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Textbook Cognitive Work Analysis Applications Extensions and Future Directions 1St Edition Neville A Stanton Ebook All Chapter PDF
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Cognitive Work Analysis
Applications, Extensions
and Future Directions
Cognitive Work Analysis
Applications, Extensions
and Future Directions
Edited by
Neville A. Stanton, Paul M. Salmon,
Guy H. Walker and Daniel P. Jenkins
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher can-
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v
vi Contents
Index....................................................................................................................... 419
Preface
This book has arisen from the desire to share our insights into the practical appli-
cation of the cognitive work analysis (CWA) framework. Over the past decade, we
have applied CWA in many domains and have been impressed by the insights that
the products of the analysis afford. CWA offers a systemic and systematic approach
to the analysis, design and evaluation of sociotechnical systems. As a formative
method, we have used it to design new concepts of operations, new interfaces and
new ways of working.
CWA was originally developed by Jens Rasumussen and colleagues at the Riso
National Laboratory in Denmark (see the Recommended Further Reading list). This
work began in the 1960s, when they were tasked with designing and evaluating the
efficacy of nuclear power control systems for energy production. They quickly real-
ized that there was no single method available for such a complex sociotechnical
systems design. This gave rise to the development of a suite of approaches. Initially
these methods were stand-alone, but they soon realized that they could be integrated
to provide the CWA framework we recognize today. The importance of those origi-
nal pioneers of CWA cannot be overstated. They have performed a great service to
the disciplines of cognitive engineering, human factors and ergonomics.
The history of the CWA would not be complete without mentioning Kim Vicente
(see the Recommended Further Reading list) who, as a second generation of CWA
enthusiast, worked with Jens to provide a user-friendly introduction to the frame-
work. Kim also led a team of researchers who have shown how CWA can form the
basis of ecological interface design (EID). The bridge between system analysis and
design is often a difficult one to cross, but this pioneering work has inspired the
research community and contributions to this book.
Our own modest contributions to CWA came in the form of a practical how-to-
do-it book and accompanying software (see the Recommended Further Reading list).
The software has been disseminated widely as free-of-charge shareware. We have
run tutorials in CWA all over the world and continue to teach it to our students and
colleagues at our respective institutions. We have also used the framework in the
many projects that we have been involved in over the past decade, some of which are
contained in this book. It seemed timely and fitting to edit a text on the applications
of CWA (as an update to what is already been published – see the Recommended
Further Reading list), to which we have invited contributions from all over the world.
We are pleased to have contributions from Australia, Canada, Sweden and the United
Kingdom. It is our hope that readers of this book will be inspired by the practical
nature of CWA, and feel empowered to apply the framework in their own work.
Neville A. Stanton
Professor of Human Factors Engineering
University of Southampton
ix
Editors
Professor Neville A. Stanton, PhD, DSc, is a chartered psychologist, chartered
ergonomist and a chartered engineer. He holds the chair in human factors engi-
neering in the Faculty of Engineering and the Environment at the University of
Southampton in the United Kingdom. He has degrees in psychology, applied psy-
chology and human factors and has worked at the Universities of Aston, Brunel,
Cornell and MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology). His research interests
include modelling, predicting, analysing and evaluating human performance in sys-
tems as well as designing the interfaces and interaction between humans and tech-
nology. Professor Stanton has worked on design of automobiles, aircraft, ships and
control rooms over the past 30 years, working on a variety of automation projects.
He has published 35 books and over 270 journal papers on ergonomics and human
factors. In 1998 he was awarded the Institution of Electrical Engineers Divisional
Premium Award for research into System Safety. The Institute of Ergonomics and
Human Factors awarded him The Otto Edholm Medal in 2001, The President’s
Medal in 2008 and The Sir Frederic Bartlett Medal in 2012 for his contribu-
tions to basic and applied ergonomics research. The Royal Aeronautical Society
awarded him and his colleagues the Hodgson Prize and Bronze Medal in 2006
for research on design-induced, flight-deck error published in The Aeronautical
Journal. The University of Southampton has awarded him a Doctor of Science in
2014 for his sustained contribution to the development and validation of human
factors methods.
Professor Paul M. Salmon holds a chair in Human Factors and is creator and direc-
tor of the Centre for Human Factors and Sociotechnical Systems at the University of
the Sunshine Coast. He currently holds a prestigious Australian Research Council
Future Fellowship and has almost 15 years of experience in applied human factors
research in a number of areas, including defence, transportation safety, sports and
outdoor recreation and disaster management. Paul currently leads major research
programs in the areas of road and rail safety, identity theft and cybersecurity, and led
outdoor recreation accidents. Paul has co-authored 11 books, over 140 peer-reviewed
journal articles, and numerous conference articles and book chapters. He has
received various accolades for his contributions to research and practice, including
the Australian Human Factors and Ergonomics Societies 2016 Cumming Memorial
medal, the UK Ergonomics Society’s President’s Medal, the Royal Aeronautical
Society’s Hodgson Prize for best research and paper, and the University of the
Sunshine Coast’s Vice Chancellor and President’s Medal for Research Excellence.
His current research interests relate to extending Human Factors and Sociotechnical
Systems theory and methods to support the optimisation of systems in many areas.
Specific areas of focus include accident prediction and analysis, systems thinking in
transportation safety, the development of systemic accident countermeasures, human
factors in elite sports and cybersecurity.
xi
xii Editors
Daniel P. Jenkins leads the research team at DCA Design International, one of the
world’s leading product design and development consultancies. Within multidisci-
plinary teams, he supports the design of a diverse range of products and services,
from trains to toothbrushes. Working with clients and key stakeholders, Dan spe-
cialises in the application of human factors and systems thinking tools to ensure
system performance is maximised and that products stand the greatest chance of
commercial success. Notable projects include patient administered drug delivery
devices, next-generation radiotherapy equipment, personal protective equipment,
airline interiors, train cabs, train passenger areas and a wide range of fast moving
consumer goods. Dan has co-authored 10 books and over 50 journal papers, he also
contributes to a wide range of blogs and magazines with the aim of disseminating
the role of human factors in the design process to a wider audience. Dan has received
numerous awards for his work in human factors including the HFES User-Centred
Design Award and the CIEHF President’s Medal.
Contributors
Chris Baber Adrian Hickford
School of Engineering Boldrewood Innovation Campus
University of Birmingham University of Southampton
Birmingham, United Kingdom Southampton, United Kingdom
xiii
xiv Contributors
Jenkins, D. P., Stanton, N. A., Walker, G. H. and Salmon, P. M. 2009. Cognitive Work
Analysis: Coping with Complexity. Aldershot, Ashgate.
This is our own how-to-do-it book on CWA. We have demonstrated how to work
through all five phases in a practical manner with plenty of examples and guidance.
We introduce the shareware that we have developed to support the analysis. A study
on the reliability and validity of CWA is also presented.
Naikar, N. 2013. Work Domain Analysis: Concepts, Guidelines and Cases. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
The majority of this book focuses mainly on the first phase of CWA, namely work
domain analysis, although the other phases are represented. A rich source of every-
day examples makes it easy to grasp the concepts being presented. The guidelines
will help the reader to embark on their own analysis.
xvii
xviii Recommended Further Reading on Cognitive Work Analysis
Vicente, K. J. 1999. Cognitive Work Analysis: Toward Safe, Productive, and Healthy
Computer-Based Work. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
The book that brought CWA to the people. Kim once described this book to me
as ‘CWA for dummies’, but it is much more than that. It brings the whole framework
together and explains how to use CWA for design of complex sociotechnical systems.
Section I
Overview of Cognitive
Work Analysis
1 Application of Cognitive
Work Analysis to System
Analysis and Design
Neville A. Stanton and Daniel P. Jenkins
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................4
1.2 Introduction to the Trafalgar-Class Submarine.................................................5
1.3 Cognitive Work Analysis................................................................................... 7
1.3.1 Introduction to CWA.............................................................................7
1.3.2 Work Domain Analysis......................................................................... 8
1.3.2.1 The Abstraction Hierarchy................................................... 11
1.3.2.2 The Abstraction–Decomposition Space............................... 19
1.3.3 Control Task Analysis.......................................................................... 19
1.3.3.1 Activity Analysis in Work Domain Terms...........................20
1.3.3.2 Activity Analysis in Decision-Making Terms...................... 23
1.3.4 Strategies Analysis............................................................................... 30
1.3.5 Social Organisation and Cooperation Analysis................................... 32
1.3.5.1 The Abstraction–Decomposition Space............................... 36
1.3.5.2 The Contextual Activity Templates...................................... 36
1.3.6 Worker Competencies Analysis...........................................................40
1.3.7 Section Summary................................................................................44
1.3.8 Early Human Factors Analysis............................................................ 47
1.3.9 Concept of Operations......................................................................... 47
1.3.10 Function Analysis................................................................................ 48
1.3.11 Target Audience Description............................................................... 48
1.3.12 Normal and Emergency Operations.................................................... 51
1.3.13 Allocation of Function......................................................................... 51
1.3.14 Workload Assessment.......................................................................... 55
1.3.15 Training Needs Analysis..................................................................... 56
1.3.16 Job Design............................................................................................ 56
1.3.17 Operability Evaluation......................................................................... 58
1.3.18 Maintainability Evaluation.................................................................. 58
1.3.19 Operating Procedures Specification.................................................... 58
1.3.20 Hazard Assessment.............................................................................. 61
1.3.21 Risk Assessment.................................................................................. 61
1.3.22 Design Advice...................................................................................... 62
1.3.23 Interface Design................................................................................... 62
3
4 Cognitive Work Analysis
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This aim of this chapter is to introduce cognitive work analysis (CWA) in the con-
text of system analysis and design. CWA is a structured framework for considering
the development and analysis of complex sociotechnical systems. The framework
provides a systematic approach to analysing systems, by explicitly identifying the
purposes and constraints. By focussing on constraints, rather than on particular ways
of working, CWA aims to support workers in adapting their behaviour to maintain
performance and safety in a variety of situations, including unanticipated events.
The five main phases of CWA (i.e. work domain analysis [WDA], control task analy-
sis [ConTA], strategies analysis [StrA], social organisation and cooperation analysis
[SOCA] and worker competencies analysis [WCA]) can feed supportive information
into all aspects of system design.
The benefits of CWA are realised when the framework is used to design new and
first-of-a-kind systems. Rasmussen et al. (1990) introduced CWA as a methodology
for design and specification of the functionality of integrated, complex, multimedia
information systems, which enables designers to predict the kind of behaviour of
individuals and organisations to be expected in response to changes in work condi-
tions, such as those caused by the introduction of new information systems.
The CWA framework has been applied to a variety of application domains, as
illustrated by the chapters in this book. These domains include the following:
This book is laid out in five sections. In Section I, this chapter provides an over-
view of the CWA framework and its application to sociotechnical systems design.
Section II contains four chapters on using CWA to develop a specification of design
requirements. There are five chapters in Section III that use CWA to analyse com-
plex sociotechnical systems. In Section IV, five chapters use CWA to design and
evaluate systems. Finally, Section V presents three chapters that show how CWA can
be used to assess risk and resilience.
Application of Cognitive Work Analysis to System Analysis and Design 5
This chapter shows the workings of the CWA framework through all of the
phases. This reveals the inputs and products of the process of applying CWA. As a
test case, CWA was applied to the Trafalgar-class power plant. CWA has five main
phases, which were explored throughout the project. In particular, the project defined
where the products of these phases could be used to inform the design process, and
what form this information might take. When reading other chapters in this book,
the reader might find it helpful to refer back to this chapter in order to understand the
details of the framework and products.
TABLE 1.1
Trafalgar-Class Submarines
Submarine Pennant Number Commissioned
Trafalgar S107 27 May 1983
Turbulent S110 28 April 1984
Tireless S117 5 October 1985
Torbay S118 7 February 1987
Trenchant S91 14 January 1989
Talent S92 12 May 1990
Triumph S93 12 October 1991
6 Cognitive Work Analysis
FIGURE 1.3 Five phases of CWA according to Vicente (1999). (Acquisition methods added
from Lintern, G. et al. 2004. Asymmetric Adversary Analysis for Intelligent Preparation of
the Battlespace (A3-IPB). U.S. Air Force Research Department Report.)
framework, the tool uses a familiar windows-based interface and interfaces directly
with ‘Microsoft Office’ applications such as ‘Word’. The tool presents templates to
allow documents to be created that describe each of the five phases described in
the CWA framework, providing a structure for those unfamiliar with the technique.
The software tool allows data to be passed between these phases, expediting the
documentation process and facilitating updates and changes. Thus, the tool provides
structure to the analysis process and markedly expedites the documentation and pre-
sentation of the analysis results.
the system is considered and at the lowest level, the individual components within
the system are described. Generally, five levels of abstraction are used; these levels
have been summarised in Table 1.2 by Naikar et al. (2005). The old labels refer to
the original labels generated by Rasmussen, and used by Vicente (1999), these were
subsequently updated. To avoid confusion for the remainder of this document, the
‘new labels’ have been adopted as a standard.
An ADS is a matrix that is an activity-independent description of a work domain.
The ADS focuses on the purpose and constraints of the work domain, and for this
reason, analyses are typically performed with data collected from discussions with
engineering experts and with the review of design and engineering documents. This
provides an understanding of how and why the structures work together to enact the
desired purposes. Sharp and Helmicki (1998) point out that if the data sources are inad-
equate, the analysis will be correspondingly inadequate, but even partial and incom-
plete knowledge can be used to provide a helpful understanding of the work domain.
According to Burns and Hajdukiewicz (2004), the concept for the ADS was
developed at Risø National Laboratory as a result of observations of problem solv-
ers, and this led to the realisation that people reasoned a problem using a structure
basically asking how (how does this work) and why (why is this here). This was
brought together to form means–ends links within a hierarchy; this hierarchy forms
a basis for storing the relationships within a system. Means–ends relationships form
the basis of decision-making and are captured in the process for creating an ADS.
These relationships capture the affordances of the system; the process involves
examining what needs to be done within a system and understanding the available
means for completing these ends. In complex work domains, there are often many-
to-many relationships; these require the user to select from a number of physical
arrangements to meet a specific purpose. In the same way, one specific physical
arrangement may be the only method for two independent purposes requiring the
user to make allocation of resources decisions. In routine or highly familiar situa-
tions, the means–ends relations that must be considered by workers are usually well
TABLE 1.2
Descriptions of Levels of Abstraction
‘Old Labels’ ‘New Labels’ Description
Functional purposes Functional purposes The purposes of the work system and the external
constraints on its operation
Abstract functions Values and priority The criteria that the work system uses for measuring
measures its progress towards the functional purposes
Generalised functions Purpose-related functions The general functions of the work system that are
necessary for achieving the functional purposes
Physical functions Object-related processes The functional capabilities and limitations of
physical objects in the work system that enable the
purpose-related functions
Physical form Physical objects The physical objects in the work system that afford
the object-related processes
10 Cognitive Work Analysis
Pippa passe.