CHAPTER 3

INTRODUCTION TO STEAM POWER

PLANT

STEAM POWER CYCLES

1
 CONTENT
• Classification of power plant cycles.
• Analyse vapour power cycles: Carnot and Rankine cycles.
• Investigate ways to modify the basic Rankine vapour power cycle to increase the
cycle’s thermal efficiency.
• Analyze the reheat and regenerative vapour power cycles.
• Perform second-law analysis of vapour power cycles.

• Analyse power generation coupled with process heating called cogeneration.

• Analyse power cycles that consist of two separate, combined cycles.
• Computation of thermal efficiency, work ratio and other performance measures
of steam power cycles.
• Experimental determination of performance parameters of a steam power plant.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER
PLANT CYCLES

• Thermal power plants, in general, may work on vapour cycles or gas power cycles.
• Vapour power cycles—Classification:
• Rankine cycle
• Reheat cycle
• Regenerative cycle
• Binary vapour cycle
• Gas power cycles—Classification:
• Otto cycle
• Diesel cycle
• Dual combustion cycle
• Gas turbine cycles
• (i) Open cycle (ii) Closed cycle
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 THE CARNOT VAPOR
CYCLE
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient (highest thermal efficiency) cycle operating
between two specified temperature limits. However; the Carnot cycle is not a
suitable model for the steam power cycle since:
• The turbine has to handle steam with low quality, which will cause erosion and
wear in turbine blades.
• It is impractical to design a compressor that handles two-phase.
• It is difficult to precisely control the condensation process to end up with the
desired at point 4 (next slide).

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THE CARNOT VAPOR
CYCLE(continued…)
Process 1- 2: Limiting the heat transfer
processes to two-phase systems
severely limits the maximum
temperature used in the cycle (374oC
for water).

Process 2 - 3: The turbine cannot

handle steam with a high moisture
content because of the impingement
of liquid droplets on the turbine
blades, causing erosion and wear.

Process 4 -1: Designing a compressor

that handles two phases is impractical.
5
(a)
 THE CARNOT VAPOR
CYCLE(continued…)

The cycle in (b) is unsuitable since it requires isentropic compression at extremely

high pressures and isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures.

(b) 6
THE CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE(continued…)
Heat supplied at a constant temperature
𝑇1 [operation (4–1)] = Area 4–1-b-a = 𝑇1 (𝑠1 – 𝑠4 ) or 𝑇1 (𝑠2 – 𝑠3 ).
Heat rejected at constant temperature T2 (operation 2–3) = Area 2–3-a-b = T2 (𝑠2 – 𝑠3 ).
Since there is no exchange of heat during isentropic operations (1–2) and (3–4), therefore, net
work done (NWD):
NWD = Heat supplied – heat rejected 𝑁𝑊𝐷
Carnot eff. η =
= 𝑇1 (𝑠2 – 𝑠3 ) – 𝑇2 (𝑠2 – 𝑠3 ) ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
= (𝑇1 – 𝑇2 ) (𝑠2 – 𝑠3 )
(𝑇 – 𝑇 ) (𝑠 – 𝑠 ) 𝑇 – 𝑇
= 1 2 2 3 = 1𝑇 2
𝑇1 (𝑠2 – 𝑠3 ) 1

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Carnot cycle on T-s and p-v diagrams
 THE IDEAL RANKINE CYCLE FOR
VAPOR POWER CYCLES
Many impracticalities associated with the Carnot
cycle can be eliminated by superheating the
steam in the boiler and condensing it
completely in the condenser. The cycle that
results is the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal
cycle for vapour power plants. The ideal
Rankine cycle does not involve any internal
irreversibilities. The Rankine includes the
following four reversible processes.

1 – 2: Isentropic compression in the pump or pump work.

2 – 3 Heat addition at constant pressure in the boiler.
3 – 4 Isentropic expansion in the turbine.
4 – 1 Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser.

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 ENERGY ANALYSIS FOR THE CYCLE
All four components of the Rankine cycle are steady-state steady-flow devices. The potential
and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. The first law per unit mass of steam can be written
as:
Pump 𝒒=𝟎 𝒘𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑, 𝒊𝒏 = 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 = 𝒗 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 Steam rate
3600 ℎ1 = ℎ𝑓1 @𝑃1 and
Boiler 𝒘 = 𝟎 𝒒𝒊𝒏 = 𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟐 ⴄ𝑡ℎ = 𝒗 ≈ 𝑣1 @𝑃1
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡
Turbine 𝒒=𝟎 𝒘𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆, 𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟒
Condenser 𝒘=𝟎 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒉𝟒 − 𝒉𝟏 Power (plant capacity)
= 𝑚ሶ 𝑠 × 𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡
Thermal efficiency
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑞𝑖𝑛 − 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡
ⴄ𝑡ℎ = = =1−
𝑤𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑖𝑛

Also,
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞𝑖𝑛 − 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝒘𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆, 𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝒘𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑, 𝒊𝒏

Thermal efficiency can be interpreted as the ratio of the area

enclosed by the cycle on a T-S diagram to the area under
heat addition process.
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 CARNOT vs RANKINE CYCLE

• The Rankine cycle provides a higher specific work output than the Carnot cycle when
operating between the same temperature limits. The plant size is smaller for a Rankine
cycle than that of the Carnot cycle for a given power output. The Rankine cycle's
downside is the higher heat transfer rates required in the boiler and the condenser.

• Superheating of steam decreases the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle. Unlike the
Carnot cycle, where heat is supplied isothermally at the upper-temperature limits, only
part of the heat is supplied isothermally in the Rankine cycle. To counter this, the
superheat temperature must be reduced in the Rankine cycle.

• In the Rankine cycle, complete condensation occurs before the liquid enters the pump.
This is contrary to the Carnot cycle, as the water-vapour mixture is compressible, and the
compression work is larger than the liquid pumping work.

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DEVIATED/ACTUAL VAPOUR POWER
CYCLES FROM IDEALIZED ONES
The actual vapour power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle due to irreversibilities in
various components. Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common
sources of irreversibilities. The deviations of actual pumps and turbines from the isentropic
ones can be accounted for by utilising isentropic efficiencies defined as:

(a) Deviation or actual vapour power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle.
(b) The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.. 11
Increasing the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle
𝑇𝐿
We know that the efficiency is proportional to: ⴄ𝑡ℎ ∝ 1 −
𝑇𝐻

The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency of a power
cycle is the same:
• Increase the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the working fluid in the
boiler.
• Decrease the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the
condenser.

Decreasing the of Condenser Pressure (Lower 𝑻𝑳 )

Lowering the condenser pressure will increase the area enclosed by the cycle on a T-s
diagram which indicates that the network will increase. Thus, the thermal efficiency of the
cycle will be increased.

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Increasing the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle(continued…)
Lowering condenser pressure: Condensers operate below atmospheric pressure, delaying the
phase change from vapour to liquid. This increases the efficiency of the cycle at low pressures.
However, the condenser pressure cannot be lower than the saturation pressure corresponding
to the temperature of the cooling medium (thermal reservoir), such as lakes, rivers, etc. A
temperature difference of 10°C for effective heat transfer is ideal. E.g., if the lake is @ 15°C +
∆T (10°C) = 25°C. The condenser pressure then will be ⇒ Psat = 3.2 kPa. However, the
efficiency is increased at the expense of the increased cost of the condensation apparatus.

The disadvantage:
Is that the moisture
content is increased at
This process
the exit stages of the
lowers 𝑻𝑳,𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆
turbine, which may cause
erosion to the turbine
blades.

13
Effect of lowering the condenser pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle.
Increasing the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle(continued…)

Superheating steam to high temperatures : While all other factors remain the same,
superheating the steam will increase the final temperature 𝑻𝑯 , network output and the
efficiency of the cycle. It also decreases the moisture content of the steam at the turbine exit.
The temperature to which steam can be superheated is limited by metallurgical considerations
(~ 620°C).

This process increases

𝑻𝑯,𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆

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The effect of superheating the steam on an ideal Rankine cycle
Increasing the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle(continued…)

Increasing boiler pressure: Increasing the boiler's operating pressure increases the
temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam, thus raising the cycle's efficiency. For a
fixed turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shifts to the left and the moisture content of the
steam at the turbine exit increases. This undesirable side effect can be corrected by reheating
the steam. Today many modern steam power plants operate at supercritical pressures (P >
22.06 MPa) and have thermal efficiencies of about 40% for fossil fuel plants and 34% for
nuclear plants.

This process
increases
𝑻𝑯,𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆

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The effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the ideal cycle and supercritical Rankine cycle
 THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE
CYCLE
In order to eradicate the increased moisture content at the final stages of the turbine while
operating at high boiler without compromising on high efficiencies, the following can be
done.
1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures. But this is limited metallurgically.
2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between (reheat).

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Ideal reheat Rankine cycle
 THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE
CYCLE(continued…)
The total heat input and total turbine work output for a reheat cycle become:

𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝑞𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 + 𝑞𝑟𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 + ℎ5 − ℎ4

𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑤𝐻𝑃 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑤𝐿𝑃 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = ℎ3 − ℎ4 + ℎ5 − ℎ6

Incorporating the single reheat in a modern power

plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to 5 per
cent resulting from increasing the average
temperature at which heat is transferred to the
steam.

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Average temperature (reheat)
 THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE
CYCLE(continued…)
The average temperature during the reheating process can be increased by increasing the
number of expansion and reheat stages. However, as the number of stages increases, the
expansion and reheat processes approach an isothermal process at the maximum
temperature. The use of more than two reheat stages is impractical.

The reheat temperatures are

The theoretical improvement very close or equal to the
in efficiency from the second turbine inlet temperature.
reheat is about half of that The optimum reheat pressure
which results from a single is about one fourth of the
reheat. maximum cycle pressure.

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Average temperature (reheat)
 THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE
RANKINE CYCLE
Heat is transferred to the working fluid during processes 2-2’ at a relatively low temperature.
This lowers the average heat addition temperature and thus the cycle efficiency. In steam power
plants, steam is extracted from the turbine at various points.

This steam, which could A feedwater heater is a heat

have produced more work exchanger where heat is
by expanding further in transferred from the steam
the turbine, is used to heat to the feedwater by mixing
the feedwater instead. The the two fluid streams (open
device where the feedwater heaters ) or
feedwater is heated by without mixing them (closed
regeneration is called a feedwater heaters).
regenerator, or a feedwater
heater (FWH).

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The first part of the boiler’s heat addition process occurs at relatively low temperatures.
 THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE
RANKINE CYCLE(continued…)
Open FWH: An open FWH is basically a mixing chamber where the steam
extracted from the turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting the pump. Ideally, the
mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure.

The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open FWH. 20

 THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE
RANKINE CYCLE(continued…)
The heat and work interactions of a regenerative
Rankine cycle with one FWH can be expressed per
unit mass of steam flowing through the boiler as:

𝑞𝑖𝑛 = ℎ5 − ℎ4
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1 − 𝑦 ℎ7 − ℎ1

𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ5 − ℎ6 + 1 − 𝑦 ℎ6 − ℎ7
𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,𝑖𝑛 = 1 − 𝑦 𝑤𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 1 + 𝑤𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 2

𝑚6
“y” is the mass flow rate fraction, given by 𝑦 =
𝑚5

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 1 = 𝑣1 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 The thermal efficiency of an ideal Rankine cycle

𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 2 = 𝑣3 𝑃4 − 𝑃3 increases due to regeneration as the FWH increases
the average temperature before the water enters the 21
boiler. Large power plants have as many as 18 FWD.
 THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE
RANKINE CYCLE(continued…)
Closed FWH: Another feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is
the closed feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred from the extracted steam
to the feedwater without mixing. The two streams can now be at different
pressures since they do not mix.

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The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with closed FWH.
 THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE
RANKINE CYCLE(continued…)
Closed FWHs are more complex because of the internal tubing network, and
thus they are more expensive. Heat transfer in closed feedwater heaters is less
effective since the two streams cannot be in direct contact. However, closed
feedwater heaters do not require a separate pump for each heater since the
extracted steam and the feedwater can be at different pressures.

Open feedwater heaters are simple and inexpensive and have good heat transfer
characteristics. However, a pump is required to handle the feedwater for each
heater.

23
 THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE
RANKINE CYCLE(continued…)

• Most steam power plants use a combination of open and closed feedwater
heaters.

A steam power plant with one open and three closed feedwater heaters.
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 SECOND LAW ANALYSIS OF
VAPOUR POWER CYCLES
Exergy destruction for a steady-flow system

A second-law analysis of vapour power cycles reveals where the largest

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irreversibilities occur and where to start improvements.
 COGENERATION
Industries require heat energy for various purposes, which is supplied as process heat.
Process heat is supplied at high pressures and temperatures between 5 to 7 atmospheric
pressure and 150oC to 200oC, respectively. Heat energy is supplied by coal, fuel oil and
natural gas, among other sources in the furnace.
Process heat consumes a large amount of electricity. Instead of using electricity to supply
this heat. The already existing work potential in the thermal plant is used to supply process
heat, resulting in a plant that produces electricity and process heat to meet heating
requirements (cogeneration)

Cogeneration: the
production of more than
one form of useful energy.

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Simple process heat plant
 COGENERATION(continued…)
Utilisation factor (∈𝑢 )
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
∈𝑢 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑊ሶ 𝑛𝑒𝑡 + 𝑄ሶ 𝑝 𝑄ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
= =1−
ሶ
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄ሶ 𝑖𝑛

Ideally, the utilisation factor is 100%.

However, under actual operating
conditions, cogeneration plants have a
utilization factor of approximately 80%.
There have been some reported
improvements, with the utilization factor
exceeding 80%.

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An ideal cogeneration plant
 COGENERATION(continued…)

➢ At high heat demands, all steam is routed

to the process heater and none to the
condenser (𝑚7 = 0). Meaning waste heat
is zero in this mode.
➢ If this does not meet the needs, steam
from the boiler is throttled by the
expansion valve/pressure-reducing valve to
the level of pressure at point 6 (𝑃6 ).
➢ Maximum process heat supplied is when
all steam from the boiler flows through
the throttle valve (𝑚4 = 𝑚5 ).
➢ When there is no process heat demand,
all steam passes through the turbine
(𝑚5 = 𝑚6 = 0).
Cogeneration plant with adjustable loads 28
 COGENERATION(continued…)
𝑄ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚ሶ 11 ℎ1 − ℎ11
𝑄ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚ሶ 6 ℎ6 − ℎ8

𝑄ሶ 𝑝ℎ = 𝑚ሶ 4 ℎ4 + 𝑚ሶ 5 ℎ5 − 𝑚ሶ 7 ℎ7
𝑊ሶ 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚ሶ 1 − 𝑚ሶ 2 ℎ3 − ℎ5 + 𝑚ሶ 6 ℎ5 − ℎ6

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Cogeneration plant with adjustable loads
 COMBINED GAS-VAPOUR
POWER CYCLE

The gas-vapour cycle was a further development in enhancing thermal efficiency in the
cycle. The cycle of interest is the Gas-turbine (Bryton) cycle combined with the steam
turbine cycle (Rankine cycle), resulting in higher efficiency than both cycles executed
individually.

There is an increase in thermal efficiency with negligible increases in the initial costs
for the combined cycle. This has attracted much attention as many power plants
migrate to the combined cycle instead of steam or gas turbine plants.

The thermal efficiency of the combined cycle can be over 50%. In comparison, the
individual cycles are much lower (Nuclear_34% and fossil_40%).

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COMBINED GAS-VAPOUR POWER CYCLE
(continued…)

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 SUMMARY

❑ The Carnot vapour cycle

❑ Ideal Rankine cycle
❑ Actual or deviated Rankine cycle
❑ Increasing the efficiency of the Rankine cycle
❑ Ideal reheat Rankine cycle
❑ Ideal regenerative Rankine cycle
❑ Second law analysis of vapour power cycles
❑ Cogeneration
❑ Combined gas-vapour power cycles

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