 Factors relating to the advanced CSL multilinguals’
speech competence/performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fig. 7.3 Intermediate CSL multilinguals’ perspectives on learning
styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Fig. 7.4 Advanced CSL multilinguals’ perspectives on learning
styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Fig. 7.5 Intermediate CSL multilinguals’ perspectives on speaking
strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Fig. 7.6 Advanced CSL Multilinguals’ perspectives on speaking
strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Fig. 7.7 Intermediate CSL multilinguals’ perspectives on motivation . . . . 210
Fig. 7.8 Advanced CSL multilinguals’ perspectives on motivation . . . . . 210
Fig. 7.9 Intermediate CSL multilinguals’ perspectives on anxiety . . . . . . 211
Fig. 7.10 Advanced CSL multilinguals’ perspectives on anxiety . . . . . . . 211
Fig. 7.11 Intermediate CSL multilinguals’ perspectives
on self-efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Fig. 7.12 Advanced CSL multilinguals’ perspectives
on self-efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
xiii
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Relevant studies on L2 motivational system in different

EFL contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 3.1 CSL speech performance scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 5.1 Mixed methods procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Table 5.2 Instruments piloting and validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Table 5.3 Reliability of the PLSPQ in the CSL context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Table 5.4 Reliability of the SSQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Table 5.5 The Cronbach alpha coefficients for the seven factors
of ASAQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Table 5.6 Background information of participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Table 5.7 Magnitudes of effect sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Table 5.8 Intermediate CSL multilinguals’ background information . . . . 122
Table 5.9 Advanced CSL multilinguals’ background information . . . . . . 123
Table 6.1 Descriptive statistics of the whole sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Table 6.2 Correlations of general competence and performance . . . . . . . 135
Table 6.3 Descriptive statistics of the speech competence groups . . . . . . 136
Table 6.4 Correlations of the speech competence groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Table 6.5 Descriptive statistics of the speech performance groups . . . . . . 137
Table 6.6 Correlations of the speech performance groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Table 6.7 Descriptive statistics of the general cognitive features
of the CSL multilinguals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Table 6.8 Correlations between the cognitive factors and speech
competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Table 6.9 Cognitive model summary for CSL multilinguals’
speech competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Table 6.10 Correlations between the cognitive factors and speech
performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Table 6.11 Cognitive model summary for CSL multilinguals’
speech performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Table 6.12 Descriptive statistics of the general affective features
xv
xvi List of Tables
Table 6.13 Correlations between the affective factors and speech

competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Table 6.14 Affective model summary for CSL multilinguals’ speech
competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Table 6.15 Correlations between the affective factors and speech
performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Table 6.17 Descriptive statistics of the general sociocultural features
Table 6.18 Correlations between the sociocultural factors and speech
competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Table 6.20 Correlations between the sociocultural factors and speech
performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Table 7.1 Categories, themes, codes, descriptions, and examples. . . . . . . 169
Chapter 1
Introduction
Explaining the underlying reasons for the discrepant and unbalanced development
between Chinese as a second language (CSL) multilinguals’ speech competence
and speech performance is the aim of this book. Exploring how intermediate and
advanced CSL multilinguals’ speech competence and speech performance differ
from cognitive, affective, and sociocultural lenses is the over-arching research
question.
1.1 Research Introduction
This study was, to a large extent, inspired by my own English as a second language
(L2 English) speaking experiences when overseas. On the one hand, there were
circumstances when I could communicate well with native English speakers. On the
other hand, there were situations when I could barely speak a word even though I
had what to say in my mind. It seems there was a gap or discrepancy between speech
competence and speech performance in my L2 English production. Why in some
circumstances can speech competence not be well reflected in speech performance?
What factors hinder people from transforming their speech competence to speech
performance? My experience as an L2 language user drove my investigation into
L2 learners’ speech competence and speech performance with a particular focus on
CSL multilingual learners. It is hoped that this book could provide a comprehensive
and systematic understanding of CSL multilinguals’ speech production.
The book explores CSL multilinguals’ speech competence and speech perfor-
mance via a mixed-methods approach among 152 valid participants including 118
for the quantitative and 34 for the qualitative parts. A range of methods was used
for data collection, such as questionnaires, tests, focus groups, and semi-structured
interviews. Prior to the study, the development and validation of the instruments were
carried out for checking their practicality. The instruments include the Chinese as
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 1
to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
P. P. Sun, Chinese as a Second Language Multilinguals’ Speech Competence
and Speech Performance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6941-8_1
2 1 P. P. Sun
a second language learner questionnaire (CSLLQ), a Chinese speech competence

test (CSCT), a Chinese speech performance test (CSPT), focus groups, and semi-
structured interviews. The CSLLQ, the CSCT, and the CPT were developed mainly
to collect quantitative data for this study, while focus groups and semi-structured
interviews were adopted to triangulate and supplement the results from quantita-
tive data. The data collected from cognitive, affective, and sociocultural dimensions
were then analyzed and interpreted to reveal the underlying reasons for CSL multi-
linguals’ discrepant and unbalanced development of speech competence and speech
performance. Specifically, the book addressed the following five questions.
1. What are the relationships between CSL multilinguals’ speech competence and
speech performance?
2. What are the differences between the intermediate-level and the advanced-level
CSL multilinguals’ speech competence and speech performance, and their cogni-
tive (i.e., learning style, speaking strategy, processing speed, and age), affective
(i.e., motivation, anxiety, speaking self-efficacy, and WTC), and sociocultural
(i.e., L2 cultural interest, attitudes toward L2 communities, and attitudes toward
L2 classes) factors?
3. What are the relationships between cognitive factors and CSL multilinguals’
speech competence and speech performance?
4. What are the relationships between the affective factors and CSL multilinguals’
speech competence and speech performance?
5. What are the relationships between the sociocultural factors and CSL multilin-
guals’ speech competence and speech performance?
1.2 Research Significance and Rationale
Language, especially an additional language, is normally regarded as a bridge or

a connection because it provides a way for people to communicate, to interact,
and to socialize with each other. Consequently, the lack of a foreign language can
impede learners’ academic progress and classroom communication while studying
in another country (Crystal 2010). With increasing globalization, people tend to
have various purposes for learning another language or languages, such as English,
French, Spanish, German, Japanese, or Chinese. English, in particular, has become
a lingua franca around the world (Björkman 2013; Jenkins 2015). Chinese, as a
rising language, also attracts an increasing number of learners each year. However,
no matter what specific additional language is being learned, there seems to be an
imbalance of development between speech competence and speech performance in
L2 language use. As Segalowitz (2010) pointed out, most people are rarely able to
use an L2 with the same or even close to the same level of skill as their L1s. An
underlying reason can be the L2 gap between speech competence and speech perfor-
mance that exists in every individual. Consequently, such discrepancy can lead to
frustration, disappointment, and speech breakdowns for L2 learners when it comes
to speech performance, no matter how good their speech competence is.
1.2 Research Significance and Rationale 3
Many researchers have probed L2 speaking either theoretically (e.g., de Bot 1992
in L2 speech production model; Fulcher 2003 in L2 speaking test) or empirically
(e.g., Csapó and Nikolov 2009 with cognitive skills; Debruyn 2006 with extraversion;
Dörnyei et al. 2006 with motivation, attitudes, and globalization) in an attempt to
understand the factors influencing L2 speech performance, such as cognition (Sega-
lowitz 2010), affect (Chakrabarti and Sengupta 2012), and culture (Hernández 2010).
Nevertheless, few scholars have studied L2 speech from an integrated perspective
to discover the underlying reasons for the unbalanced development between speech
competence and speech performance. The danger of pursuing an investigation from
only one dimension is that “investigating individual factors will result in losing
the sight of the ‘whole’ learner” (Ellis 2015, 37). This book, therefore, takes an
integrated perspective (i.e., cognitive, affective, and sociocultural perspectives) in
order to provide more systematic and comprehensive evidence to understand what
factors may cause the gap between speech competence and speech performance in
L2 Chinese speaking. Additionally, implications on how to minimize CSL mutligin-
guals’ unbalanced development of speech competence and speech performance are
discussed.
This book centers on the investigation of the cognitive, affective, and sociocultural
impact on CSL multilinguals’ speech competence and speech performance for the
following three reasons: the rapid spread of Chinese Mandarin, the multilingual
background of Chinese language learners, and the research gap in the field of L2
Chinese.
Firstly, the number of L2 Chinese learners has witnessed a drastic increase over
the past decade or two. According to the Confucius Institute Headquarters’s1 annual
report, there had been 548 Confucius Institutes, 1,193 Confucius Classrooms, and
5,665 teaching sites established in 154 countries and/or regions by the end of 2018
(Hanban 2018). More investigations into L2 Chinese, therefore, is needed to inform
learners, teachers, and academics in terms of how to improve L2 Chinese language
use.
Secondly, multilingualism has drawn increasing attention in recent years not only
due to that “multilingualism is as pervasive in the world today as it has always been”
(Ortega 2019, 24) but also because of the existence of distinct processing mechanisms
of multilingual learners (Higby et al. 2013). Given the lingua franca status of English,
it is not surprising to find that Chinese language learners are normally multilingual.
Therefore, it is necessary to take the multilingual background into account when
examining such learners’ L2 Chinese speech production.
Thirdly, substantial research has been undertaken to reveal factors contributing to
learners’ second/foreign language (L2) speaking and/or learning at particular points
in time in separate studies from cognitive, affective, and sociocultural perspectives,
respectively. Nonetheless, little research has concurrently investigated L2 speaking
with the same cohort of learners as participants from these perspectives in a single
study, to obtain comprehensive and systematic understandings of how the three
dimensions of factors contribute to, or are related to, L2 speech competence and
performance (Sun and Zhang 2020).
1 Confucius Institute Headquarters is also commonly referred to as Hanban (汉办) in Chinese.

4 1 P. P. Sun
1.3 Research Context
A brief introduction of the research context of this study is needed, as the teaching
practice of CSL discipline differs from the majority of other disciplines in China.
This section, in particular, provides an overview of the brief development of CSL, the
syllabi of CSL, and the classroom teaching principles of CSL. The presentation of
this section may contribute to our understanding of how the distinctive learning and
teaching context would shape CSL learners’ perspectives on their speech competence
and speech performance development.
1.3.1 The Development of CSL
The Chinese education system has been significantly influenced by the Chinese
ancient imperial examination2 established in 605 AD during the Sui Dynasty (Elman
2002). Although this nationwide imperial examination was invented for recruiting
talent for the state bureaucracy, it survived for over fifteen hundred years in China
and is still playing a significant role in shaping the Chinese examination system.
For example, examinations such as the National College Entrance Examination and
the Civil Service Entrance Examination in modern China are simply replicas of the
Chinese ancient imperial examination. As a result, the Chinese education system
is exam-driven, focusing on cultivating students’ knowledge of how, rather than
students’ ability to show how (Ma and Ma 2014). General classroom teaching in
China is more in a style of teacher-centered lecturing with relatively large numbers
of students in a classroom (Zhuang and Zhu 2013; Yang and Yao 2012).
Comparing with other traditional disciplines, CSL is a relatively new major in
China, predominantly provided in tertiary education. In 1950, CSL as a program was
first launched in Tsinghua University (X. Liu 2000). With China’s opening-up policy
and its vigorous economic development, an increasing number of people have decided
to learn Chinese. CSL went through extensive development both theoretically and
empirically in the 1980s and 1990s (X. Liu 2000). Nowadays, CSL is no longer just
a language program but rather a discipline in its own right. Over the past 60 years of
study, there have been considerable developments in the field of CSL, including the
diversification and innovation of CSL teaching approaches, the localization of CSL
textbooks, and the reconstruction of CSL assessment.
1.3.1.1 CSL Teaching Approaches
The diversification and innovation of CSL teaching approaches can be regarded as one
of the major advances, mirroring pedagogical changes over the past decades (L. Liu
et al. 2019). CSL teaching is situated in a context where there has been a pedagogical
2 The imperial examination, or kējǔ (科举) in Chinese, is a civil service system in ancient China.
1.3 Research Context 5
shift from the traditional teacher-centered to the interactive student-centered teaching

in China. Specifically, CSL teaching strategies or methods have changed from the
translation method, the direct method, and the audio-lingual approach, in the early
days, to communicative and task-based learning approaches at present (L. Liu et al.
2019; Zhao 2010).
1.3.1.2 Localization of CSL Textbooks
There has also been significant development of CSL textbooks and relevant materials
for supporting CSL learning and teaching (Di 2013; Jiang 2018; Wu 2013). Given the
differences, such as educational policies, school environment, teaching philosophies,
and, most importantly, culture, of each country, CSL textbooks should be tailored
and contextualized according to the specific nature of each country for better serving
CSL teaching locally. Such a need has drawn much attention from researchers. For
example, Chen and Yang’s (2015) comparative study of three Chinese textbooks
widely used in Japan, South Korea, and the USA found that there was a significant
difference in strategy used for completing exercises in these textbooks.
Developing country-specific teaching materials is important for promoting L2
Chinese learning worldwide, given that every country is unique in terms of culture
(Zhao 2014). For instance, an English learner may feel uncomfortable when taught
to address a senior person as an “老爷爷” (lǎo yéye, old grandpa) or “老奶奶” (lǎo
nǎinai, old grandma) without telling him/her that adding “老” (lǎo, old) before “爷
爷” (yéye, grandfather) and “奶奶” (grandmother) in Mandarin is a way to show
one’s courtesy and respect.
1.3.1.3 CSL Assessment
The Hànyǔ Shuı̌píng Kǎoshì (HSK), a national standardized L2 Chinese proficiency

test for non-native speakers in China, has been revised by Hanban in line with
the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) in 2010
(Hanban 2010). The distinctive feature of the revised version of HSK is that spoken
and written sections have been introduced at all levels to test learners’ comprehensive
language and communicative ability systematically. Moreover, the scoring system
of the test has been reformatted to match along with the six levels of CEFR, with
HSK level 1 corresponding to A1 and HSK level 6 to C2. The six hierarchical levels
of CEFR include A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, and C2, ranging from basic user to proficient
user (Council of Europe 2001). The reformation of HSK, in a sense, shows the focus
of CSL teaching has been shifting from traditional language competence training
to contemporary language performance practice. The new approach to assessment
also reflects the change of CSL teaching from traditional exam-driven to modern
communication-oriented approach. In this book, the scale for CSL speech perfor-
mance is developed mainly with reference to CEFR and HSK (see Table 3.1 in
Chap. 3 for details).
6 1 P. P. Sun
1.3.2 The CSL Teaching Syllabi
In China, the Ministry of Education is responsible for designing the national syllabi
and curricula for schools and universities. Under the guidance of the national syllabi
and curricula, schools and universities can adjust their versions accordingly. There
are three types of CSL teaching syllabi for universities: the syllabus for teaching
short-term CSL learners (Hanban 2002c), the syllabus for teaching long-term CSL
learners (Hanban 2002b), and the syllabus for teaching CSL majors (Hanban 2002a).
CSL major syllabus is the most relevant syllabus in this study as the participants are
from CSL and CSL-related majors, such as the Bachelor’s in Chinese, the Master’s
in teaching Chinese to speakers of other languages, and the PhD program in Chinese
applied linguistics.
The CSL major is a 4-year bachelor’s degree open to non-Chinese speakers, who
have successfully completed a high school diploma (Hanban 2002a). The ultimate
goal of this major is to equip CSL learners with a solid L2 Chinese speech competence
and speech performance; with a sound language system of Chinese; and also with a
basic understanding of China regarding its literature, culture, and society (Hanban
2002a). The courses of CSL major range from the basic language skills training
courses, including Integrated Skills of Chinese, Chinese Reading, Chinese Speaking,
Chinese Listening, and Chinese Writing, to more advanced courses, such as Ancient
Chinese, Business Chinese, Advanced Chinese Speaking, and Advanced Chinese
Writing (Hanban 2002a). Each of these courses ranges from 2 to 10 credits. Over
the four years, students have to take a total of 150 credits (35–40 courses in general)
and complete a minimum of 5000-character thesis for graduation (Hanban 2002a).
In addition to the CSL major teaching syllabus, Hanban (2008) published an
international curriculum for Chinese language education to promote and support L2
Chinese education around the world. A five-stage L2 Chinese learning is proposed
on the basis of the four components: (1) linguistic knowledge, (2) linguistic skills, (3)
strategies, and (4) cultural awareness. However, some aspects of this curriculum have
been under critique. For example, the coverage of linguistic knowledge is predeter-
mined without considering real contexts (Scrimgeour and Wilson 2009). The cultural
awareness framework is Sinocentric and static (Scrimgeour and Wilson 2009). In fact,
culture learning should be carried out dynamically and engagingly, so that learners
will gain knowledge and insights more adequately. Moreover, character teaching and
learning as a unique feature of CSL education is largely overlooked (Scrimgeour and
Wilson 2009). Although there are many issues that should be addressed concerning
Hanban’s (2008) curriculum, this international curriculum reflects Hanban’s desire
to create a relevant and contemporary curriculum that could be applicable worldwide.
In 2013, a revision project of the international curriculum for Chinese language
education was launched by Hanban “based on investigations and feedback from all
stakeholders” regarding the 2008 version (Hanban 2014, i). In the revised version,
Hanban (2014)changed the original five-stage CSL syllabi to six-stage in accordance
with the six levels of L2 English proficiency formulated in the well-known CEFR.
1.3 Research Context 7
Furthermore, Hanban added detailed appendixes for schools’ and teachers’ refer-
ences, such as pinyin, tones, characters, phrases, teaching contents, teaching topics,
and teaching flowchart. As a result, the practicality value of the revised version could
be enhanced.
1.3.3 The CSL Teaching Principles
CSL classroom teaching has become more student-centered and focused more on
cooperative teaching under the guidance of the teaching principles proposed in the
teaching syllabus for CSL majors. According to the syllabus, CSL classroom teaching
should bear the following seven principles (Hanban 2002a).
First, CSL classroom teaching should follow the communicative competence prin-
ciple, as its purpose is to cultivate students’ ability to communicate with others. For
instance, interactive and communicative learning tasks can be designed for promoting
students’ communication with each other.
Second, CSL classroom teaching should be practical and interactive, so that
students have the opportunity to balance the development of their CSL competence
and performance and strengthen their understanding of language and culture. For
example, teachers should pay attention to students’ comprehensive development
rather than focusing on certain language skill development.
Third, CSL classroom teaching should follow the heuristic principle in order
to provoke and enlighten students’ minds. For example, teachers may show some
extinct animals and plants to open discussion among students. As a result, students’
environmental protection awareness may be enhanced.
Fourth, CSL classroom teaching should involve the introduction of Chinese
culture, because culture can be an accelerator of language learning. For instance,
teachers can invite students to compare Chinese culture with their own culture. Conse-
quently, learners may become interested in cultural comparisons and devote more
time to L2 Chinese learning, which may result in a deeper understanding of Chinese
culture.
Fifth, CSL classroom teaching should be student-centered teaching with reference
to students’ learning styles and learning strategies. For example, visual learners may
achieve a better learning outcome if visual-oriented tasks could be designed for them.
As facilitators, teachers should pay special attention to students’ differences in order
to promote their learning initiatives.
Sixth, the language of instruction should be mostly in Chinese in light of the fact
that an immersed L2 environment can facilitate learners’ L2 acquisition. However,
immersion teaching would be effective only if students were given comprehensible
input. This indicates that either L2 class or L2 learning communities should provide
comprehensible input for CSL learners.
Seventh, advanced technologies and methods should be adopted for facilitating
classroom teaching, such as audios, videos, multimedia, and online resources. Not
8 1 P. P. Sun
only could these technologies be beneficial to teachers’ classroom teaching, but also
they could be helpful in terms of learners’ development of autonomy.
1.3.4 Summary
In brief, CSL is a special major with its distinctive syllabus within the national
standardized Chinese education system. Different from the majority of classroom
teaching in other subjects in China, CSL classroom teaching is more student-centered
and less teacher-dominant. A major reason for the possibility of such practices is the
small class size (ranging from 10 to 25 students), which enables the implementation
of the teaching principles required by the Teaching Syllabus for CSL Majors.
1.4 Overview of the Book
This book is composed of eight chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the research ques-
tions of the study. A brief introduction of the context and the significance of the study
are presented for the rationalization of the study. Chapter 2 constructs a conceptual
framework for the study. A critical review of relevant theories is provided to build
up a solid theoretical foundation. Chapter 3 reviews the relevant literature regarding
competence and performance, especially in terms of speaking. Definitions of speech
competence and speech performance are clarified and reinterpreted for the CSL
classroom context. Chapter 4 is a comprehensive literature review on L2 speaking
research from cognitive, affective, and sociocultural perspectives. A general under-
standing of the relevant literature thus could be established. Chapter 5 describes and
justifies the methodology and methods employed for the investigation of the discrep-
ancy/gap between CSL multilinguals’ speech competence and speech performance,
particularly through examining how the proposed cognitive, affective, and sociocul-
tural factors may contribute to CSL multilinguals’ speech competence and speech
performance. The results of instruments’ piloting and validation, and the ethical
considerations are also addressed. Chapter 6 presents the findings and analyses of
the quantitative data alone with an ensuing in-depth discussion. Chapter 7 presents the
results and analyses of the qualitative data. A brief discussion of the findings for each
question is included. Chapter 8 summarizes the major findings of the study entailing
a brief conclusion. It also discusses the implications concerning what support could
be provided to facilitate CSL multilinguals’ development of speech competence and
speech performance, so that their speech discrepancy/gap could be minimized. The
book concludes with limitations of this study and suggestions for future research.
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Repertory of ‘Symposium on Characteristics and Construction of Chinese International Education
Knowledge System.’ 世界汉语教学 [Chinese Teaching in the World] 33 (2): 147–165.
10 1 P. P. Sun
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Language]. Beijing, China: Beijing Language and Culture University Press.
Ma, Guochun, and Yahong Ma. 2014. The Causes and Countermeasures for the Stalemate of Exam-
Driven Education Reformation in China. 中国教育学刊 [Journal of Chinese Education] 12:
16–21.
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Journal 103 (January): 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12525.
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Routledge.
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Differences in Multilingual Learners’ L2 Chinese Speech Production. Frontiers in Psychology
11 (59): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00059.
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Chapter 2
Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks
This chapter critically reviews major theoretical and conceptual frameworks relating
to L2 speech production. These include the Affective Filter Hypothesis, automaticity,
the L2 Willingness to Communicate (WTC) Model, the L2 Motivational Self System
(L2MSS), and L2 speech production models. The contributions and limitations of
each hypothesis or theory pertaining to L2 speaking are discussed in order to establish
a justifiable theoretical context for the study in this book. This chapter starts with
an overview of the affective filter hypothesis and the concept of automaticity. This
includes a critical review of Krashen’s (1982) Affective Filter Hypothesis and a brief
introduction to the development of automaticity. Afterward, the L2 WTC Model of
MacIntyre et al. (1998) is presented with a discussion of the problems concerning
this model. Subsequently, Dörnyei’s (2009) L2MSS is examined and its applicability
in the CSL context is discussed. Lastly, an overview of the development of speech
production models is presented, ensuing a discussion on the compatibility of speech
production models in the CSL context. This chapter concludes with a brief summary.
2.1 Affective Filter Hypothesis and Automaticity
The concept of the affective filter was first formulated by Dulay and Burt (1977)
and later developed and improved by Krashen (1982). As one of the five hypotheses
formulated by Krashen in the 1970s and 1980s, the Affective Filter Hypothesis
together with the other four (the Acquisition Learning Hypothesis, the Natural Order
Hypothesis, the Monitor Hypothesis, and the Input Hypothesis) establishes Krashen’s
Monitor Model. Although Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis has not been the
focus of research in recent decades, the three affective filter variables (i.e., motivation,
self-confidence/self-efficacy, and anxiety) identified in this hypothesis have become
the subject for ongoing discussion and investigation in the field of L2 research.
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 11
to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
P. P. Sun, Chinese as a Second Language Multilinguals’ Speech Competence
and Speech Performance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6941-8_2
12 2 Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks
In contrast with the affect filtered production, automaticity may be the ultimate
goal of learning a language. However, the automatic output does not mean uncon-
scious production without control (Bargh et al. 2012). On the contrary, one aspect of
automaticity is controllability (Moors and De Houwer 2006). In other words, auto-
maticity has to do with how much individuals are in control of their thoughts and
behaviors. Regardless of the level of automaticity of L2 learners, they may still be
subject to affective factors such as anxiety and confidence (Sun and Zhang 2020). In
the following sections, an overview of Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis and a
brief introduction of automaticity are presented.
2.1.1 Affective Filter Hypothesis
According to Krashen’s (1982) Affective Filter Hypothesis, comprehensible input is

a necessary but insufficient condition for successful L2 acquisition. Another indis-
pensable condition that should be taken into consideration is the affective filter (see
Fig. 2.1). This hypothesis claims when learners “have a high or strong affective
filter, even if they understand the message, the input will not reach the part of the
brain responsible for language acquisition” (Krashen 1982, 31). In other words, the
affective filter is like a mental block between comprehensible input and the language
acquisition device. In addition, Krashen (1982) identifies three types of affective
variables or mental blocks related to SLA, namely, motivation, self-confidence, and
anxiety (see Sect. 4.2 in Chap. 4 for research on affect).
This hypothesis, however, is proposed mainly to address how the affective filter
influences a person’s language acquisition. It does not cover the potential impact
of affective filters in language production. Drawing on Krashen’s (1982) Affective
Filter Hypothesis, it can be argued that the affective filter is not only important to
ensure openness to comprehensible input and language acquisition, but also it would
be highly correlated with learners’ output, particularly speech production.
Fig. 2.1 Operation of the affective filter

2.1 Affective Filter Hypothesis and Automaticity 13
2.1.2 Automaticity
There are two major domains of automaticity research: preconscious and post-
conscious. Preconscious automaticity is “generated from effortless sensory or percep-
tual activity and then serve as implicit, unappreciated inputs into conscious and
deliberate processes” (Bargh et al. 2012, 593), such as emotion regulation, motiva-
tion, stereotyping, and prejudice. Post-conscious (goal-dependent) automaticity is
“dependent on prior or concurrent conscious and intentional thought” (Bargh et al.
2012, 594) such as attention, decision-making, and cognitive skill acquisition.
Language learning/acquisition, as a type of cognitive skill acquisition, is rather
complex and dynamic. Language production, as an embodiment or outcome of
language learning/acquisition, can be regarded as a complex chain of mental oper-
ations that enables people to automatically convert complex thoughts and feelings
into sound waves (DeKeyser 2001). However, whether mental processes are purely
automatic is debatable, because it is hard to find an exclusively uncontrolled mental
process. In effect, a mental process can have some qualities of both an automatic and
a controlled process (Bargh 1994; Fabio et al. 2019).
Given its controversial and complex nature, it may be difficult to measure auto-
maticity scientifically. Although Moors and De Houwer (2006, 319) suggested
that automaticity could be holistically measured based on the following features:
“(un)intentional, goal (in)dependent, (un)controlled/(un)controllable, autonomous,
purely stimulus driven, (un)conscious, (non)efficient, and fast (slow)”, the measure-
ment can be subjectively biased. For example, how do we measure whether a speech
is controlled or uncontrolled, and conscious or unconscious? It is, nevertheless, rela-
tively objective to assess the fast/slow feature of automaticity. This study, therefore,
measures participants’ CSL speaking automaticity through their cognitive processing
speed, namely, the preparation time prior to their actual speech production.
2.1.3 Summing Up
This section has briefly examined the Affective Filter Hypothesis and auto-
maticity. Drawing on Krashen’s (1982) Affective Filter Hypothesis, motivation, self-
confidence, and anxiety are proposed to some primary affective filters operating in
the process of L2 speech production. In addition, automaticity research suggests that
examining the cognitive processing speed may be an objective way of measuring L2
speech automaticity. This study factors in the three affective filter factors (i.e., motiva-
tion, anxiety, and speaking self-efficacy) together with automaticity (i.e., processing
speed) to examine how these factors may contribute to CSL multilinguals’ L2 Chinese
speech competence and speech performance.
14 2 Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks
2.2 Willingness to Communicate Model
The construct of willingness to communicate (WTC) initially evolved from the earlier
work in L1 communication. Research, such as Clevenge’s (1959) synthetic review
on stage fright, Phillips’s (1965, 1968) work on reticence as a speech disorder,
and McCroskey and Richmond’s (1982) study of communication apprehension
and shyness, has suggested the common psychological issues in L1 communica-
tion or speech performance. McCroskey and Baer (1985) identified L1 WTC as a
personality-based, trait-like predisposition. MacIntyre et al. (1998) applied L1 WTC
to an L2 context (see Fig. 2.2), arguing that L2 WTC should be treated as a situational
variable open to change across situations. MacIntyre et al. (1998, 547) thus, concep-
tualized L2 WTC as “a readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a
specific person or persons, using a[n] L2”. In the following sections, an overview of
MacIntyre et al.’s (1998) L2 WTC Model is presented with critiques and the reasons
for factoring in WTC as an affective factor are discussed.
2.2.1 The Pyramid Model of L2 WTC
The pyramid shape of L2 WTC Model constructed by MacIntyre et al. (1998) signals
the complexity of L2 communicative willingness. There are in total six layers,
providing affective (e.g., attitudes, motivation, and personality), cognitive (e.g.,
communicative competence), social (e.g., social situation and intergroup climate),
Fig. 2.2 L2 WTC pyramid model

2.2 Willingness to Communicate Model 15
and psychological (e.g., desire to communicate) accounts for variables that may
influence learners’ L2 WTC (see Fig. 2.2).
The topmost layer in the pyramid is L2 use, referring to behavioral activities that
involve L2 engagement, such as “speaking up in class, reading L2 news, watching L2
television, or utilizing an L2 on the job” (MacIntyre et al. 1998, 547). The commit-
ment of L2 use is the “result of a complex system of interrelated variables” (MacIntyre
et al. 1998, 547). In other words, individuals’ L2 use can be determined by various
reasons, suggesting that factors contributing to L2 use may vary from one person to
another.
The second layer, WTC, represents the level of behavioral intention and will-
ingness of L2 engagement. From the model, it shows that WTC is an important
variable that directly links to L2 use. It reveals learners’ behavioral intention of
communication, suggesting the extent to which they would like to take part in an L2
discourse.
The third layer in the model is all about situated antecedents to WTC, including
the desire to communicate with a specific person and the state of communicative
self-confidence. The former variable is subject to “affiliation and control motives”
(MacIntyre et al. 1998, 548). Affiliation reveals the degree of interindividual or inter-
group attractiveness among interlocutors. Nevertheless, L2 users have the volition
or control to decide in what circumstances they will use an L2. The latter variable,
the state of communicative self-confidence, refers to “a momentary feeling of confi-
dence” (MacIntyre et al. 1998, 549). Such confidence can be determined by L2 users’
state of perceived competence and anxiety.
The fourth layer is referred to as motivational properties. Different from the third
layer’s situational feature, this layer indicates the influence of individuals’ enduring
traits on their L2 use. These traits consist of interpersonal motivation, intergroup
motivation, and L2 self-confidence. Specifically, interpersonal motivation is deter-
mined by a person’s social role within a group. Intergroup motivation correlates
directly with a person’s membership in a particular social group. L2 self-confidence
stems from one’s communicative competence and previous experience.
The fifth layer of this model, namely, motivational propensities, captures “the
affective and cognitive contexts of intergroup interaction” (MacIntyre et al. 1998,
550). This layer entails intergroup attitudes, social situation, and communicative
competence. Firstly, intergroup attitudes represent L2 learners’ desire for engage-
ment in a different cultural group, leading to either integrativeness (i.e., to get involved
and become a member) or fear of assimilation (i.e., fear of becoming assimilated and
losing own identities). Secondly, social situation refers to “a composite category
describing a social encounter in a particular setting” (MacIntyre et al. 1998, 553).
The participants, the setting, the purpose, the topic, and the channel of communica-
tion are the five major influential factors to social situations. Lastly, communicative
competence, known as a person’s L2 proficiency, “will have a significant effect on his
or her WTC” (MacIntyre et al. 1998, 554). Linguistic competence, discourse compe-
tence, actional competence, sociocultural competence, and strategic competence are
the five components of communicative competence.
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At the bar as prysoner holding vp his hand. 1559, 63.
[84] Whiche in other’s cause, coulde. 1559, 63.

[85] Lyke. 1559, 63.
[86] As mummers mute do stand N.
[87] Vnable to vtter a true plea of denyall. 1559, 63.
[88] When that. 1559.
[89] For halfe a ryall. 1559, 63.
[90] We could by very arte haue made the black. 1559, 63.
[91] And matters of most wrong, to haue appered most right.
1559, 63.
[92] Most wise, may chance be too too weake. N.
[93] But may be brought to stand. 1578.
[94] Stanzas 5 and 6 added 1571.
[95] Behold me one vnfortunate amongst this flocke. N.
[96] Cal’d sometime. N.
[97] By discent a gentleman. 1559, 63.
[98] ‘And’ omitted. N.
[99] State. N.
[100] To whom frowarde fortune gaue a foule checkmate.
1559, 63.
[101] In all our common. N.
[102] What so wee. 1559, 63.
[103] We did conclude. N.
[104] Both life, death, lands, and goods. N.
[105] So great gaine we did get. 1559, 63.
[106] And sises. 1578. N.
[107] Still chiefe. N.
[108] We let hang the true man. 1559, 63.
[109] Doth neuer keepe. 1559, 63.
[110] Whiche though it haue enough yet dothe it not suffyse.
1559, 63. And more at no time doth suffise. 1578.
[111] And drinke they neuer so much, yet styl for more they
cry. 1559, 63.
[112] So couetous catchers toyle. 1559, 63.
[113] Gredy and euer needy, prollyng. 1559, 63.
[114] Fayth we did professe. 1578.
[115] Makyng a solempne oth in no poynt to dygresse. 1578.
[116] Wretches. 1559, 63.
[117]
Of the judge eternall, more high to be promoted,

To mammon more then God, all wholly were deuoted.
1578.
[118] We interpreted. 1559, 63.

[119] Like a. 1559, 63.
[120] Many one. 1559, 63.
[121] To serue kings in al pointes men must sumwhile breke
rules. 1559, 63.
[122] Ful nie. 1559, 63.
[123] To crepe into whose fauour we. 1559, 63.
[124] Auayle. 1578.
[125] Wurde. 1559, 63. Sense. 1578.
[126] Sence, 1559, 63.
[127] Of land. N.
[128] Wyll. 1578.
[129]
The king thus transcendyng the limittes of his lawe,

Not raygning but raging by youthfull insolence,
Wise and wurthy persons did fro the courte wythdraw,
There was no grace ne place for auncient prudence:
Presumpcion and pryde with excesse of expence,
Possessed the palays and pillage the countrye;
Thus all went to wracke vnlike of remedye. 1559, 63.
[130] Baronye. 1559, 63.

[131] Seing no reason. 1578.
[132] Maugre all. 1559.
[133] Maugre his princely mynde they. 1578. His kingly might.
N.
[134] All men vnchecked. 1578.
[135] Which. 1578.
[136] Regally. 1571, 78.
[137] That Richard. 1578.
[138] Order. 1578.
[139]
In whyche parliament muche thynges was proponed

Concerning the regaly and ryghtes of the crowne,
By reason kyng Richarde, whiche was to be moned,
Full lytell regardynge his honour and renowne,
By synister aduyse, had tourned all vpsodowne:
For suerty of whose estate,[143] them thought it did
behooue
His corrupt counsaylours, from hym to remooue. 1559,
1563.
[140] In the beginning of the parliament was called Robert

Veer, duke of Irelande, Alexander Neuell, archebishop of
Yorke, Mighell de la Poole, erle of Suffolk, sir Robert Tresilian,
chiefe iustice of Englande, to answere Thomas of Woodstock,
duke of Gloucester, Richard, erle of Arondel, Thomas, erle of
Derby, and Thomas erle of Nottyngham, vpon certaine articles
of high treason, which these lordes did charge them with. And
for as much as none of these appered, it was ordeyned by the
whole assent of the parliament that they shoulde be banished
for euer: and their landes and goodes, moueable and
vnmouable, to be forfeit and seased into the kinge’s hand, the
landes entayled onely except.
Shortly after this, was founde Robert Tresilian, chiefe
iustice, lurkyng in a poticarie’s house at Westmynster, and
there founde the meanes to have spyes daylie vpon the lordes
what was done in the parliament: for all the dayes of his lyfe
he was craftie, but at the last his craft turned to hys
destruction: for he was discouered by his owne seruant, and
so taken and brought to the duke of Gloucester, and the same
daye had to the Towre, and from thence drawen to Tyborne,
and there hanged.
The morow after, syr Nicholas Pembroke, which afore had
been maior of the citie of London, against the citezen’s will,
was brought foorth. Grafton.
This man (Tresilian) had disfigured himselfe, as if he had
beene a poore weake man, in a frize coat, all old and torne,
and had artificially made himselfe a long beard, such as they
called a Paris beard, and had defiled his face, to the end he
might not be knowen but by his speach. Stowe.
[141] Tharchbyshop of Yorke was also of our band, 1578.
[142] See Statutes at large, temp. Rich. II. viz. 11. c. I. II. III.
20. c. VI. and 31. c. XII. XIII.
[143] State, 1559.
[144] Judge. 1578.
[145] To dye there as. 1578.
[146] The fickle fee of fraud. 1578.
[147] Ye iudges now liuing. 1578.
[148] Fye on stynkyng lucre, of all vnryght the lure, Ye judges
and ye justicers let my most iust punicion. 1559, 63.
[149] Al pure. 1578. Still pure. N.
[150] What glory is more greater in sight of God. 1578.
[151] By the pathes of equytie. 1559, 63.
[152] And truely. 1578.
[153] Alwayes. 1559, 63.
[154] Lawes for to scan. N.
[155] Reward. 1559, 63. That justice may take place without
reward. 1578.
[156] Take. 1559, 63.
[157] The righteous. 1578. The most iust. N.
[158] Of mortals displeasure. N.
[159] Closde. 1578.
[160] Worldly hyre. 1559, 63. Way not this worldly mucke.
1578.
[161]
If som in latter dayes, had called vnto mynde,

The fatall fall of vs for wrestynge of the right,
The statutes of this land they should not haue defynde
So wylfully and wittingly agaynst the sentence quyte:
But though thei skaped paine, the faut was nothing light,
Let them that cum hereafter both that and this compare,
And waying well the ende, they will I trust beware. 1559,
63.
[162] George Ferrers. These initials first added, 1571.

[163] This. 1559, 63. 71.
[164] When finished was this tragedy. 1578.
[165] Syr Roger Mortimer, earle of March, and heyre
apparaunt of England, whose. 1578.
[166] Purposed matter. 1578.
[167] Of these great infortunes, and as they be more auncient
in tyme, so to place their seuerall plaintes. 1578.
[168] Two earles of the name of Mortimer. 1578.
[169] One hanged in. 1559, 63.
[170] In the tyme of king Edward. 1578.
[171] Another in Richard the seconde’s time, slayne in Ireland.
1578.
[172] Fauours. 1578.
[173] Personage of the earle Mortimer, called Roger, who full
of bloudye woundes. 1578.
[174] To Baldwin, in this wise. 1578.
[175] The dates added 1571—Fabian has given a summary of
the life of the second Roger Mortimer, and upon which the
poet relied, as of 1387, but the death of Mortimer happened
about 1398.
[176] On. 1578.
[177] Thred, vntimely death dyd reele. 1578.
[178] Brought from boote to extreme bale. 1578.
[179]
——the queene so much was stir’d,

As for his sake from honour she did scale. 1578.
[180] Merye gale. 1559, 63.

[181]
And whilest fortune blew on this pleasaunt gale,

Heauing him high on her triumphall arch,
By meane of her hee was made earle of March. 1578.
[182] Breded. 1559, 63.

[183] Pride folly breeds in. N.
[184] Hym, 1559, 63.
[185] For where he somwhat hauty was before. 1559, 63.
[186]
Whence pryde out sprang, as doth appeare by manye,

Whom soden hap, aduaunceth in excesse,
Among thousandes, scarse shal you fynde anye,
Which in high wealth that humor can suppresse,
As in this earle playne proofe did wel expresse:
For whereas hee too loftye was before,
His new degree hath made him now much more. 1578.
[187] Ne recks. N.
[188] Respecting none saue only the queene mother. 1578.
[189] Which moued malice to foulder. 1578.
[190] Which deepe in hate, before. 1578.
[191] Th’one as well as th’other. N.
[192] They did the earle attaynt. 1578. He was soone attaint.
N.
[193] Such crimes as hidden lay before. 1578.
[194] For hydden hate. 1578. For enuy still. N.
[195] Biddes small faultes to make more bad. 1578.
[196]
Causing the king to yelde vnto the Scot,

Townes that his father, but late afore had got. 1578.
[197] Had, wanting, in 1559, 63. N.

[198] Yeuen to the Scots for brybes and priuie gayne. 1578.
[199] That by. 1578.
[200] Most, wanting. 1559, 63, 71. N. Most cruelly. 1578.
[201] And last of all by pyllage. 1578.
[202] Had spoyld. 1578.
[203] Dampned he was. 1578.
[204] Syr Roger Mortymer was accused before the lordys of
the parlyament of these artycles with other; whereof v. I fynde
expressyd. And firste was layed vnto his charge that by his
meaneys syr Edwarde of Carnaruan, by mooste tyrannouse
deth, in the castell of Barkley, was murderyd; secondaryly, that
to the kynge’s great dyshonoure and dammage, the Scottys,
by his meanys and treason, escapyd from the kyng at the
parke on Stanhope, whiche then shuld haue fallen in the
kynge’s daunger, ne had been the fauoure by the sayde Roger
to them than shewyd; thyrdely, to hym was layed, that he, for
execucion of the sayd treason, receyued of the capytane of
the sayd Scottis, namyd syr Iamys Dowglas, great summys of
money, and also for lyke mede he had, to the kynge’s great
dyshonoure and hurte of his realme, concludyd a peace
atwene the kynge and the Scottis, and causyd to be delyuered
vnto theym the charter or endenture called Ragman, with
many other thynges, to the Scottys great aduauntage and
impouerysshynge of this realme of Englande. Fourtlye, was
layed to hym, that where by synystre and vnlefull meanys,
contrary the kynge’s pleasure and wyll, or assent of the lordys
of the kynge’s counceyll, he had gotten into his possessyon
moche of the kynge’s treasoure, he vnskylfully wasted and
myspent it; by reason whereof the kyng was in necessyte, and
dryuen parforce to assaye his frendys. Fyfthlye, that he also
had enproperyd vnto hym dyuerse wardys belongynge to the
kynge, to his great lucre and the kynge’s great hurt, and that
he was more secret with quene Isabell, the kynge’s mother,
than was to Godde’s pleasure, or the kynge’s honoure: the
whiche artycles, with other agayne hym prouyd, he was, by
auctoryte of the sayde parlyament, iugyd to deth, and vpon
seynt Andrewys euyn next ensuynge, at London, he was
drawyn and hangyd. Fabyan.
[205] My coosins fall might. 1578. My cosin then might. N.
[206] Brybing, adultery and pride. 1578.
[207] I wene. 1578.
[208] ‘Deare,’ omitted. N.
[209] That dyd, 1559.
[210]
——heire of Lyonell,
Of king Edward the third the second sequell. 1578.
The third king Edward’s sonne, as stories tell. N.
[211] Cald. 1578.

[212] By true. 1578.
[213] Of ladies all the. 1578.
[214] Left in me. 1559, 63.
[215]
After whose death I onely stood in plight,

To be next heyre vnto the crowne by right. 1578.
[216] Of the. N.
[217]
Touching the case of my cousin Roger,
(Whose ruful end euen now I did relate)
Was found in tyme an vndue atteindre. 1578.
[218] By lawe eche man of. 1578. By law each one of. N.
[219]
Should be heard speake before his iudgement passe,

That common grace to him denyed was. 1578.
[220] In court of. 1578.

[221] His atteindre appering erroneous. 1578.
[222]
A president worthy, in record left,

Lorde’s lygnes to saue, by lawless meanes bereft. 1578.
[223] While fortune vnto me her grace did deigne. N.

[224] The. 1559, 63.
[225] Looser. N.
[226]
Whyle fortune thus did frendly me receyue,

Rychard the king, that second was by name,
Hauing none heire after him to reigne. 1578.
[227] That vnderstoode my bent. 1578.

[228]
And me to serue was euery manne’s entent,

With all that wyt or cunning could inuent. 1578.
[229] In hope. 1578.

[230] Chaunge their hue. 1578.
[231] For whiles fortune so luld. 1578.
[232] Dame. 1578.
[233] To dash me downe. 1578.
[234] Irish kernes. 1578.
[235]
My landes of Vlster vniustly to bereaue,

Which my mother for heritage did me leaue. 1578.
[236] Whom I did not regard. N.

[237]
The wylder sort, whom I did least regard,

And therfore the rechlesse manne’s reward. 1578.
[238] By auctoryte of the same parliament [in 1585-6] syr

Roger Mortymer, erle of the Marche, and sone and heyre vnto
syr Edmunde Mortymer, (and of dame Phylyp, eldest daughter
and heyer vnto syr Lyonell, the seconde sone of Edwarde the
thyrde) was soone after proclaymyd heyer paraunt vnto the
crowne of Englande; the which syr Roger shortly after sayled
into Irelande; there to pacyfye his lordeshyp of Wulstyr, whiche
he was lorde of by his foresayde mother: but whyle he was
there occupyed abowte the same, the wylde Irysshe came
vpon in noumbre, and slewe hym and moche of his company,
Fabyan.
[239] Nor helpe of frendes. 1578.
[240] Or. 1578.
[241] No law of armes they know. 1578.
[242] No foes. N.
[243] Their booty chiefe, they coumpt a dead man’s heade.
1578.
[244]
Their chiefest boote is th’aduersarie’s head,

They end not warre till th’enemie be dead. N.
[245] Their foes when they doe faine. N.

[246]
Nor yet presume to make their match amisse,
Had I not so done, I had not come to this. 1578.
——I had been left aliue. N.
[247]
At naught I set a sort of naked men,

And much the lesse, seeming to flye away,
One man me thought was good ynough for ten,
Making small account of number more or lesse,
Madnesse it is in war to goo by gesse. 1578.
[248]
See here the stay of pompe and highe estate,

The feeble hold of this vncerteyn lyfe. 1578.
[249] Hauing fayre fruict by my belooued wyfe. 1578. Syr

Roger had issu Edmunde, and Roger, Anne, Alys, and
Elanoure. Fabyan.
[250] Cavil. The “Ca.” was first affixed in 1571, and is repeated
in all the subsequent editions, except that of 1578, where
there appears “T. Ch.” the supposed signature of Thomas
Churchyard. As from that edition we shall have to notice,
presently, another similar alteration, it makes it doubtful
whether the same can be considered a misprint, though it
does not appear in the enumeration of his own pieces made
by Churchyard. See Bibliographia Poetica. Since this note was
printed the claim of ‘Master Chaloner’ to this signature has
been discovered. See postea, p. 53, n. 1.
[251] Was, omitted. 1578.
[252] Not to be treated of, 1559, 63.
[253] In the seuententh yere (1394) came oute of Scotlonde
certayne lordes into Englonde, to gete worshypp by fayte of
armes. The earl of Morris chalenged the erle marchall of
Englonde to juste wyth hym on horsbacke wyth sharpe
speres. And soo they roode togyder certayne courses, but not
the full chalenge. For the Scottyshe erle was caste bothe
horse and man, and two of his rybbes broken wyth the same
fall, and soo borne home into his inne. And anone after was
caryed homeward in a lytier. And at Yorke he deyed. Syre
Wyllyam Darell banerer of Scotlonde, and syre Pyers
Courteney the kynge’s banerer of Englonde roode togyder
certayne courses of warre hitte and assayed. The Scottisshe
knyghte seenge that he myghte not haue the better, yaue it
ouer: and wold noo more of the chalenge. Thenne one
Cokburne, squyer of Scotlond, and syre Nicholl Hauberk,
roode fyue courses, and at euery course the Scot was caste
bothe horse and man. Polychronicon.
[254] And whan thys ryall maryage was done and fynysshed
kynge Rycharde wyth dame Isabel his quene came into
Englonde. And the mayre of London, with all his brethren,
wyth grete multytude of the comyns of the cyte and the
craftes, receyuyd hym worshypfully at Blackheth, and brought
hym to Saynt Georges barre. And there taking their leue, the
kyng and quene roode to Kenignton. And after that wythin a
whyle the quene came to the toure of London, at whose
comyng was moche harme doo, for on London bridge were ix
persones thrust to deth, of whom the priour of typre was one.
Polychronicon. The prior of Tiptor, in Essex, was one. Stowe.
[255] Muche myndyng, 1559, 63.
[256] Date, added. 1571.
[257] Is stablysht. 1559, 63. Who stablisht is in state, seeming.
1578.
[258] Turne thine eare to. 1578.
[259] Prest in presence on fortune to. 1578.
[260] Of the. 1559, 63.
[261] Who by discent was of the. 1578.
[262] Nought. N.
[263] Before, eyther since. 1559. Or since. N.
[264] Most false fayth. 1578.
[265] Marcht. N.
[266] Thus hoysted high on fortune’s whyrling wheele. 1578.
[267] For whan fortune’s flud ran with. 1559, 63.
[268] I beynge a duke discended of kinges. 1559, 63.
[269] In. 1559, 63.
[270] Esperaunce. 1559, 63, 71. Assurance. 1578.
[271] All, omitted. N.
[272] To appoynt. 1559, 63.
[273] And for to settle others in their place. N.
[274] So, omitted. N.
[275] On a bell. N.
[276] Or. 1559, 63.
[277] Haply, omitted. N.
[278] For doyng on. 1559, 63. On, omitted. N.
[279] A sore checke. 1559, 63. I vnaduised caught a cruell
checke. N.
[280] Renown’d. N.
[281] For the tale of the rats, whence originates the proverbial
observation, “Who shall bell the cat?” see the vision of Pierce
the Plowman, by Crowley, ed. 1550, fol. iii. by Dr. Whitaker,
1813, p. 9.
[282] Expound. N.
[283] To curb. N.
[284] ’Bout. N.
[285] T’obay. N.
[286] It fits not a subiect t’haue. N.
[287] Thys by wurde. 1559, 63.
[288] And, omitted. N.
[289] Erle. 1559, 63.
[290] We by our power did call a parlament. N.
[291] With our. N.
[292] Playnely we depriued him of. 1559, 63.
[293] T’vnderstand. N.
[294] Thus wrought. 1578.
[295] By subiectes thus in bondage to bee brought. 1578.
[296] His. 1559, 63.
[297] Former cause of rancour to. 1578.
[298] Accoumpt. 1578.
[299] Were by me. 1559, 63.
[300] In the twentyest yere kynge Rycharde dide holde a grete
feeste at Westmestre. Att whyche feest aryued the souldyours
that hadde kepte Breste, and satte att dyner in the halle. And
after dyner the duke of Glocestre sayd to the kynge: “Syre,
haue ye not seen those fellowes that sate at dyner in your
halle.” And the kinge demaunded who they were. And he
sayde: “Thyse ben your folke that haue serued you, and ben
come from Breste. And now wote not what to doo, and haue
ben euyl payed.” Thenne the kynge sayde that they sholde be
payed. Thenne answered the duke of Gloucetre in a grete
furye: “Syre, ye oughte fyrste to put your body in deuoyre to
gete a towne, or a castell by fayte of warre vpon youre
enmyes, er ye sholde selle or delyuer ony townes that your
predecessours, kynges of Englonde, haue goten and
conquered.” To the whyche the kynge answerde ryght angrely:
“How saye ye that?” Thenne the duke his vncle sayd it
agayne. Thenne the kynge beganne to wexe wrothe, and
sayd: “Wene ye that I be a marchaunte or a foole to sell my
londe. By saynt Iohnne Baptyst naye: but trouthe it is that our
cosyn of Brytayne hath rendred and payd to vs the somme
that my predecessours had lent vppon the sayd towne of
Breste, and syth he hath payd, it is reason that this towne be
delyuered to hym agayne.” Thus beganne the wrath bitwene
the kynge and his vncle. Polychronicon.
[301] To claime entertainment the town beyng solde. 1559, 63.
To clayme their wages. 1578.
[302]
Of hate in hys hert hourded a tresure. 1559, 63.

Fulfyld his hart with hate. 1578.
[303] Nor. 1559, 63.

[304] But frendship fayned, in proofe is found vnsure. 1578.
[305] With long sicknesse diseased very sore. 1578.
[306] I was confedered before. 1578.
[307] Such aduauntage. 1578.
[308] Eame. This word is used repeatedly in the legends by
Ferrers. In the above passage it means uncle. It was also a
term for a gossip, compeer, or friend.
[309] To goe before. 1578.
[310] Preparedst a playne waye. 1578.
[311] What measure to others we awarde. 1578.
[312] The initials of George Ferrers, first added, 1571.
[313] This. 1559, 63, 71.
[314] Tragedy of the Lord Mowbray, the chief wurker of the
duke’s distruction, 1559, 63.
[315] To the state of a duke, added. 1571.
[316] Lykely. 1559, 63.
[317] Marke, I will shew thee how I swerued. 1559, 63.
[318] A vertuous mynde. 1559, 63.
[319] The herte to evyll to enclyne. 1559, 63.
[320] Kynde. 1559, 63.
[321] I thanke her, was to me so kynde. 1559, 63.
[322] Neyther of vs was muche to other holde. 1559, 63.
[323] Misprinted ‘thought’ by Higgins and Niccols.
[324] Wrong’d. N.
[325] Of England. 1578.
[326] Bad officers. N.
[327] Afore had. N.
[328] Aye seeks. N.
[329] The kinge’s fauour. 1578.
[330] Pryde prouoketh to. 1578.
[331] To poll and oppresse. 1578.
[332] And still. N.
[333] Him to. N.
[334] For pryde prickt me first my prince to flatter. 1578.
[335] Who so euer. 1578.
[336] Nere. N.
[337] Because of holdes beyond the sea that he solde. 1578.
[338] My. 1559, 63.
[339] Though vnto all these ils I were a frend. N.
[340] The duke of Gloucester for me did send. N.
[341] From place. 1578.
[342] Bewrayed the king. 1559, 63, 71, 78.
[343] At Arundell was a counseylle of certayne lordes: as the
duke of Gloucetre, tharchebysshop of Caunterbury, the erles
of Arundeel, Warwyck, and Marchall, and other, for to
refourme the rule abowte the kynge. Whyche lordes promysed
eche to abyde by other and soo departed. And anone after the
erle Marchall, whiche was captayne of Calays, bewrayed and
lete the kyng haue knowleche of all theyr counseylle:
wherupon the xxv daye of August, the duke of Glocetre was
arested at Plassheye in Estsex, and brought to the toure of
London. And from thence sent to Caleys and there murthred
and slayne wyth out processe of lawe or justyce.
Polychronicon.
[344] Earle. 1559, 63.
[345] It out. 1559, 63, 71.
[346] The palme represse. N.
[347] Earle. 1559, 63.
[348] Earle. 1559, 63.
[349] Manteyneth. 1559, 63.
[350] An. N.
[351] Earle. 1559, 63.
[352] Warly. 1559, 63.
[353] Misprinted, brest. 1587.
[354] In the same yere (1398) fel a great debate and
dyssencyon bytwene the duke of Herforde, erle of Derby, on
that one partye, and the duke of Norfolke, erle marchall, on
that other partye. In soo moche that they waged battaylle and
caste downe their gloues whiche were take vppe before the
kynge and ensealed, and the day and place assigned at
Couentree. To whyche place the kinge came, the duke of
Lancastre, and other lordes. And whan both partyes were in
the feelde redy for to fyghte, the kyng toke the matere in his
owne honde: and forthwyth he exyled and banysshed the
duke of Herforde for ten yeres, and the duke of Norfolke for
euermore. The duke of Norfolke deyed at Venyse.
Polychronicon.
[355] Doubtfull. 1578.
[356] That. N.
[357] Shame. N.
[358] Are iust to. 1578.
[359] Is. 1559, 63.
[360] Herewyth. 1559, 63, 71, 78.
[361] Which made them thinke mee worse then any feende.
1578.
[362] For other griefe. 1578.
[363] I parted thence and. 1578.
[364] The duke of Norffolke whiche supposed to haue been
borne out by the kynge, was sore repentant of his enterprise,
and departed sorowfully out of the realme into Almaine, and at
the laste came to Venice, where he for thoughte and
melancolye deceassed. Hall.
[365] More pleasure and reliefe. 1578.
[366] Which was not longe. 1578.
[367] Loo! thus his glory grewe great, by my dispite. 1578.
[368] So enuy euer, her hatred doth acquite. 1578.
[369]
Sorrowe and false shame,

Whereby her foes do shine in higher fame. 1578.
[370] Running. 1559.

[371] T. Ch. This signature first added in the edition of 1571,
and has been uniformly believed to mean Thomas
Churchyard. However, it may be more confidently assigned to
Master Chaloner, i. e. Sir Thomas Chaloner.—In the British
Museum there is a fragment of the original edition of the Mirror
for Magistrates, as printed in folio, during the reign of Queen
Mary, and suppressed, as already noticed, by the Lord
Chancellor. The fragment consists of two leaves, and which,
unfortunately, are duplicates, commencing with the
interlocutory matter before the legend of Owen Glendower,
and ends with the eighteenth stanza of the same legend. It
begins “Whan Master Chaloner had ended thys so eloquent a
tragedy,” and therefore appears conclusive that the above was
written by Thomas Chaloner, and that the legend of Richard
the Second, by Ferrers, which now follows, was first written for
the edition of 1559.
When the legend of Jane Shore was added in 1563,
Baldwin says: “This was so well lyked, that all together
exhorted me instantly to procure Maister Churchyarde to
vndertake and to penne as manye moe of the remaynder as
myght by any meanes be attaynted at his handes:” which
compliment proves that the author was a new candidate, and
upon the signatures being first added in 1571, we find his
name affixed to “Shore’s Wife,” in full, Tho. Churchyarde, to
distinguish it from the above abbreviation for Thomas
Chaloner.
[372] About the feeste of seynt Bartholmew fell dyscension
and discorde atwene the duke of Herforde and the duke of
Norfolke, wherefore the duke of Herforde accusyd that other
that he had taken iiii M. marke of the kynge’s, of suche money
as he shulde therewith haue wagyd certeyne sowdyours at
Calays, he lefte vndon, and toke the same money to his owne
vse. But another wryter sayeth, that as the sayd ii dukys rode
vpon a tyme from the parlyament towarde theyr lodgynges,
the duke of Norfolke sayde vnto that other: “Sir, see you not
howe varyable the kynge is in his wordis, and how shamefully
he puttyth his lordes and kynnes folkys to deth, and other
exylyth and holdyth in pryson; wherfore full necessary it is to
kepe, and not for to truste moche in his wordis, for with out
dowte in tyme to come, he wyll by such lyke meanys bryng vs
vnto lyke deth and distruction.” Of which wordys the sayd duke
of Herforde accusyd that other vnto the kynge; wherefore
eyther wagyd batayle, &c. Fabyan.
[373] For where as maister Hall, whom in thys storye we
chiefely folowed, making Mowbray accuser and Boleynbroke
appellant, mayster Fabyan reporteth the matter quite contrary,
and that by the reporte of good authours, makyng
Boleynbroke the accuser, and Mowbray the appellant. Which
matter, &c. 1559, 63.
[374] Recordes of the parliament. 1578.
[375] We referre to the determinacion of the haroldes, or such
as may cum by the recordes and registers of these doynges,
contented in the mean whyle with the best allowed iudgement
and which maketh most for. 1559, 63.
[376] Richard the 2. 1578.
[377] I woulde (quoth one of the cumpany) gladly say
sumwhat for king Richarde. But his personage is so sore
intangled as I thynke fewe benefices be at this daye, for after
hys imprisonment, his brother. 1559, 63.
[378] King, omitted. 1559, 63.
[379] Thinke. 1559, 63, 71, 78.
[380] In the kinge’s behalf. 1559, 63.
[381] See him all. 1559, 63.
[382] Vpon a beere in. 1578.
[383] Makyng his mone in thys sort. 1559, 63.
[384] From his seat, and miserably murdred in prison. 1559,
63.
[385] Vertue to folow and vyces to keepe vnder. 1578.
[386] Boast of high byrth, sword, scepter, ne mace. 1578.
[387] Rayne do drops of thunder. 1578.
[388] Let kinges therfore the lawes of God embrace. 1578.
[389] That vayne delightes. 1578.
[390] Do gase vpon me. 1559, 63.
[391] Lyeth, for whom none late myght rout. 1559, 63.
[392] Princes. 1578.
[393] Loute. 1559, 63, 71. Dead and least dread, to graue is
caryed out. 1578.
[394] But earth and clay. 1578.
[395]
Behold the woundes his body all about,

Who liuing here, thought, 1578.
[396] Wilt nowe declare. 1571, 78.

[397] My vicious story, 1559, 63.
[398] They kepe not, doutles say I dare. 1559, 63.
[399] Tyll the one. 1559, 63.
[400] Without respect of. 1578.
[401]
I am a kynge that ruled all by lust,

That forced not of vertue, right. 1559, 63.
[402] But alway put false flatterers most in trust, 1559, 63.
In false flatterers reposinge all my trust. 1578.
[403] Embracinge sutch. 1578.
[404] Fro counsell sage I did alwayes withdrawe. 1578.
[405]
By faythfull counsayle passing not a strawe;

What pleasure prickt, that thought I to be iust:
I set my minde, to feede, to spoyle, to iust. 1559, 63.
[406] Of God or man I stoode no wise in awe. 1578.

[407] More. 1578.
[408]
And to augment my lecherous minde that must

To Venus’ pleasures alway be in awe. 1563.
The edition of 1559 reads “and all to augment,” &c.

[409] Which to mayntayne I gathered heapes of golde. 1578.

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Chinese as a Second Language

Multilinguals Speech Competence and

Audio And Speech Processing With MATLAB Paul R. Hill

Chinese as a Second Language Assessment 1st Edition

Mandarin Competence of Chinese English Bilingual

Explorations into Chinese as a Second Language 1st

Key Issues in Chinese as a Second Language Research 1st

Speech Perception Production and Acquisition

Aging in a Second Language: A Case Study of Aging,

Anatomy & Physiology for Speech, Language, and Hearing,

ISBN 978-981-15-6940-1 ISBN 978-981-15-6941-8 (eBook)

2.4.4 Critiques of the L2 Speech Production Model . . . . . . . . . . 26

5.4 Instruments Piloting and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

6.7 Quantitative Findings for Research Question 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

7.5 Qualitative Findings and Discussion of Research Question 4 . . . . . 197

8.5 Practical Implications ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Appendix A: Chinese as Second Language Learner Questionnaire

Fig. 2.1 Operation of the affective ﬁlter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12

Table 2.1 Relevant studies on L2 motivational system in different

Table 6.13 Correlations between the affective factors and speech

1.1 Research Introduction

a second language learner questionnaire (CSLLQ), a Chinese speech competence

1.2 Research Significance and Rationale

Language, especially an additional language, is normally regarded as a bridge or

1 Confucius Institute Headquarters is also commonly referred to as Hanban (汉办) in Chinese.

1.3 Research Context

1.3.1 The Development of CSL

1.3.1.1 CSL Teaching Approaches

shift from the traditional teacher-centered to the interactive student-centered teaching

1.3.1.2 Localization of CSL Textbooks

1.3.1.3 CSL Assessment

The Hànyǔ Shuı̌píng Kǎoshì (HSK), a national standardized L2 Chinese proficiency

1.3.2 The CSL Teaching Syllabi

1.3.3 The CSL Teaching Principles

1.4 Overview of the Book

Liu, Xun. 2000. 对外汉语教学引论 [Introduction to Pedagogy in Teaching Chinese as a Foreign

2.1 Affective Filter Hypothesis and Automaticity

2.1.1 Affective Filter Hypothesis

According to Krashen’s (1982) Affective Filter Hypothesis, comprehensible input is

Fig. 2.1 Operation of the affective filter

2.2 Willingness to Communicate Model

2.2.1 The Pyramid Model of L2 WTC

Fig. 2.2 L2 WTC pyramid model

[84] Whiche in other’s cause, coulde. 1559, 63.

Of the judge eternall, more high to be promoted,

[118] We interpreted. 1559, 63.

The king thus transcendyng the limittes of his lawe,

[130] Baronye. 1559, 63.

In whyche parliament muche thynges was proponed

[140] In the beginning of the parliament was called Robert

If som in latter dayes, had called vnto mynde,

[162] George Ferrers. These initials first added, 1571.

——the queene so much was stir’d,

[180] Merye gale. 1559, 63.

And whilest fortune blew on this pleasaunt gale,

[182] Breded. 1559, 63.

Whence pryde out sprang, as doth appeare by manye,

Causing the king to yelde vnto the Scot,

[197] Had, wanting, in 1559, 63. N.

[211] Cald. 1578.

After whose death I onely stood in plight,

Should be heard speake before his iudgement passe,

[220] In court of. 1578.