Technical Note
Modelling of timber diaphragms
Daniel Moroder, Structural Engineer at PTL | Structural Consultants,
d.moroder@ptlnz.com
1 INTRODUCTION
Diaphragms are a critical element in the lateral load
path of every structure. Their design should not be
overlooked, especially for larger spans and taller
buildings.
This note provides guidance on the design of timber
diaphragms using simple computer modelling, where
the diaphragm is analysed as a membrane or shell
element with an equivalent shear stiffness. Although
it is acknowledged that computer modelling of the
whole structure including the diaphragms is not a
common approach and certainly not strictly necessary
for regular buildings, horizontal and vertical
irregularities often require a modal analysis of the
whole structure, or the diaphragm may be too complex
to be analysed with traditional methods. In addition,
computer modelling allows designers to determine
load paths and deformations of the diaphragms, as
well as determining the load demand on connections,
panels and chords. The approach presented is based
on a number of assumptions and simplifications, and
although it might not be able to provide the most
accurate answer, it allows a designer to assess the
behaviour and performance of a diaphragm, and the
potential need to refine their analysis if required.
2. Traditional diaphragm design
Typically, diaphragms are designed with the girder
analogy, which provides a simple yet accurate
method, using an equivalent horizontal beam. The
girder analogy however does not allow for complex
floor geometries, as encountered in most building
projects. Further, the distinctly different behaviour
between flexible and rigid diaphragms often requires
additional design steps, as designers typically
either opt for an envelope approach or they make
calculations of the diaphragm deformations. When
using the envelope approach, the maximum loads
from both a flexible and rigid diaphragm need to be
NEW ZEALAND TIMBER DESIGN » JOURNAL VOL 29 • ISSUE 2
considered, requiring two separate analyses. For the
second approach, the diaphragm deformation needs
to be compared to the inter-storey drift, in order to
discriminate between a flexible or rigid diaphragm.
This approach is not simple, as diaphragm deflections
are difficult to determine and the actual definition of
rigid and flexible diaphragms in NZS 1170.5 and other
international standards lacks scientific background
(Moroder, 2016).
3. Stiffness properties for timber diaphragms
In this note, only the in-plane behaviour of the
diaphragm is considered. Obviously, the same shell
elements used to model the diaphragms can also be
considered to analyse the out-of-plane behaviour, as
long as appropriate material properties and support
conditions are considered.
Although timber has orthotropic properties, these
are typically not required in timber diaphragms,
as the material (plywood, glulam, LVL or CLT) has
approximately the same shear strength and stiffness
in the two plan directions. The axial stiffnesses in
the longitudinal and transverse directions do not
typically have relevant impact in the analysis. Joists
in plywood diaphragms typically do not participate in
diaphragm action, but prevent shear buckling of the
plywood panels. Joists only need to be considered, if
they are thought to transfer any axial loads as chords
or collectors. These assumptions however should
be verified on a case-by-case basis and a sensitivity
analysis should be considered.
Except for CLT, the shear stiffness of the timber shell
element should be taken as the shear modulus of
the base timber material as provided in the relevant
material standard or from manufacturer literature.
For CLT, unless provided by the manufacturer or
33
 (plywood,
al (plywood, glulam,
glulam,LVLLVL or or
CLT) CLT) hashas approximately
approximately thethe
samesameshear
shearstrength screws:
strength
Force and and c =with
stiffness
stiffness
transferred 1with
in the
inonethe
one lineof of fasteners from
thought
directions. Theto transfer
axial stiffnesses any in in axial
the loads
longitudinal and as chords
transverse
Forceor first
directions collectors.
transferred
do notnot typically These line assumptions
fasteners from however
an directions. The axial stiffnesses the longitudinal and transverse thetheForce
directions
first panel transfer
do
panel to tothe with one
typically
the framing
framing lineand
member
member ofwith
and fasteners
withaa
verified
evant
relevant impact oninainthe
impact case-by-case
theanalysis.
analysis. Joists
Joists basis
in inplywood and
plywood a sensitivity
diaphragms
diaphragms typically analysis
typically do do
second
second
notnot
betweenlinelineof should
participate
participate
of fasteners
fasteners
adjacent
in beininto
into considered.
thethe
panels next
next panel
panel
m
agm action,
action,butbut
prevent
prevent shear
shear buckling
buckling of of
thethe plywood
plywood panels.
panels.Joists
Joistsonly need to bebe considered,
- - onlyMass
Mass need
timber to
timber considered,
diaphragm
diaphragm withwithlaplap joint
joint andand
reare
CLT,thought
the
thought to to
transfer
shear
transfer anyany
stiffnessaxialaxialloads
of
loads as as
the chords
timber
chordsor or
collectors.
shell These
element
collectors. -screws:
These Mass
assumptions
should timber
assumptions
screws: c =c =
1 1 however
be diaphragm
taken
however as with shear
the single modulus
spline jointof
de be
verified
verifiedon on
a case-by-case
a case-by-case basisbasis and a sensitivity
and a sensitivityanalysis should
analysis shouldbe beconsidered.
considered.
and
Force screws
transfer withor onenails:line c
of = 2
fasteners
mber
or CLT,
material
thetheshear
as of
stiffness
provided
the timber
in the
shell
relevant
element should
material
be be
taken
Force
asbetween
the
standard
transfer
shear
with
modulus
adjacent
or
one from manufacturer literature.
line
of of
panels
of fasteners
t for
nless
CLT, shear
provided
calculated
stiffness
by the
of the for
timber
manufacturer
the shellspecific
element
or
panel
should
calculated
layout,
taken Force
between
as
for
the
the
the transferred
plane
adjacent
shear panels
modulus
specific
In
panelwith layout,
Equation one (2)line
theofslip
the fasteners
modulus from
is the linear stiffness
timber
se timbermaterial
materialas as
provided
provided in in
the therelevant
relevant material standard
material standardor or
from-
from
- Mass manufacturer
Mass timber
manufacturer
timber literature.
diaphragm
literature.
diaphragm withwith single
single spline
spline joint plane shear
joint
shear stiffnessorcan be taken as (ProHolz, the
2014) first panel to
of the
=the
spline and with a second
2 fastener. This value can be determined from
an
LT, be
unless
unless taken
provided
providedasby
by (ProHolz,
the manufacturer
the manufacturer 2014) calculated
or calculated forfor
the specific
the panel
specific panel
andlayout,
and thethe
screws
layout,
screws plane
or or shear
nails:
plane
nails: =c 2
cshear
cancan
ss be be
taken
takenas as
(ProHolz,
(ProHolz, 2014)2014) Force line
Force of fasteners
transferred
transferred with
with the
one into
one the
line
line of of
simplified next
fasteners
fasteners panelfrom
formulations
from provided in Eurocode
thethe first
first panel
panel to to
thethe spline
spline andand with
with a a second
second
𝐺𝐺𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 =𝐺𝐺 = 0.75 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 panel 5, (1)
𝐺𝐺𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 0.750.75𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (1) (1) 5the (Eurocode 2010). Alternatively, the fastener
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 line
line of of fasteners
fasteners into
into the nextnextpanel
In Equation (2) the slip modulus stiffnessiscan the belinear stiffness from
determined of thethe fastener. This value can be de
deformation
the
When using GCLT from EquationIn In
(1), simplified
Equation (2)(2)
the gross
Equation the formulations
the
areaslip
slip modulus
(or
modulus is provided
the
isequation
the linear
linear in of
stiffness
provided
stiffness Eurocode
of
in the
thethe 5This
fastener.
NZ Timber
fastener. (Eurocode
This value can
Design
value can be 5,
be 2010). from
determined
Standard
determined Alternatively
from
thesimplified
stiffness
the simplified
can formulations
be determined
formulations provided
provided in inEurocode
from Eurocode
the 5 5(Eurocode
(Eurocode
deformation 5, 5,2010).
equation 2010).Alternatively,
Alternatively,
provided inthethefastener
the fastener
NZ Timber De
full depth) of the CLT can bestiffness
used
stiffnesswhen
can
can bebe
modelling
determined
determined
(NZS
from the
from
3603 or
deformationDZ NZS AS
equation 17210.1):
provided in in the
NZNZ Timber Design Standard
(NZS
(NZS 3603
3603 oror DZDZNZSNZS AS the deformation
17210.1):
AS 17210.1):
equation provided the Timber Design Standard
(NZS 3603
diaphragms, as the reduction factor or DZconsiders
already NZS AS 17210.1):
the orthogonal orientation of laminates. 0.8𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁
0.8𝑘𝑘
𝛿𝛿 = 372 𝛿𝛿 =
2 2
37 𝑁𝑁 0.8𝑘𝑘37 𝑁𝑁 2 (3)(3) (3
𝛿𝛿 = 2𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢
𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢 2
𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢
The largest source of flexibility in timber diaphragms
where:
where:
is provided by the panel fasteners in
where:
𝑘𝑘37𝑘𝑘the
37 sheathing
fastener where:
fastenerdeformation
deformation factor,generally
factor, generally1 1forfordiaphragm
diaphragmloads
loadswith
withload
loaddurations
durationsless
less
than 5 minutes (wind and earthquake loading)
𝑘𝑘37 than
panel splices, and hence the in-plane stiffness 5 minutes
fastener
needs (wind
k37 and earthquake
deformation
fastener loading)
factor, generally
deformation 1 for
factor, diaphragm
generally 1 forloads with load
When using 𝐺𝐺𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 from to beEquation
reduced (1), the gross This
accordingly. area reduced
(or 𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁 depth)
full orcan than
specified
of
specified
effectivethe 5nail
nail minutes
CLT load
load can
demand
(wind
demand
be usedand
diaphragm when earthquake
loads with loadloading)
durations less than 5
g 𝐺𝐺𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 fromdiaphragms,
modelling Equation (1),
as the
the gross area factor
reduction (or fullalready
depth) considers
of the CLTthe be used orientation
orthogonal when of laminates.
When using 𝐺𝐺 of 𝑛𝑛the
from Equation (1), the gross area (or full depth) 𝑛𝑛 ultimate
ultimate
𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢CLT yielding
can beyielding
used nail
nail
when strength
strength with
with 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘=
1 = 1 and
1 and 𝜙𝜙 𝜙𝜙
== 1 (nominal
1 (nominal fastener
fastener strength)
strength)
aphragms, as the reduction
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
shear factor already
stiffness canconsiders the orthogonal
be determined orientation
by𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢 specified
𝑁𝑁the following nail load
of laminates.
demand
minutes (wind
1
and earthquake loading)
Themodelling
largest diaphragms,
source of as the reduction factor already considers the orthogonal orientation of laminates.
flexibility in timber diaphragms is provided by the panel fasteners in the sheathing
source of flexibility
The splices,
panel largest andin
source timber
flexibilitydiaphragms
ofequation
hence in (Moroder
the timber is et
provided
diaphragms
in-plane al., by the by
2015):
is provided
stiffness needs panel
the fasteners
to panel
be fasteners
reduced
𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢
in the sheathingN This
inaccordingly.
the
ultimatesheathing specified
yielding nailorloadwith
reduced
nail strength demand
𝑘𝑘1 = 1 and 𝜙𝜙 = 1 (nominal fastener stre
es, panel
and hence
splices, the
and in-plane
hence thestiffness needs toneeds
in-plane stiffness be reduced accordingly.
to be reduced accordingly.This reduced
This reducedoror
effective shear
ear effective
stiffnessshear
stiffness
can stiffness
be determined
can be determined
by the following
can be determined
by the
equation
by the following
following
(Moroder
equation
equation (Moroder
et al.,et2015):
(Moroder al., 2015):
et al.,
n 2015):
ultimate yielding nail strength with k =1 and ø=1
α,y,u 1

1 1 11 1 1 (nominal fastener strength)

𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺=
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 = 1 (2)
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑡𝑡 � 1 𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
� 𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡 � 𝑐𝑐1+1 𝑐𝑐2 �+1 +𝑠𝑠 2 ���𝑐𝑐1 𝑐𝑐2 (2) (2)
+ Gmean � t +𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠�� 𝑏𝑏 ℎ + ��
Gmean t 𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 G𝑏𝑏meanℎ t 𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑏 ℎ
where: Note that Equation (3) is an empirical formulation and
where: 𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 equivalent shear modulus of the timber diaphragm is dimensionless.
equivalent shear modulusshear
equivalent of the timber diaphragm
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 shear stiffness of themodulus
where: of the
timber panels (in timber diaphragm
the absence of available values, this can be
shear stiffness taken
of as
theG ≈timber
E/15) orpanels
use GCLT
(in(Eq.
the1)absence of available values, this can be
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 shear G stiffness
equivalentof the timber
shear panels
modulus(in the
of absence
the timberof availableSince
values,
thethis can be
deformation is provided as a function of
taken 𝑡𝑡as G ≈ panel or use GCLT (Eq. 1)
E/15)thickness
ef
taken as G ≈ E/15) or use GCLT (Eq. 1)
diaphragm
slip modulus of the fastener (parallel to the panel edges)
panel 𝐾𝐾thickness
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
the fastener demand, and the load demand in the
𝑡𝑡 panel thickness stiffness of the timber panels (in the
Gmean shear diaphragm varies, a simplified linear stiffness can be
𝑠𝑠 fastener spacing
slip modulus of the fastener (parallel to the panel edges)
𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑏𝑏 slip absence
panelmodulus
width of the fastener (parallel to the
of available values, Note panel edges)
this that
canEquation
be (3) is anAempirical
used. secant formulation and
stiffness for is dimensionless.
instantaneous loads at
fastener spacing Note that
𝑠𝑠 ℎ panel length
fastener spacing NoteEquation (3) is(3)
that Equation an isempirical formulation
an empirical andand
formulation is dimensionless.
is dimensionless.
panel width taken as G ≈ E/15) or use GCLT (Eq. 1) the deformation
Since 0.5mm deflection
is provided as acan be determined
function by rearranging
of the fastener demand, and the load dema
Since Since
the deformation is provided as aasfunction of the fastener
𝑏𝑏
𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖
panel
t
number of rows of fasteners along the panel edge
width
panel thickness
the deformation
diaphragm is provided
varies, a simplified
Equation (3)
a linear
function
as:
of the
stiffness candemand,
fastener used.and
bedemand, thetheload
Aand
secant demand
load
stiffness ininthe
demandfor the
instantaneous
diaphragm
panel length 𝑐𝑐 number of rows of fasteners between adjacent panels varies,
diaphragm a simplified
varies, linear
linear stiffness can be used. A secant stiffness for instantaneousloads
stiffness can be used. A secant stiffness for instantaneous loadsatat
0.5mm panelalength
simplified
deflection can be bydetermined by rearranging Equation (3) as:
along the ℎ
1
K slip modulus of the 0.5mm0.5mm
fastener deflection
(parallel can
deflection
to be determined
can
the be determined rearranging Equation
by rearranging (3) (3)
Equation as:as:
ℎ panel
number of rows
𝑐𝑐 of
length
fasteners
number
ser along
of rows the panel
of fasteners edgeadjacent panels along the panel width 𝑏𝑏
between
2

𝑐𝑐1 𝑐𝑐number
number
of rows
𝑖𝑖 Typical values 𝑐𝑐of
forof panel
rows
𝑖𝑖 fasteners
are edges)
of fastenersadjacent
between
as follows: along the panel
panels edge
along the panel length ℎ 2 𝑛𝑛2
𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢 2
𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢 (4)
𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐾𝐾
𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢
� = � 𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = �
=𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (4)(4)
- LTF diaphragms
𝑐𝑐2 number 𝑐𝑐of1 rows of with
snumber fastener
fastenersnails:
of rows =spacing
2
cbetween
of fasteners
adjacent between adjacent
panels along panels
the panel along
width 𝑏𝑏 the panel𝑘𝑘37 ∙𝑘𝑘0.8
length 0.5∙ 0.5𝑘𝑘37 ∙ 0.8 ∙ 0.5
37 ∙ ∙0.8
ℎ
Force transferred with one line of fasteners from
cal values forthe𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖first
are as
𝑐𝑐2 panel to the
bnumber
follows:panel width
of rows of fasteners
and with abetween adjacent
The 0.5mm panels along
represents thethe panel
deformation width 𝑏𝑏 nominal
at nominal
the fastener strength and can also
framing member The 0.5mm Therepresents
0.5mm the deformation
represents theatdeformation
the fastener
at the strength
nominal and
fastener can also bebeconsidered
strength consideredas
and can also as
be consi
second line h of
fasteners
panel into the next panel
length the point
the yield yield point
of theoffastener.
the fastener. The
This This approach
0.5mm
approach of determining
represents
of determining a secant
the
a secant fastener
deformation
fastener slip
slip modulus isisa arather
at fastener
modulus the rather
LTF diaphragms with nails: c = 2 the yield point of the fastener. This approach of determining a secant
Typical values
- Mass timber diaphragm for 𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 are as follows:
with lap joint and
rough rough approximation
approximation of the of fastener
the fastener force-displacement
force-displacement behaviour,
behaviour, butbut it providesa aworkable
it provides value,modulus is
workablevalue,slip
Force transferred
screws: with cc=one
1 line
number of fasteners
of rowsfromof fasteners along rough
the
considering
considering
approximation
thepanel
the
large edge
large uncertainties
uncertainties
of
nominal the determining
whenwhen
fastener
fastener
determining force-displacement
strength
stiffness
stiffness and can of
properties
properties
behaviour,
also
of be considered
fasteners
fasteners
buttimber
it provides
in intimber jointsinin a workab
joints
- LTF
he first panel to the
Force diaphragms i
framing
transfer withmember
onewithlinenails:
and c = a2
with
of fasteners considering
general (Jockwer etthe
al., large
2018).uncertainties when determining stiffness properties of fasteners in timber
between adjacentc number
panels of rows of general
fasteners (Jockwer
between et al.,
adjacent 2018). as the yield point of the fastener. This approach Com
Comm
econd line of fasteners
Force into1 the with
transferred next onepanelline of fasteners from general (Jockwer et al., 2018). have
Mass timber - diaphragm
Mass timber with diaphragm
lap withand
joint single spline joint Typically,
Typically, the the effective
effective shear shear stiffness
stiffness of of diaphragms
diaphragms is inisthe
in the range
range of of 20%
20% to to
40%40% of ofthe
thetimber
timbershear
shear have
the
andfirstscrews panel
to
panels
or nails: the
c = 2framing
along member
the panel and with astiffness.
length h This range is affected of by determining
the diaphragm a geometry
secant as fastener
well as the sliptimber
modulus
materialisand a fastener pape
pape
crews: c = 1second line of fasteners
Force transferred with one lineinto the next
of fasteners panel
from Typically,
stiffness. This range isthe effective
affected by theshear stiffness
diaphragm of diaphragms
geometry as well asisthe in timber
the range of 20%
material to 40% of the the
and fastener timb
the u
u
c number of rows of fasteners selection.
between adjacent rather rough approximation of the fastener force- stiffn
Force transferthe withfirst one
panellineto of
the fasteners
spline and with a second selection. stiffness. This range is affected by the diaphragm geometry as well as the timber material and
- Mass timber diaphragm with lap joint and
2 stiffne
between adjacent
line ofpanelsfasteners panel the panel width b selection.
into
screws: c = 1 panels the nextalong displacement behaviour, but it provides a workable
Mass timber diaphragm with single spline joint 4. Modelling and analysing timber diaphragms
and screws or Force
nails:transfer
= 2 with
c Typical one line
values for of are as per4.table
ci fasteners Modelling
1: and analysing value,timber diaphragms
considering the large uncertainties when
In Equation (2)
between the slip modulus is the linear stiffness of the fastener. AThis value canmodel
computer be determined
of a diaphragm from typically consists of two element types, the beam elements (chord
Force transferred with adjacent
one line ofpanels fasteners from A computer 4. Modelling
model of a diaphragm and analysing
typically consists timber of two diaphragms
element
the simplified formulations provided in Eurocode 5 (Eurocode
- can
he stiffness
first panel Mass
tobethe timber
Table
spline diaphragm
1:
and Number
with with
of rows single of spline
5, and
2010).
joint inin typical
fastenerss
Alternatively,
collector panel beams, the
splices
fastener
as well as any drag beams or struts) and thetypes, the beam All
panel elements. elements (chord
beam elements
determined from theadeformation
second equation and collector
provided canthebe NZbeams,
Timber
modelled as
DesignwellStandard
with as any
their realdrag section beams sizes or andstruts) and the
material panel elements.
properties. The panel All elements
beam elements can be
ne (NZS 3603and
of fasteners screws
into
or DZ theAS
NZS or17210.1):
next nails:
panelc = 2 can be A computer
modelled model ofsection
a diaphragm typically consists of two The element types, the can beam elemen
modelled as awith their
membrane real
element, andsizes by using and thematerial
effective properties.
shear stiffness Gpanel elements
ef from Equation (2), panel
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𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢 can The connection
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Gef from Equation (
ed formulations provided in Eurocode 5 (Eurocode 5, 2010). Alternatively, fastener
shear stiffness. splices do not need to be modelled separately. All beam and membrane elements force should be
where:
n be determined from the deformation equation provided in theAfter NZ Timber Designanalysis
the structural Standard has been run with appropriate loads and load combinations, the shear
or DZ NZS𝑘𝑘AS 37 17210.1):
fastener deformation factor, generally 1 for diaphragm After the together.
per structural
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output.
combinations, This valueconsidered
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n Equation (2) the thanslip modulus
5 minutes (windis andthe linear stiffness
earthquake loading) per of the fastener. This valueelement can besizes determined from fasteners. In addition, overstrength actions might
used
metre shear
to verify
(unit stiffness.
shear theforce
panel or shear flow) andbe
can spacing
directlyofread from the model output. This value can be
he simplified formulations 0.8𝑘𝑘provided
𝑁𝑁 2 in Eurocode used 5 (Eurocode
need
to to be
verify 5,considered.
the 2010).
panel Alternatively,
Refersizes to theand BRANZ the fastener
document - Multi-storey light timber-framed
overstrengthbuildings
actions in New
𝑁𝑁 specified 𝛿𝛿 nail
= load
37demand (3) element spacing of fasteners. In addition, might
stiffness can be determined 𝑛𝑛from
2
𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢
the deformation equation need provided
Zealand
to be After the
considered. in structural
(Carradine, theReferNZ
2019) Timber
to analysis
–theforBRANZ Design
further has Standard
been
information.
document run - with appropriate
Multi-storey light loads and buildings
timber-framed load combinations,
in New the sh
NZS 3603𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢or DZultimate
NZS AS yielding nail strength with 𝑘𝑘1 = 1 and 𝜙𝜙 = 1 (nominal fastener strength)
17210.1): Zealand per withmetre
(Carradine,
Dealing (unit
2019)
axial –shear
stresses in force
for further the two orprincipal
shear flow)
information. directionscan requires
be directly some read from the model
post-processing of theoutput.
model This valu
output used tosome verify the paneljudgment. elementInsizes and spacing of fasteners.
the chordInand addition, overstrength actio
0.8𝑘𝑘37 𝑁𝑁 2 Dealing with withaxial stresses engineering
in the two principal regular
directions timber diaphragms,
requires some post-processing collector beams
of the model
fastener deformation factor, generally 𝛿𝛿 = 1 for diaphragm resist
loads needall
with to
axial
load be considered.
forces
durations in the form
less Refer
of (3)
tensionto theand BRANZ
output with some engineering judgment. In regular timber diaphragms, the chord and collector beamscompression documentforces. - Multi-storey
Since the light
membrane timber-framed
element with building
forces(Carradine,
than 5 minutes (wind and earthquake loading)
2
𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢 its timber
Zealand properties has an2019) intrinsic – for axial further
stiffness, information.
the computer model will show it participating in
resist all axial in the form of tension and compression forces. Since the membrane element with
transferring and resisting axial forces. Unless panel splices are designed to carry these forces, all axial
specified nail load demand its timber properties
Dealing with has an
axial intrinsic
stresses axial in stiffness,
the two the computer
principal model requires
directions will show some it participating in
post-processing of th
where: forces in the panel should be resisted only by the chords and collector beams. Most software packages
transferring
allowoutputand resisting axial forces.axial Unless panelin splices are designed to carry the these forces,
thusall axial
ultimate yielding nail strength with 𝑘𝑘 = 1 and 𝜙𝜙 = 1 (nominal
forces
integration
fastener
in the
with
strength)
panel should
ofsome
the
be
engineering
resultant
resisted only
judgment.
stresses
by the chords
In
a certain
and
regular
area or timber
collector
section
beams.
diaphragms,
of
Most
structure,
software
the chord
allowing
packages
and collecto
𝑢𝑢 𝑘𝑘37 fastener deformation1 factor, generally 1 quick
for diaphragm
determination
resist all loads
axial thewith
offorces inload
additional the durations
force
formdemand ofatensionless to be assigned
and to the
compression nearby beam elements.
than 5 minutes (wind and earthquakeallow integration
loading) of the resultant axial stresses in certain area or section of theforces. structure,Since
thusthe membrane elem
allowing
its istimber
If there
quick determination ofproperties
no dedicated beam has
the additional element
forceandemand intrinsic
which canto be axial
resist stiffness,
the
assigned axial thethe
toforces, computer
or
nearby whenbeam axial model
stresseswill
elements. occur showin it partici
𝑁𝑁 34 nail load demand
specified transferring
the membrane and resisting
element due to diaphragm
JOURNALaxial VOL forces. 29 •Unless
irregularities,
ISSUE 2 panel
these splices
forces
» forces,
NEW
needare
ZEALAND
to be designed
resisted by
TIMBER DESIGNto the
carry panelthese forces
If there is no
elements dedicated beam element which can resist the axial or when axial stresses occur in
forcesthemselves
in the panel and shouldtransferred over any only
be resisted panelbysplices.
the chords Once and the resultant
collectorforce beams. has Mostbeen software p
𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼,𝑦𝑦,𝑢𝑢 ultimate yielding nail strength with 𝑘𝑘1the = 1membrane
and 𝜙𝜙 = 1element
determined
allow (nominal
integration
duefastener
in the affected to diaphragm
of area,strength)
the the axial
resultant
irregularities,
load demand
axial stresses
these canforces
in a
need in
be verified
certain
to the
area
be resisted
panel element
or section
by theand
of the
panelany
structure, thus
elements forcethemselves
transfer overand transferred
the splice can beover any panel
designed. This force splices. Once
transfer canthe resultantbyforce
be resisted has splices
the panel been
determined quick
themselves,in the determination
affected
as long asarea, theyof the
have theaxial
additional
sufficientload capacity
demandforcefor demand
can to be assigned
thebeadditional
verified in thedemand
load panel to element
the have
and nearbyand beam
any elements
sufficient
force transfer
edge distance over the for asplice can be designed.
load perpendicular to theThis panel force
edge. transfer can betension
Alternatively, resisted by the
loads can panel splicesto
be assigned
If there is no dedicated beam element which can resist the axial forces, or when axial stresses
determining stiffness properties of fasteners in timber
joints in general (Jockwer et al., 2018).
Typically, the effective shear stiffness of diaphragms is
in the range of 20% to 40% of the timber shear stiffness.
This range is affected by the diaphragm geometry as
well as the timber material and fastener selection.
4. Modelling and analysing timber diaphragms
A computer model of a diaphragm typically consists
of two element types, the beam elements (chord and
collector beams, as well as any drag beams or struts)
and the panel elements. All beam elements can be
modelled with their real section sizes and material
properties. The panel elements can be modelled as
a membrane element, and by using the effective
shear stiffness Gef from Equation (2), panel splices
do not need to be modelled separately. All beam and
membrane elements should be meshed together. The
connection stiffness between the panel and beams is
already considered in the reduced shear stiffness.
After the structural analysis has been run with
appropriate loads and load combinations, the shear
force per metre (unit shear force or shear flow) can be
directly read from the model output. This value can
be used to verify the panel element sizes and spacing
of fasteners. In addition, overstrength actions might
need to be considered. Refer to the BRANZ document
- Multi-storey light timber-framed buildings in New
Zealand (Carradine, 2019) – for further information.
Dealing with axial stresses in the two principal
directions requires some post-processing of the model
output with some engineering judgment. In regular
timber diaphragms, the chord and collector beams
resist all axial forces in the form of tension and
compression forces. Since the membrane element with
its timber properties has an intrinsic axial stiffness,
the computer model will show it participating in
transferring and resisting axial forces. Unless panel
splices are designed to carry these forces, all axial
forces in the panel should be resisted only by the
chords and collector beams. Most software packages
allow integration of the resultant axial stresses in a
certain area or section of the structure, thus allowing
quick determination of the additional force demand
to be assigned to the nearby beam elements.
NEW ZEALAND TIMBER DESIGN » JOURNAL VOL 29 • ISSUE 2
If there is no dedicated beam element which can resist
the axial forces, or when axial stresses occur in the
membrane element due to diaphragm irregularities,
these forces need to be resisted by the panel elements
themselves and transferred over any panel splices.
Once the resultant force has been determined in the
affected area, the axial load demand can be verified
in the panel element and any force transfer over the
splice can be designed. This force transfer can be
resisted by the panel splices themselves, as long as
they have sufficient capacity for the additional load
demand and have sufficient edge distance for a load
perpendicular to the panel edge. Alternatively, tension
loads can be assigned to discrete or continuous steel
straps or brackets. Compression loads can usually be
transferred via direct compression, but this might
require blocking for diaphragms with thinner panels
(i.e. plywood or LVL). Care needs to be taken if large
tension forces are transferred via discrete steel straps
or plates, as panels without any cross layers (LVL or
glulam), have very low tension perpendicular to grain
capacity. This typically is not a problem with panels
with cross layers like cross-banded LVL, CLT and
plywood.
Note that if the fastener diameter or spacing needs to
be changed, the shell properties need to be updated
(as per Equation (2)) and the model run again. This
process could require a few iterations.
5. Further reading
Carradine, D. (2019). Multi-storey light timber-framed
buildings in New Zealand – Engineering Design. BRANZ,
Judgeford, New Zealand.
DZ NZS AS 1720.1 (2020). Timber structures. Part 1:
Design methods (Draft). Standards NZ
Eurocode 5 (2010). EN 1995-1-1 – Eurocode 5: Design
of timber structures – Part 1-1: General – Common
rules for construction. European Committee for
Standardization.
Jockwer R., Jorissen A. 2018. Stiffness and deformation
of connections with dowel-type fasteners. In Sandhaas,
C., Munch-Andersen, J., Dietsch, P. (eds.) Design of
Connections in Timber Structures: A state-of-the-art
report by COST Action FP1402 / WG3, Shaker Verlag
Aachen, 2018.
35
Moroder, D., Smith, T., Pampanin, S. & Buchanan, A. H.
(2015). An equivalent truss method for the analysis of
timber diaphragms. Pacific Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Sydney, Australia, 6–8 November.
Moroder, D. (2016). Floor Diaphragms in Multi-Storey
Timber Buildings. PhD Thesis, University of Canterbury.
Christchurch, New Zealand.
36
NZS 1170.5 (2004). Structural design actions – Part 5:
Earthquake actions – New Zealand. Standards NZ.
ProHolz (2014). Cross-Laminated Timber Structural
Design - Basic design and engineering principles
according to Eurocode. ProHolz Austria, Vienna,
Austria.
JOURNAL VOL 29 • ISSUE 2 » NEW ZEALAND TIMBER DESIGN