MEASUREMENT ERROR

 Measurement Error - is defined as the difference between the true or actual value and the
measured value.
 Measurement Error – is also known as Observational Error

True Value (Actual Value)

 The true value - is the average value of the infinite number of measured values.
 It is impossible to find out the truth of quantity by experimental means.

Measured Value
 The Measured Value - is the precise value.
 Measured value – is defined as the estimated value of true value that can be found by taking
several measured values during an experiment.

For example,
 If the two operators use the same device or instrument for finding the errors in measurement,
it is not necessary that they may get similar results.
 There may be a difference between both measurements.
 The difference that occurs between both the measurements is referred to as an Error.

Types of Errors in Measurement

 Errors arise from the different sources.
 Errors are usually classified into the following types.

 Types of measurement errors are: -

1. Gross Errors
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 2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors

1. Gross Errors/Human Errors

 Human errors - are the most common source of error.
 Gross Error - occurs because of the human mistakes.
 Gross errors are also known as: -
i. Human errors
ii. Blunders

 Human errors might occur because of: -

i. Using instruments or meters wrongly
ii. Recording an incorrect value,
iii. Misreading a scale,
iv. Forgetting to note down a digit, etc.

 For example:-
 Consider the person using the instruments takes the wrong reading, or they can record the
incorrect data.
 Such type of error comes under the gross error.
 The gross error can only be avoided by taking the reading carefully.
e.g. –
 The experimenter reads the 31.5ºC reading while the actual reading is 21.5Cº.
 This happens because of the oversights.

Methods of Minimizing Gross Error

 Two methods can remove the gross error.
 These methods are: -
i. Taking the reading very carefully.
ii. Taking two or more readings of the measurement quantity.

Note
 The readings are taken by the different experimenter and at a different point for removing the
error.

2. Systematic Errors
 Systematic errors - arise because of a fault or imperfection of the measuring instrument.
 Systematic Error – are caused by a mis-calibrated instrument that affects all measurements.
 For example
 If the instrument is handled in an incorrect way it might give incorrect values or there is a
fault in the construction of the instrument.

Types of Systematic Errors

 The systematic errors are mainly classified into three categories: -
i. Instrumental Errors
ii. Environmental Errors

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 iii. Observational Errors

i. Instrumental Errors
 Instrumental Errors - These errors arise mainly due to the three main reasons: -

a. Inherent Shortcomings of Instruments

b. Misuse of Instrument
c. Loading Effect

a. Inherent Shortcomings of Instruments

 These types of errors are inbuilt in instruments because of their mechanical structure.
 They may be due to: -
 Manufacturing of the device
 Calibration of the device or
 Operation of the device.
 These errors may cause the error to read too low or too high.

 For example
 If the instrument uses the weak spring then it gives the high value of measuring quantity.
 The error occurs in the instrument because of the friction or hysteresis loss.

Methods of Minimizing Inherent Shortcomings of

Instruments

b. Misuse of Instrument
 The error occurs in the instrument because of the fault of the operator.
 A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give an enormous result.

 For example
 The misuse of the instrument may cause: -
 The failure to adjust the zero of instruments,
 Poor initial adjustment,
 Using lead to too high resistance.
 These improper practices may not cause permanent damage to the instrument, but all the
same, they cause errors.

Methods of Minimizing misuse of the instrument

c. Loading Effect
 Loading Effect – is the most common type of error which is caused by the instrument in
measurement work.

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  For example,
 When the voltmeter is connected to the high resistance circuit it gives a misleading reading,
and
 When it is connected to the low resistance circuit, it gives the dependable reading.
 This means the voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit.

Minimizing error due to loading effect

 The error caused by the loading effect can be overcome by using the meters intelligently.
 For example, when measuring a low resistance by the ammeter-voltmeter method, a
voltmeter having a very high value of resistance should be used.

ii. Environmental Errors

 Environmental Errors - these errors are due to the external condition of the measuring devices.
 Such types of errors mainly occur due to the effect of: -
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Humidity
 Dust
 vibration or
 Magnetic or electrostatic field.

Minimizing Environmental Errors

 The corrective measures employed to eliminate or to reduce these undesirable effects are:-
i. The arrangement should be made to keep the conditions as constant as possible.
ii. Using the equipment which is free from these effects.
iii. By using the techniques which eliminate the effect of these disturbances.
iv. By applying the computed corrections.

iii. Observational Errors

 Observational Errors – these are errors are due to the wrong observation of the reading.
 There are many sources of observational error.
 For example, the pointer of a voltmeter resets slightly above the surface of the scale.
 Thus an error occurs (because of parallax) unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly
above the pointer.
 To minimize the parallax error highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales.

3. Random Errors
 Random errors - are unpredictable changes.
 These can arise due to change in the measuring device or the environment.
 For example, electronic noise, irregular heat loss due to wind, etc.
 Random Error – are naturally occurring errors that are to be expected with any experiment
 This is an error which is caused by the sudden change in the atmospheric condition.
 These types of error remain even after the removal of the systematic error.
 Hence such type of error is also called Residual Error.

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 Methods of Minimizing random errors

Note
Theoretical Errors
 Theoretical errors - are caused by simplification of the model system.
 For example,
 A theory states that the temperature of the system surrounding will not change the readings
taken when it actually does, then this factor will begin a source of error in measurement.

Measurement Error
 The measurement error - is the result of the variation of a measurement of the true value.
 Measurement Errors are classified into two types: -
i. Systematic error and
ii. Random errors

 The best example of the measurement error is, if electronic scales are loaded with 1kg
standard weight and the reading is 10002 grams, then
 The measurement error is = (1002 grams-1000 grams) = 2 grams

Different Measures of Error

Different measures of error include:-
1. Absolute Error: -
 Absolute Error – is the amount of error in the measurement.
 For example, if you step on a scale and it says 150 pounds but you know your true weight is
145 pounds, then the scale has an absolute error of 150 lbs – 145 lbs = 5 lbs.
2. Greatest Possible Error:
 Greatest Possible Error - is defined as one half of the measuring unit.
 For example, if you use a ruler that measures in whole yards (i.e. without any fractions), then
the greatest possible error is one half yard.
3. Instrument Error:
 Instrument Error – is an error caused by an inaccurate instrument (like a scale that is off or
a poorly worded questionnaire).
4. Margin of Error:
 Margin of Error – is an amount above and below the measurement.
 For example, you might say that the average baby weighs 8 pounds with a margin of error of
2 pounds (± 2 lbs).
5. Measurement Location Error:
 Measurement Location Error – is an error caused by an instrument being placed somewhere
it shouldn’t.
 For example a thermometer left out in the full sun.
6. Operator Error:
 Operator Error – is the human factors that cause error, like reading a scale incorrectly.

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7. Percent Error:
 Percent Error – is a way of expressing measurement error.
 Defined as:
8. Relative Error:
 Relative Error – is the ratio of the absolute error to the accepted measurement. As a formula,
that’s:

Ways to Reduce Measurement Error

 Double check all measurements for accuracy. For example, double-enter all inputs on two
worksheets and compare them.
 Double check your formulas are correct.
 Make sure observers and measurement takers are well trained.
 Make the measurement with the instrument that has the highest precision.
 Take the measurements under controlled conditions.
 Pilot test your measuring instruments. For example, put together a focus group and ask how
easy or difficult the questions were to understand.
 Use multiple measures for the same construct. For example, if you are testing for
depression, use two different questionnaires.
Variation in Measurement
 Sometimes it happens that when the same object is measured using two different devices or
when it is measured twice with the same device, the measurement values are not exactly
similar.
 This is called variation in measurement.
 Variation in measurement is also called: -
 An error.
 Uncertainty in measurement

 The uncertainty or variation in measurement is actually an indication that the actual value is
different from the measured or calculated one.
 This points towards the fact that regardless of the care with which the readings were taken,
there might be one or more errors in the measurement.
 These errors are unavoidable.

Calculation of variation in measurement

 The variation in measurement is calculated in this way:

𝑽𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝒏 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 – 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

Precision of Instrument
 Generally, the uncertainty in measurement occurs because of: -
i. The above errors or
ii. Due to the precision of the measuring instrument.
 The precision of the instrument - is the smallest possible value that can be measured by an
instrument.

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Accuracy of an Instrument
 The accuracy of a measuring instrument - is a way to indicate how close will the measured
value be to the actual or true value.
Absolute Error formula
 The absolute error - quantifies the physical error in measurement.
 Absolute Error - is a measure of how far 'off' a measurement is from a true value or an
indication of the uncertainty in a measurement.
 Calculating the absolute error is a simple matter of subtraction.
 It is calculated by the formula:
𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = |𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 − 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆|
If you know the actual value (true value) and the relative error, you can work backwards to find
the absolute error.

Relative Error
 The relative error - describes the absolute error in relation with the actual value.
 Relative error - expresses how large the absolute error is compared with the total size of the
object you are measuring.
 It is calculated by the formula:
𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
𝐑𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 =
𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
= |𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 − 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆|
𝐑𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 =
𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞

 The relative error gives a measure of accuracy.

Percent Error Formula
 Percent error - is also a comparison formula.
 The percent error formula compares the original, true, or actual value with the measured one.
Then, the difference is converted into a percentage of the true value.
 The percent error is a type of approximation error.
 The approximation error - reveals the difference between the actual value and the measured
one.
 The discrepancy occurs because of:
 Lack of precision of a measuring instrument
 Approximation of data - e.g. using 3.14 instead of the actual value of Π
 The percent error formula is obtained by multiplying the relative error by 100.
 Mathematically,

𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞

= |𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 − 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆|

% 𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞

% 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎%

Example

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