Chapter 1

Introduction
 Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 General Background

A High Strength Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete (HSGFRC) it is an advanced form for concrete
technology, which have all advantages of high strength concrete (HSC) and glass fiber reinforced
concrete (GFRC). By using this form of concrete technology, the problems and disadvantages of
each type of concrete alone can be overcome.

Unfortunately, HSC has a brittle behavior at ultimate limit state of loading, so, fibers can be added
to improve the structural properties of concrete. It has been recognized that the addition of small,
closely spaced and uniformly dispersed fibers to concrete would act as crack arrester and would
substantially improve its mechanical behavior. The addition of fibers results in a product which has
higher flexural and tensile strengths as compared with normal concrete (Gustavo and Parra, 2005).

HSFRC shows an improved performance in the hardened state due to the addition of fibers. Many
types of fibers are available; glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) are preferred than other type
due to high ratio of surface area to weight and high strength properties to unit cost ratio. However,
glass fiber which is originally used in conjunction with cement was found to be affected by alkaline
condition of cement. The alkali resistant glass fiber reinforced polymer (AR-GFRP), which is used,
recently has overcome this defect and can be effectively used in concrete. (ACI Committee 544.1,
2002).

The use of new form of material such as HSGFRC in practice must be based on actual behavior.
Therefore, the effect of addition of AR-GFRP with various percentages on mechanical behavior of
HSC in compression, split tension and flexure is studied on this research.

1.2 Research Significant

Due to bad and unstable political conditions and the continuing wars in Gaza Strip, strong, relatively
cheap, easy to use and locally available repairing and strengthening material should be produced
for that purposes. For new materials like HSGFRC, studies on mechanical properties are of
paramount important for initializing confidence in engineers and builders. Most of researches
related about the study of strength properties of FRC, were made so far with steel, carbon, and
natural fibers. However, insufficient attempts were made with glass fibers. In addition, the literature
indicates that most of studies are available with normal strength concrete
(NSC) reinforced with insufficient proportions of glass fibers. However, this study was conducted to
investigate the mechanical behavior of HSC reinforced with various percentages of glass fibers. Also,
several types of glass fibers are available, the initial studies showed deterioration of glass fibers due
to corrosive alkali environment of the cement paste. The AR- GFRP, which is used, recently has
overcome this defect and can be effectively used in concrete.

1.3 Research Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research is to study the effect of the addition of AR-GFRP with various proportions
on the mechanical behavior of HSC using available materials in the Gaza local market and to help
for use the composite of HSGFRC in practice.

In the present experimental investigation, the following are the objectives:

i. To study the strength characteristics of HSGFRC with various percentages of AR-GFRP and
compare it with plain HSC (without fibers), by performing laboratory tests that are related to
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and density.
ii. To compare the mode of failure and cracks pattern between HSGFRC and plain HSC.
iii. To evaluate the strength gain with age of HSGFRC.

1.4 Methodology
In general terms, the following methodology shown in Figure 1.1 has followed

Literature Review

To conduct comprehensive literature review related to the study.

Materials Selection and Tests
Carfull selection and test of suitable ingredient materials required for the
experimental study.
Mix Proportioning
Determine the relative quantities of materials to obtain the mix
design proportions that achieved the adopted design strength.
Experimental Program
Performing mechanical laboratory tests to achieve the research
objectves.
Results and Discussion

Analyzing the experimental output test results to draw conclusions.

Figure (1.1): Summary of Methodology Flow Chart.
1.5 Thesis Organization
Chapter 1 (Introduction) This chapter gives general background about HSGFRC, statement
of problem, aim and objectives of the research, and the adopted methodology.

Chapter 2 (Literature Review) This chapter gives general comprehensive literature review
related to HSC and GFRC, in addition of the man constituent materials.
Chapter 3 (Test Program and Laboratory Works) This chapter discusses the materials
properties, adopted mix design, type of laboratory tests and procedures, samples and
specimens that required for tests, and curing condition.
Chapter 4 (Test Results and Discussion)
This chapter includes presentation of the results obtained from testing. Detailed discussion of
results and mechanical properties of each mix also included.

Chapter 5 (Conclusion and Recommendations)

This chapter includes main conclusions and recommendations drawn from this research.
 Chapter 2
Literature Review
 Chapter 2: Literature Review

High Strength Concrete (HSC) :

1-Definition:
ACI committee 363 (1997) defined the high strength concrete (HSC) as a concrete with
specified compressive strength for design of 41MPa or greater. Iravani and MacGregor (1998)
stated that HSC is typically recognized as concrete with a 28-day cylinder compressive strength
greater than 42MPa. More generally, concrete with a uniaxial compressive strength greater than
that typically obtained in a given geographical region is considered HSC, although the
preceding values are widely recognized. According to Li (2011), Strengths of up to 140MPa
have been used in different applications, laboratories have produced strengths approaching
480MPa.

2-Benefits and Limitations of Using HSC in Practice

the main benefits of using HSC in practice:
1. High compressive and early strength which make HSC resists loads that cannot be
resisted by NSC.
2. High modulus of elasticity, which increases stability and reduces deflections.
3. Enhanced durability characteristics due to extremely low porous volume.
4. Toughness and impact resistance.
5. Increases the strength per unit cost, per unit weight, and per unit volume.
6. Reduction in member size, resulting in increase in useable area and direct savings in the
concrete volume saved.
7. Construction of high rise buildings with the accompanying savings in real estate costs
in congested areas.
8. Longer spans and fewer beams for the same magnitude of loading.

the main limitations of using HSC in practice:

1. Increased quality control is needed in order to maintain the special properties desired.
2. Careful materials selection is necessary. High quality materials must be used. These
materials may cost more than materials of lower quality.
3. Low water to cementitious materials ratios require special curing requirements.
4. Since serviceability conditions such as deflection can control design, increased capacity
may not be fully utilized.
5. In concrete plant and at delivery site, additional tests are required. This increases the
cost.

3-Application of HSC:
Accordance to ACI committee 363 (2010), the largest application of HSC in buildings has been
for columns of high rise structures. Since 1972, more than 30 buildings in the Chicago area
have been constructed with columns having a design compressive strength of 62MPa. Also
there have been many applications of HSC in pre-cast pre-stressed bridge girders. In tall
building structures, the load plays a very severe effect on structural members, especially the
columns near the ground level which are required to resist a tremendous axial load which is
mainly due to the accumulated load from all the floors above.

It can be imagined that there will be no space in the ground level if NSC is used for a very tall
building (i.e. more than 60 story). Hence, it is a normal trend to adopt HSC in tall building
construction due to its advantages (ACI Committee 363, 2010). According to PCA (1994)
concrete compressive strength of 131 MPa have already been batched by a few ready mix
producers, and placed by contractors in some major structures.

4-Materials Selection of HSC:

The selection of suitable cementitious materials for concrete structures depends on the type of
structure, the characteristics of the aggregates, material availability, and method of
construction. The varieties of HSC do not require exotic materials or special manufacturing
processes, but will require materials with more specific properties than conventional concretes.
As the target strength of concrete increases, it becomes increasingly less forgiving to variability,
both material and testing related. Compared with conventional concrete, variations in material
characteristics, production, handling, and testing will have a more pronounced effect with HSC.
Therefore, as target strengths increase, the significance of control practices intensifies
(Caldarone, 2008).

Evaluating cement and other cementitious materials, chemical admixtures, and aggregates
from various potential sources in varying proportions will indicate the optimum combination of
materials. Variations in the chemical composition and physical properties of any of these
materials will affect the concrete compressive strength (ACI Committee 211.4, 2008).

The supplier of HSC should implement a program to ensure uniformity and acceptance tests for
all materials used in the production of HSC. In general term, the composition of HSC usually
consists of cement, water, fine sand, water reducing admixtures, and supplementary
cementitious materials

the key elements of HSC:

1. Low water-to-cement ratio.
2. High dosage of water reducing admixtures (superplasticizers).
3. Large quantity of supplementary cementitous material, i.e. silica fume, fly ash (and/or
other fine mineral powders).
4. Smaller aggregates.

A-Cement:
Almost any portland cement type meeting the compositional requirements of ASTM C 150 can
be used to obtain concrete with satisfactory workability having compressive strength up to
about 60 MPa.
However, within a given cement type, different brands will have different strength
development characteristics because of the variations in compound composition and fineness
that are permitted by ASTM C 150 (ACI Committee 363, 2010).

B-Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs):

Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) or mineral admixtures have undeniably played
a significant role in the evolution of HSC. SCMs are important materials that contribute to the
properties of concrete when used in conjunction with portland cement by reacting either
hydraulically or pozzolanically. Pozzolans are siliceous or alumino-siliceous materials that, by
themselves, possess no hydraulic (cementing) value, but will, in finely divided form and in the
presence of water, chemically react with calcium hydroxide to form compounds having
cementitious properties. Examples are fly ashes, silica fumes, and slag cement (Caldarone,
2008).

The major difference between conventional concrete and HSC is essentially the use of mineral
admixtures in the latter. Fly ash, silica fume, and slag, have been the most commonly used
SCMs in HSC (Kosmatka, 2003).

Mineral admixtures like fly ash and silica fume act as puzzolonic materials as well as fine fillers,
thereby the microstructure of the hardened cement matrix becomes denser and stronger.
The use of silica fume fills the space between cement particles and between aggregate and
cement particles. When combined with cement, these materials have been used for
economically producing binary concretes with specified compressive strengths of at least 70
MPa. For higher strengths, particularly above 80MPa, ternary mixtures containing very fine,
paste densifying pozzolans such as silica fume, metakaolin, or ultra-fine fly ash can be quite
advantageous (Caldarone, 2008).

C-Water Reducing Admixtures:

Water reducing admixtures are used to reduce the quantity of mixing water required to product
concrete of a certain slump, reduce water/cement ratio, reduce cement content, or increase
slump. Water reducers are classified broadly into two categories: normal and high range water
reducers. The normal range water reducers (NRWR) are called plasticizers, while the high range
water reducers (HRWR) are called superplasticizers (Kosmatka et al. 2003).

NRWR meeting the specifications of ASTM C 494 Type A, will provide strength increases
without altering rates of hardening and reduce the water demand by 5–10%. Lignosulfonate
salts of sodium and calcium are an example of NRWR. Their selection should be based on
strength performance (ACI Committee 363, 2010).

Increases in dosage above the normal amounts will generally result in significant side effects,
such as decreasing on strength and retardation with some binder blends especially at lower
temperatures (ACI Committee 363, 2010).

HRWR meeting the specifications for superplasticizers which are detailed in ASTM C 494 as
Type F for HRWR with normal set times or Type G for HRWR with retarded setting times.
HRWR are most effective in concrete mixtures that are rich in cement and other cementitious
materials. HRWR help in dispersing cement particles, and they can reduce mixing water
requirements by more than 30%, thereby increasing concrete compressive strengths .
Reduction in water/cement ratio is against the different water reducers admixtures (See Figure
2.1). While NRWR allow 5-12% reduction of water, HRWR melamine/naphthalene based
admixtures reduces water 16-25 %, and HRWR polycarboxylate ether polymer based admixture
reduces water 20 to 35% (Nawy, 2008).

In general, according to Nawy (2008), the main objectives for using water reducing admixtures
are the following:
1. Reduce the water/cement ratio for higher strengths and improved durability while
maintaining the same workability and cement content.
2. Reduce the paste portion of the matrix, water, and cement, for the purpose of reducing
shrinkage and heat development in massive placements; workability, strength, and
durability are maintained at a comparative level.
3. Keep water and cement the same and maintain the same strength and durability but
improve flow and workability.

D- Aggregates:
In HSC, careful attention must be given to aggregate size, shape, surface texture, mineralogy,
and cleanness. Cubically shaped crushed stone with a rough surface texture appears to produce
the highest strength. For each source of aggregate and concrete strength level there is an
optimum size aggregate that will yield the most compressive strength per unit of cement.

The quantity of coarse aggregate (CA) in HSC should be the maximum consistent with required
workability. Because of the high percentage of cementitious material in HSC, an increase in
CA content beyond values recommended in standards for normal strength mixtures is necessary and allowable
(Kosmatka et al. 2003).

For optimum compressive strength with high cement content and low water-cement ratios the
maximum size of CA should be kept to a minimum, at 12.5 mm or 9.5 mm. The strength
increases were caused by the reduction in average bond stress due to the increased surface
area of the individual aggregate. Smaller aggregate sizes are also considered to produce higher
concrete strengths because of less severe concentrations of stress around the particles, which
are caused by differences between the elastic moduli of the paste and the aggregate. Gradation
of CA within ASTM limits makes very little difference in strength of HSC. Optimum strength
and workability of HSC are attained with a ratio of CA to FA above that usually recommended
for NSC. Also, due to the already high fines content of HSC mixes, use of ordinary amounts of
CA results in a sticky mix (Rashid and Mansur, 2009).
In high strength concretes, the strength of the aggregate itself and the bond or adhesion
between the paste and aggregate become important factors. Tests have shown that crushed
stone aggregates produce higher compressive strength and modulus of elasticity in concrete
than gravel aggregate using the same size aggregate and the same cementing materials
content, this is probably due to a superior aggregate to paste bond when using rough, angular,
crushed material. Smoother faced, uncrushed gravel may be used to produce strengths of up
to about 70 MPa but it does not have the bond strength necessary to produce higher strengths
(Nawy, 2008).

According to ACI 363R (2010), Rashid and Mansur (2009), Kosmatka et al. (2002), and
Peterman and Carrasquillo (1986), fine aggregates (FA) with a rounded particle shape and
smooth texture have been found to require less mixing water in concrete and for this reason
are preferable in HSC. The grading of the FA used in HSC -typically contain such high contents
of cementitious materials- is relatively unimportant. However, it is sometimes helpful to
increase the fineness modulus (FM) as the lower FM of FA can give the concrete a sticky
consistency (i.e. making concrete difficult to compact) and less workable fresh concrete with a
greater water demand. Therefore, sand with a FM of about 3.0 is usually preferred for HSC.

E-Mixing Water:
The requirements for water quality for HSC are no more stringent than those for conventional
concrete. Usually, water for concrete is specified to be of potable quality. This is certainly
conservative but usually does not constitute a problem since most concrete is produced near a
municipal water supply. The single most important variable in achieving HSC is the
water-cement ratio. HSC produced by conventional mixing technologies are usually prepared
with water-cement ratios in the range of 0.22 to 0.40, and their 28 days compressive strength
is about 60 to 130 MPa when normal density aggregates are used (Rashid and Mansur, 2009).
5- Microstructure of HSC:
The microstructure of concrete can be described in three aspects, namely composition of
hydrated cement paste, pore structure and interfacial transition zone. The hydrated cement
paste is in fact the hydration products when cement is reacted with water which is referred to
as cementitious calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel. The pore structure refers to the gel pores,
capillary pores and voids, as well as their connections within the hardened concrete. The
interfacial transition zone refers to the boundaries between the cement paste, and aggregates
or particles of admixtures. The composition of NSC is relatively simple, which consists of
cement, aggregate and water (See Figure 2.2) (Buyukozturk and Lau, 2007).

In order to improve the concrete performance, the following three aspects are considered:
1. The hydrated cement paste should be strengthened. This can be achieved by reducing
the gel porosity inside the paste. By adding suitable admixture (e.g. silica fume)
2. The porosity in concrete should be lowered. This can be achieved by adding suitable
fine admixture which can fill up the empty space inside concrete.
3. The interfacial transition zone should be toughened. This can be achieved by lowering
the locally high water-to-cement ratio and by improving the particle packing in this
zone. Fine admixtures, like silica fume or fly ash, is added as well to improve the particle
packing in the interfacial transition zone.
It is noticed that in order to improve the concrete performance, admixture is a necessary
component which must be added into the design mix in order to generate HSC. Hence, its
microstructure is quite different from that of NSC. Figure 2.3 shows the microstructure of HSC.

6-Mix Proportion:
Concrete mix proportions for HSC have varied widely depending upon many factors. The
strength level required, test age, material characteristics, and type of application have
influenced mix proportions.

The main requirements for successful and practical HSC are a low water/cement ratio combined
with good workability characteristics. In the absence of a standard mix design method, the
importance of trial mixes in achieving the desired concrete performance is increased (Newman
and Choo, 2003).

The materials proportion of HSC is different from NSC. As described before, for the aggregate
to be used in making HSC, it is better to choose one with a high crushing strength, if possible.
The maximum size of aggregate is usually kept to be minimum. The limitation on maximum
aggregate size is to reduce the influence of the transition zone and to get a more homogeneous
material. The moisture content in aggregates has to be carefully calculated to make sure the
right water/cement ratio is secured. The cement content is usually high, in a range of 400–600
kg/m3 leads to a more homogenous concrete structure. Moreover, water-reducing admixtures
and mineral admixtures such as fly ash, slag, and silica fume are incorporated in the mix for

Requirement of different ingredient materials required for producing HSC can be summarized
as stated in Table 2.3 adapted from Rashid and Mansur (2009).

Table : Requirements of Ingredient Materials for HSC (Rashid and Mansur, 2009).

Material Requirements
Cement - Portland cement.

- Higher content .

Water - w/b ratio 0.22 to 0.40.

Fine - Higher FM (around 3.0).

aggregate - Smaller sand content or coarser sand.

- Grading is not critical for concrete strength

Coarse - Smaller maximum size (10 – 12 mm) is preferred

Aggregate - Angular and crushed with a minimum flat and elongated particle.

- Type of aggregate depending on the concrete strength targeted.

- Gradation within ASTM limits has little effect on concrete strength.

- Higher CA/FA ratio than that for normal strength concrete.

-Type of admixture depends on the property of the concrete to be improve

Admixtures - Reliable performance on previous work can be considered during

(chemical and selection.

mineral) - Optimum dosage.

Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC):

1-General Background:
The application of cement concrete is limited due to the characteristics of brittle failure; this can be overcome by
the inclusion of a small amount of short and randomly distributed fibers such as steel, glass, synthetic and
natural. Such concrete can be practiced where there is a weakness of concrete such as less durability, high
shrinkage cracking, etc. (Li, 2011).
Concrete has some deficiencies such as low tensile strength, low post cracking capacity, and brittleness, highly
porous, susceptible to chemical and environmental attack. The above deficiencies of plain concrete are overcome
in the new materials which have unique characteristics, which make them highly susceptible to any environment.
Fiber Reinforced concrete (FRC) is one of them and relatively a new composite material in which concrete is
reinforced with short discrete uniformly distributed fibers so that it will improve many engineering properties
such as flexural strength, shear strength and resistance to fatigue, impact and eliminate temperature and
shrinkage cracks (Harle, 2014).
Fibers made from steel, glass, and natural materials (such as wood cellulose) are available in a variety of shapes,
sizes, and thicknesses; they may be round, flat, crimped, and deformed with typical lengths of 6 mm to 150 mm
and thicknesses ranging from 0.005 mm to 0.75 mm (see Figure 2.4) (Kosmatka et al. 2003).
The main objectives of the modern engineer in attempting to modify the properties of concrete by the inclusion
of fibers are as follows:
1. To improve the rheology or plastic cracking characteristics of the material in the fresh state or up to about
6 hours after casting.
2. To improve the tensile or flexural strength.
3. To improve the impact strength and toughness.
4. To control cracking and the mode of failure by means of post cracking ductility.
5. To improve durability.
It is generally accepted that the inclusion of any type of short fiber in a three-dimensional random fiber
distribution at practical fiber volumes will not significantly alter the load at which cracking occurs in hardened
concrete. Therefore, the main benefits of the inclusion of fibers in hardened concrete relate to the post cracking
state. In this context, it is worth considering an understanding of the word ‘reinforcement’. If it is assumed that
any loadbearing capacity greater than zero is described as reinforcement, then all types of fibers at any volume
addition will reinforce hardened concrete. However, if we consider ‘reinforcement’ to mean carrying a force in
excess of the force required to crack the concrete, then less than about 0.4 percent by volume of short three
dimensional random fibers will not generally provide load capacity in excess of the cracking load in beams and
slabs, and two or three times this fiber volume is required to increase the load capacity in uniaxial tension
(Newman and Choo, 2003).

According to Li (2011), the properties of FRC can be influenced by many parameters, such as fiber type,
fiber amount, and matrix variation. In this section, these parameters are discussed as follow:

(a) Fiber type: The fiber type can be viewed with different criteria. From the size point of view, fibers can
be classified into macro and microfibers. The diameter of macrofibers is in the range of 0. 2 to 1 mm and
for microfibers is in a range of a few to tens of micrometers. Basically, microfibers are efficient in
restraining micro cracks and macrofibers in restraining macroscopic cracks. From the materials point of
view, the fibers that are commonly used in FRC are carbon, glass, polymeric (acrylic, aramid, nylon,
polyester, polyethylene, polypropylene, and poly vinyl alcohol), natural (wood cellulose, sisal, coir or
coconut, bamboo, jute, akwara, and elephant grass), and steel (high tensile and stainless). Different types
of fibers have different values of Young’s modulus, different tensile strength, different surface texture, and
different elongation ability, as can be seen in Table 2.4 adapted from Kosmatka et al. (2003).

Table (2.4): Properties of Different Types of Fibers (Kosmatka et al. 2003).

Fiber type Relative density Diameter Tensile Modulus of strain

(specific gravity) , µm strength, MP elasticity,MPa failure,%

Steel 7.80 100-100 500-2600 210,000 0.5-3.5

Glass

Carbon 1.90 8-0 1800-2600 230,000- 0.5-1.5

 380,000

(b) Fiber volume ratio: Another important factor that greatly influences FRC properties is the fiber volume
fraction ratio, which is defined as the ratio of the fiber volume to the total volume of FRC. At low fiber volume
ratio, the addition of fibers mainly contributes to the energyconsuming property. At a higher fiber volume
fraction ratio, the tensile strength of the matrix can be enhanced and the failure mode can be changed.

(c) Matrix variation: The properties of the matrix influence the bond with the fibers and the mechanical
properties of FRC, such as ultimate tensile strength. The FRC matrix can be modified using mineral admixtures,
such as fly ash, slag, silica fume, and metakaolin. It can also be modified by adding some water soluble polymers.
Changing the matrix composition can increase the bond properties with the fibers, improve the matrix
toughness, and enhance the matrix tensile strength and, hence, the mechanical properties of FRC.
According to Li (2011), the functions of the fibers in cement based composites can be classified into two
categories: shrinkage crack control and mechanical property enhancement. For shrinkage crack control, usually
small amounts of low modulus and low strength fibers are added to restrain the early age shrinkage and to
suppress shrinkage cracking. For mechanical property enhancement, fiber reinforcement has been employed in
various concrete structures to improve flexural performance, to increase impact resistance, and to change the
failure mode. The amount of fiber added has a significant influence on the mechanical properties and failure
mode of FRC. In conventional applications of FRC, usually with a low volume fraction of fibers, the function of the
fibers is apparent only after a major crack has formed in the composite. Although there is still only one major
crack and the overall behavior of the composites is still characterized by strain softening after the peak load is
reached, the incorporation of fibers leads to a significant increase in the total energy consumption and overall
toughness of the composites, represented by the area under a stress–strain or load–displacement curve, as
shown in Figure 2.5. In such cases, as long as there is no fiber fracture, the fiber de-bonding and pullout process
can consume a great amount of energy. On the other hand, with an increase in fiber volume fraction, it is
possible that microcracks formed in the matrix will be stabilized due to the interaction between the matrix and
fibers through bonding, hence postponing the formation of the first major crack in the matrix. Thus, the apparent
tensile strength of matrix can be increased.
Moreover, when a sufficient volume fraction of small diameter steel, glass, or synthetic fibers is incorporated into
the cement based matrix, the fiber-matrix interaction can lead to strain hardening and multiple cracking
behavior, changing the failure mode from quasi brittle to ductile. As a result, not only the composites toughness,
but also the matrix tensile strength can be significantly improved. One of the mechanisms in slowing down
growth of a transverse crack in unidirectional fiber composites can be attributed to development of longitudinal
cylindrical shear micro cracks located at the boundary between the fiber and the bulk matrix, allowing the fibers
to de-bond while transferring the force across the faces of the main crack. In addition to enhancing the
toughness and tensile strength, the addition of fibers can also improve the bending resistance of cement based
composites (Li, 2011).

2-Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete (GFRC):

Much of the original research performed on glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC) took place in the early l960s.
This work used conventional borosilicate glass fibers (E-Glass) and sodalime-silica glass fibers (A-Glass). However,
Glass compositions of E-glass and A-glass, used as reinforcement, were found to lose strength quickly due to the
very high alkalinity (PH of 12.5) of the cement based matrix. Consequently, early A-glass and E-glass composites
were unsuitable for long term use. Continued research resulted in the development a new alkali resistant-glass
fiber reinforced polymer (AR-GFRP) that provided improved long term durability.
Compressive strength, flexural strength and split tensile strength for these AR-GFRP
are more as compared to other glass fibers (ACI Committee 544.1, 2002).
Glass fiber has high tensile strength (2 – 4 GPa) and elastic modulus (70 – 80 GPa)
buthas brittle stress-strain characteristics (2.5 – 4.8% elongation at break) and low
creep at room temperature. Claims have been made that up to 5% glass fiber by
volume has been used successfully in sand-cement mortar without balling (Concrete
institute, 2013).

3-Applications of GFRC:
By far, the single largest application of GFRC has been the manufacture of exterior building
facade panels. Since the introduction of AR-GFRP in the 1970s, growth in applications has
been appreciable. Over 60 million square feet of GFRC architectural cladding panels have been
erected from 1977 to 1993 (ACI Committee 544.1, 2002).
It is suitable for use in direct spray techniques and premix processes and has been used as a
replacement for asbestos fiber in flat sheet, pipes and a variety of precast products. GFRC
products are used extensively in agriculture; for architectural cladding and components; and for
small containers (Concrete institute, 2013).
In Gaza strip, the GFRC is recently used in large scale as an architectural material for building
faces. However, because of the lack of data on long term durability, GFRC has been confined
to non-structural uses where it has wide architectural applications in Gaza strip.

High Strength Fiber Reinforced Concrete (HSFRC):

HSC is brittle and has very steep descending branch of the stress-strain curve. These causes explosive failure after
peak and make it difficult to get descending part because the strain change is small. To overcome brittle
characteristic of HSC, fiber has been used. Fiber has been used to reinforce the brittle materials since ancient
times, such as straw in sunbaked bricks and horsehair in reinforced plaster. Nowadays, fibers have been
produced from steel, plastic, and glass in various shapes and sizes. The capacity of a structure to absorb energy,
with acceptable deformation and without failure is essential in seismic design. So sufficient ductility is needed
and can be achieved using HSFRC. Currently, steel fiber is used widely in HSC, including highway, airport
pavement, and hydraulic structures. However, sufficient literature is unavailable on the structural behavior of
HSC reinforced with glass fiber (Lee, 2002).
According to Buyukozturk and Lau (2007), it is known that the ductility can be improved by applying a confining
pressure on HSC. Besides confinement, the ductility of HSC can be improved by altering its composition through
the addition of fibers in the design mix. The conventional FRC made by adding fibers in NSC only exhibits an
increase in ductility compared with the plain matrix, whereas HSFRC made by adding fibers in HSC exhibits
substantial strain hardening type of response which leads to a large improvement in both strength and toughness
compared with the plain matrix as shown in Figure 2.8. Because of this increased improvement in terms of
ductility, HSFRC is referred to as ultra-ductile concrete as well. In order to examine the scope of HSFRC, it is
useful to identify two performance related parameters: elastic limit, and strain hardening response. The elastic
limit refers to the point of first cracking. The strain hardening response refers to the plastic region. Traditionally,
it was assumed that the elastic limit of FRC is influenced by the tensile strength of the matrix itself and that the
fibers primarily control deformation after cracking. Recently, it was reported that fibers can enhance the elastic
limit provided that they effectively bridge the matrix microcracks. The effectiveness of the fiber-bridging action
will depend on volume fraction, length, diameter, and distribution of fibers, as well as the properties of the fiber
matrix.
It was found that the inherent tensile strength and strain capacity of the matrix itself was enhanced when small
fibers were used. When 4% (by volume) of fibers were added, the first cracking, indicating the elastic limit, was
observed at about 30% of the maximum tensile load (Buyukozturk and Lau, 2007).
Strain hardening is caused by the process of multiple cracking which occurs after the start of the first crack. In the
post-peak region, the number of cracks remains constant while crack widths increase. Failure is obtained by fiber
pullout and fiber rupture. Uniform distribution of the fibers affects the stress distribution in the matrix and
hence, higher stress is required to propagate the crack. After the first crack starts, distributed multiple matrix
cracking follows. The width of the cracks is usually between 1-3 mm. The multiple cracking process exhibits a
ductile behavior which causes strain hardening phenomenon of the HSFRC. To increase the elastic limit of HSFRC
and achieve strain hardening response, the volume content of the fibers should be increased as well. Meanwhile,
the fibers should be closely spaced and well distributed. It was found that the decreasing fiber length significantly
enhances the tension and flexure response of HSFRC. In general, short fibers are advantageous because they are
easier to handle during mixing and result in less broken fibers and better dispersion. It was also found that the
distribution of the smaller fibers was more homogeneous than that of larger fibers (Buyukozturk and Lau, 2007).

Concluding Remarks:
Through surveying the literature, concluding remarks that are related and could help on this
research work can be drawn as follow:
1-In HSC, materials selection and mix proportioning can consider the most significant stage to get higher
strength.
2-In the absence of a standard mix design method for HSC, the importance of trial and error basis in achieving
the desired concrete performance is increased.
3- Several types of fiber are existed; glass fiber can prefer than other type due to high ratio of surface area to
weight and high strength properties to unit cost ratio.
4- Glass fiber which is originally used in conjunction with cement was found to be affected by alkaline condition
of cement. The alkali resistant glass fiber reinforced polymer (AR-GFRP), which is used, recently has overcome
this defect and can be effectively used in concrete.
5- To understand how can fiber work and enhance the mechanical behavior of HSC; two level of cracks should be
defined, micro and macro level. The micro level starts when the first micro crack occurs (at elastic limit), and then
in the plastic region multiple cracking occur. In the macro level, the number of cracks remain constant while
crack width increased and propagate until formation of the first major crack in the matrix that cause the failure.
6- Fiber can enhance the mechanical behavior by control and stabilized of micro cracks and postponing the crack
transformation from micro to macro, hence, increase the energy absorption capacity result in enhancing the
mode of failure. At macro level fiber can make a bridge action to control and stabilized macro cracks propagation
and postponing the formation of the first major crack in the matrix that cause the failure. Hence increase the
tensile strength and enhance the mode of failure from brittle to quasi-ductile.
7- While plain HSC have a very brittle behavior at failure, HSGFRC could have all advantages of HSC and GFRC. By
using this form of concrete technology, the problems and disadvantages of each type of concrete alone can be
overcome.