Gomes Rafaël

Licence 3 - Philosophie
SIAL - Anglais C1

ASSIGNMENT 1
Unit 1 - Old trades and new trades

Question 3 : Choose three examples in the list of trades which have disappeared : explain
what their 'trade' consisted in and how and why they were replaced : why did you choose
those examples ? Explain if it is just a different way to call them or how their 'profession' or
'trade' as it was called at the time, has changed or totally disappeared. What was the part of
women in the profession ?

I will focus here on three trades: wigmakers, tailors, and cobblers. I have chosen
them because they revolve around the world of fashion, which intrigues me a lot.

We’ll start with wigmakers. As their name suggests, their trade was to design wigs,
which were very popular at the time, especially among wealthy classes. However, it would
be scratching the surface of their history to assign them only to this task. Indeed, wigmakers
did not just create wigs, style them, and accessorize them, but sold hairstyling products
(powders, perfumes, etc), shaved facial hair, cut and styled clients' natural hair, essentially
practicing hairstyling as we understand it today. Thus, we could consider that beneath the
role of a wigmaker lay the talent of a hairstylist and barber, bringing them closer to modern
barbers who deal with these similar tasks (without the wigmaking aspect, of course).

This versatility is illustrated in French thinker Denis Diderot’s Encyclopédie, where we

can find an engraving depicting a scene in a wigmaker's workshop. There, we can see
people making wigs, certainly, but also, in the middle, a wigmaker shaving his client.
Perruquier-Barbier. Engraving from Denis Diderot and Jean Baptiste Le Rond d'Alembert,
L'Encyclopédie, 1751-1757.

As a result, much like barbers today, the clientele of wigmakers tended to be

predominantly male. This demographic difference is reflected in the profession itself since
wigmakers were often men. However, women were not excluded, as they could be found as
employees, apprentices, assisting the wigmaker through the various stages of wig-making
(as we also can see in the Encyclopédie’s engraving). But what were these stages exactly?

Several of these stages are visible in the engraving but not all. We can attempt to
summarize them. Firstly, measurements of the skull had to be taken and transferred onto a
blockhead, since the client could not be present during the making, which could last from a
week to several months. This step often involved shaving the clients’ head. Then, artificial
hair (of human or animal origin) had to be prepared, sorted, boiled, washed, combed, and
dried, before creating a paper pattern based on the previously taken measurements. This
would help determine what length and style were suitable for the client. Next, the hair had to
be woven (which is likely what the character in the background-left is doing), then back to
the model to sew a net on which the wig would hold (which is likely what the character on the
foreground-left is doing). Finally, there was the styling stage, in which the wig was styled and
accessorized (which is likely what the character on the far right is doing).
 Today, wigmakers still exist but are far fewer in number than before, especially since
their various roles have been divided into several full-time professions (hairdresser, barber,
etc). Wigmaker shops no longer exist in themselves, and entrepreneurial efforts often focus
on attempting to restore or preserve this eighteenth-century heritage rather than making it
fashionable again, since we have lost this rococo-esque relationship with fashion after
Europe was marked by revolutions and despise for wealthy-classes symbols. Thus, the use
of period wigs is almost exclusive to the arts (especially theater). However, wigs have not
completely disappeared from everyday life, more modern ones can be found everywhere in
hairdressing salons or shops, serving anyone who desires a radical change in hairstyle.

Now, let's delve into the world of tailors. If we take a brief etymological excursion, we
can observe that the word itself descends from the French "tailleur", which originates from
the Old French "taler," meaning "to divide" or "to cut." Thus, the tailor is the one who wields
the pair of scissors to separate the material, but their role extends beyond mere cutting.
They dismantle it to rebuild and assemble, sewing it together. In a broader sense, they were
the creators of garments. Furthermore, there were several types of tailors. Some operated
stationary workshops or shops, while others were itinerant (journeymen tailors), moving from
household to household to craft clothing.

They engaged in discussions with clients to grasp their tastes, preferences, and
effectively structure them with the available resources. Then, they took the client's
measurements. Various methods could be employed : they might use paper tape, measure
the fabric directly on the client's body, or utilize innovative systems like metal cages (which
only emerged in the following century). The fabric was then prepared by spreading and
cutting it to size, and sketched with chalk patterns. After arranging fabric pieces for sleeves,
cuffs, and fronts, they cut the fabric according to the patterns. The pieces were then stitched
together by hand. Lastly, the tailor added finishing touches like closures and decorative
elements.

The garments varied widely but primarily followed the fashion trends of the time.
They made coats, stockings, gowns, as well as clothes inspired by foreign cultures, such as
banyans (Indian inspiration) or wrappers (Japanese inspiration), as the British Empire had
colonies all over the world. Their clientele was thus also very diverse, encompassing both
men and women, rich and poor, urban and rural, as everyone needed clothing, including
children, wearing stays to maintain good posture. However, it's important to note that tailors
tended to have a more masculine clientele, as women's clothing required more expertise and
time, skills that dressmakers mastered better. Given the size of the clientele, it was one of
the most significant trades and industries of the time.

Although, the profession itself was very masculine, it was negatively associated with
femininity, as sewing was associated with women. It was not surprising to find women in the
role of seamstresses rather than tailors, a task probably perceived as less glamorous, a
phenomenon also evident in the domestic sphere. The tailor's profession was not solitary; as
they were assisted by employees, apprentices, "table monkeys", all contributing to speeding
up the process due to high demand.

But with the appearance of sewing machines at the end of the century (around 1790)
and the progressive and global industrialization, garments became easier to create en
masse, giving rise to ready-to-wear clothing, which covered almost all sizes without ever
perfectly conforming to the client's shape. The tailor's profession gradually lost its utility, as
the industry primarily required labor and thus seamstresses.

Today, the tailor's profession still exists despite its significant decline, but remains
quite prestigious, especially among the wealthiest classes, who can distinguish themselves
from the "common folk" with better-tailored and higher-quality clothing. The profession still
holds a predominantly masculine tradition, as does its clientele, exclusively male, as tailors
now craft a very limited range of products, often suits.

Lastly, we’ll talk about cobblers. They were the ones repairing damaged shoes and
were previously known as "savetiers," a term derived from the French word "savate," which
refers to a “worn-out shoe”. They should not be confused with cordwainers, who were the
“true” shoemakers, crafting shoes from scratch. Cobblers gave a second life to clients' daily
pairs of shoes and also facilitated the restoration of shoes that could be sold second-hand.

Thus, cobblers required fewer years of study to train and even less training. This led
cobblers to be overshadowed by cordwainers, who were seen as more deserving and noble,
particularly since they came from wealthier and more educated backgrounds. Despite their
essential role — before the industrial revolution, shoes were not as accessible as they are
today, both in terms of availability and affordability— cobblers had a bad reputation. They
were often mocked or undervalued. On one hand, because they came from disadvantaged
backgrounds, and on the other hand, because their skill set was limited ; they were
perceived as subpar shoemakers. The task of repairing worn-out shoes was ungrateful,
further tarnishing the profession's image.

There is not one single way to repair shoes that could be detailed here, as the
approach varied depending on the area to be repaired. However, one can simply imagine the
cobbler removing the damaged part of the shoe to replace it with a new material.
Furthermore, the techniques themselves could vary from one city or region to another. The
equipment, however, was fairly standardized. A cobbler had tools such as a strap to hold the
shoe in place, hammers, pins, pliers, “awls for punching holes in leather, hot burnishers for
shining soles and heels, sole knives for shaping soles, stretching pliers for stretching leather
uppers, marking wheels to mark where the needle should go through the sole, size sticks to
measure the foot”, etc. They also had a variety of materials, threads, and products for
repairing or beautifying shoes (polish, grease, etc.).

Although the clientele was mixed, the cobbler profession, like most artisanal
professions at the time, was predominantly masculine, perhaps even more than wigmakers
and tailors whom had women to assist them ; and also particularly, as mentioned earlier,
among men from poor classes.

However, over time, the trades of the cordwainer and the cobbler merged to form a
single profession commonly referred to as "shoemaker," with the term "cobbler" becoming
obsolete and rarely used. The mechanization of shoe repair, coupled with its decreasing
necessity due to industrialization, led to a greater availability of low-priced shoes (due to cost
reduction) and the corporatization of cobbler craftsmanship. Similarly, the emergence of
more durable materials contributed to making their work more and more useless. The same
trend affected shoemakers, even though their name remained. However, this disappearance
is nuanced, as the trade persists in other parts of the world, particularly in Southeast Asia.

WORKS CITED

Gayne, Mary K. “Illicit wigmaking in eighteenth-century Paris.” Eighteenth-Century Studies,

vol. 38, no. 1, Sept. 2004, pp. 119–137.
K. Bullock, Thomas K., and Maurise B. Tonkin. The Wigmaker in Eighteenth Century
Williamsburg: An Account of His Barbering, Hair-Dreffing & Peruke-Making Services, &
Some Remarks on Wigs of Various Styles. Colonial Williamsburg, 1987.

"Tailor." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project.

Translated by Bob Trump. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library,
2003.

Schenawolf, Harry. “Cordwainers & Cobblers, Shoemakers in Colonial America.”

Revolutionary War Journal, 8 Mar. 2016, revolutionarywarjournal.com/cordwainers/.

Austen, Jane. “Regency Cobblers.” Jane Austen’s World, 16 Oct. 2010,

janeaustensworld.com/tag/regency-cobblers/.

The Wigmaker : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jhLo2ENMJFQ

Getting Dressed in the 18th Century - Men | National Museums Liverpool :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fpS4B5oMhgo

The Work of the Cobbler : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zqSa3fycEKE

https://www.wcml.org.uk/our-collections/working-lives/tailors/

https://www.slaveryandremembrance.org/Almanack/life/trades/tradetai.cfm

https://www.gentlemansgazette.com/the-history-bespoke-tailoring/

https://www.masshist.org/beehiveblog/2021/12/how-were-shoes-made-before-the-industrial-r
evolution

https://twonerdyhistorygirls.blogspot.com/2010/10/crafting-shoes-for-18th-century-lady.html