PDF Contemporary Challenges in Cooperation and Coopetition in The Age of Industry 4 0 10Th Conference On Management of Organizations Development Mod Agnieszka Zakrzewska Bielawska Ebook Full Chapter

Contemporary Challenges in
Cooperation and Coopetition in the Age

of Industry 4 0 10th Conference on
Management of Organizations
Development MOD Agnieszka
Zakrzewska-Bielawska
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/contemporary-challenges-in-cooperation-and-coopetit
ion-in-the-age-of-industry-4-0-10th-conference-on-management-of-organizations-dev
elopment-mod-agnieszka-zakrzewska-bielawska/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Scheduling in Industry 4 0 and Cloud Manufacturing

Boris Sokolov
https://textbookfull.com/product/scheduling-in-industry-4-0-and-
cloud-manufacturing-boris-sokolov/
Are Regions Prepared for Industry 4 0 The Industry 4 0

Indicator System for Assessment János Abonyi
https://textbookfull.com/product/are-regions-prepared-for-
industry-4-0-the-industry-4-0-indicator-system-for-assessment-
janos-abonyi/
Contemporary Management and Science Issues in the Halal

Industry Proceedings of the International Malaysia
Halal Conference IMHALAL Faridah Hassan
https://textbookfull.com/product/contemporary-management-and-
science-issues-in-the-halal-industry-proceedings-of-the-
international-malaysia-halal-conference-imhalal-faridah-hassan/
Optimization in Large Scale Problems Industry 4 0 and

Society 5 0 Applications Mahdi Fathi
https://textbookfull.com/product/optimization-in-large-scale-
problems-industry-4-0-and-society-5-0-applications-mahdi-fathi/
Digital Startups in Transition Economies: Challenges
for Management, Entrepreneurship and Education
Agnieszka Skala
https://textbookfull.com/product/digital-startups-in-transition-
economies-challenges-for-management-entrepreneurship-and-
education-agnieszka-skala/
Information Systems for Industry 4 0 Proceedings of the

18th Conference of the Portuguese Association for
Information Systems Isabel Ramos
https://textbookfull.com/product/information-systems-for-
industry-4-0-proceedings-of-the-18th-conference-of-the-
portuguese-association-for-information-systems-isabel-ramos/
Advances in Non-Integer Order Calculus and Its

Applications: Proceedings of the 10th International
Conference on Non-Integer Order Calculus and Its
Applications Agnieszka B. Malinowska
https://textbookfull.com/product/advances-in-non-integer-order-
calculus-and-its-applications-proceedings-of-the-10th-
international-conference-on-non-integer-order-calculus-and-its-
applications-agnieszka-b-malinowska/
Translation in the Digital Age Translation 4 0 1st

Edition Carsten Sinner (Editor)
https://textbookfull.com/product/translation-in-the-digital-age-
translation-4-0-1st-edition-carsten-sinner-editor/
Report on the Development of Cruise Industry in China

2019 Hong Wang
https://textbookfull.com/product/report-on-the-development-of-
cruise-industry-in-china-2019-hong-wang/
Springer Proceedings in Business and Economics
Agnieszka Zakrzewska-Bielawska
Iwona Staniec Editors
Contemporary
Challenges in
Cooperation and
Coopetition in the
Age of Industry 4.0
10th Conference on Management of
Organizations’ Development (MOD)
Springer Proceedings in Business and Economics brings the most current research
presented at conferences and workshops to a global readership. The series features
volumes (in electronic and print formats) of selected contributions from conferences
in all areas of economics, business, management, and finance. In addition to an
overall evaluation by the publisher of the topical interest, scientific quality, and
timeliness of each volume, each contribution is refereed to standards comparable to
those of leading journals, resulting in authoritative contributions to the respective
fields. Springer’s production and distribution infrastructure ensures rapid publica-
tion and wide circulation of the latest developments in the most compelling and
promising areas of research today.
The editorial development of volumes may be managed using Springer’s
innovative Online Conference Service (OCS), a proven online manuscript
management and review system. This system is designed to ensure an efficient
timeline for your publication, making Springer Proceedings in Business and
Economics the premier series to publish your workshop or conference volume.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11960

Agnieszka Zakrzewska-Bielawska •
Iwona Staniec
Editors
Contemporary Challenges
in Cooperation
and Coopetition in the Age
of Industry 4.0
10th Conference on Management
of Organizations’ Development (MOD)
123
Editors
Agnieszka Zakrzewska-Bielawska Iwona Staniec
Department of Management Department of Management
Lodz University of Technology Lodz University of Technology
Łódź, Poland Łódź, Poland
ISSN 2198-7246 ISSN 2198-7254 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-030-30548-2 ISBN 978-3-030-30549-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30549-9
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
Industry 4.0 is a concept relating to the use of automation in industries, data

processing and data exchange. The concept also encompasses artificial intelligence,
the digitalization of the production process and introducing new technologies.
Nowadays, workforce, digitally controlled machines connected to the Internet and
information technology, is all integrated and this new setting poses new challenges
for the management of organizations and for their development. One of these
challenges involves the necessity of cooperation with many stakeholders and
business partners. However, thanks to networking and data exchange, businesses
are also able to make goods in a more economical way. What is more, they can
adapt quickly to their clients’ individual needs and integrate each other in the value
networks which enable them to gain a competitive advantage. As a consequence,
the conditions created by Industry 4.0 are both an opportunity and a threat to
successful cooperation and coopetition.
The challenges posed by Industry 4.0 are the focus of this proceedings volume.
They will be analysed in terms of their impact on present-day organizations and the
changes that occur in cooperation and coopetition between companies. Other
selected problems relating to the development of organizations based on new
conditions will also be addressed. The approach the authors used when writing this
proceeding volume was both theoretical and empirical. The work consists of three
parts.
In Part I, general guidelines pertaining to Industry 4.0 are considered. To start
with, Anna Adamik and Michał Nowicki offer their critical literature review on the
subject and an account of the research in consulting firms. Based on their findings,
they identified key barriers and potential pitfalls in the process of building a
competitive advantage in the age of Industry 4.0. They also provided solutions to
overcome them. Afterwards, Michał Młody and Adam Weinert also analysed the
literature, but they provided an overview of the current knowledge level about
Industry 4.0 in Poland and indicated the direction of further research in this field.
Moreover, Edyta Gwarda-Gruszczyńska pointed out theoretical and research gaps
in the ‘Valleys of Death’ concerning creating, commercializing and diffusion of
Key Enabling Technologies (KETs). Another contributor, Edyta Bielińska-Dusza
v
vi Preface
identified the changes occurring in the functioning of organizations caused by

ground-breaking technologies. Furthermore, Aleksandra Rudawska pointed out that
the phenomenon of Industry 4.0 enables the transfer of knowledge between the
workforce. It contributes to overall knowledge building in an organization and, as a
consequence, positively influences the creativity of individual employees as well as
the creativity of an organization as a whole. Despite this fact, the author argued that
sharing knowledge is not a straightforward process. She explained that proactive
and reactive knowledge sharing involves employing different mechanisms on an
individual and organizational level. Finally, another contributor—Katarzyna
Szymańska—identified the main directions of change in the organizational culture
of companies that adapt to the new conditions of Industry 4.0.
Part II is devoted to analysing cooperation and coopetition between organiza-
tions in the light the challenges that Industry 4.0 brings. This section opens with an
article by Jerzy Niemczyk and Rafał Trzaska. The authors studied the network
approach in Industry 4.0 in the context of coopetition. According to them, the
competitive advantage of an organization can be established by entering the net-
work with certain coopetition features as these organizations will take advantage of
all efficiency sources and therefore increase their competitiveness and market value.
Next, Dagmara Lewicka and Agnieszka Zakrzewska-Bielawska analysed how trust
impacts the cooperation and coopetition between various market stakeholders.
According to their research, if the level of trust to a particular group of market
partners (e.g. suppliers, customers and other non-competitive partners) increases,
the partnership cooperation with particular group is greater, and similarly, if the
level of trust in competitors increases, the inclination to coopetition is greater. The
authors Łukasz Sułkowski, Robert Seliga and Andrzej Woźniak focused on the
complexity of mergers and acquisitions in the specific context of tertiary education.
They identified the process of coopetition, cooperation and consolidation of uni-
versities in Poland based on their qualitative research. Furthermore, Magdalena
Grębosz-Krawczyk and Sławomir Milczarek dealt with the issue of communication
between companies and Polish research institutions. The authors strived to establish
what expectations the companies have from the research institutions. The results
confirmed that interpersonal communication is the most sought-after form of con-
tact between them. It is also demonstrated that the most convenient means of
information exchange is electronic media. What is more, Iwona Staniec and
Yochanan Shachmurove showed that opportunism is the key obstacle in estab-
lishing cooperation regardless of the type of business or the industry it operates in.
The authors demonstrated how the perception of the risks influenced the oppor-
tunistic approach to cooperation with small- and medium-size technological com-
panies. Meanwhile, Waldemar Glabiszewski, Agata Sudolska, Joanna Górka and
Angelika Pańka assessed the extent to which absorption capacity had an impact on
the level of innovation in financial companies in Poland. The research confirmed
that the ability to make the use of external technologies and the ability to develop
existing ones had a positive impact on the level of innovation of the financial
companies. Another author, Patrycja Klimas, also highlighted the fact that the
proximity in strategic management may be perceived as a significant factor
Preface vii
leveraging effectiveness and performance of both cooperating (or coopeting) orga-

nizations and inter-organizational networks. The author stressed the importance of
close cooperation and networking and helped the reader appreciate various aspects
of such close collaboration. In Part II, Dagmara Wójcik, Patrycja Klimas, Katarzyna
Czernek-Marszałek and Patrycja Juszczyk also examined the impact of the devel-
opment of the tourist sector on the cooperation between various other sectors. The
authors pointed out that the rapid development of the tourist sector, due to the
popularization of the sharing economy, had a positive effect overall. Furthermore,
Aleksandra Hauke-Lopes, Krzysztof Fonfara and Milena Ratajczak-Mrozek postu-
lated various causes of conflicts in foreign inter-organizational relationships of
multinational enterprises and determined the impact of such conflicts on the func-
tioning of these companies. The authors mentioned the formal and informal tactics
that managers employed in order to deal with the conflicts and mitigate their adverse
effects. Aleksandra Sus and Michał Organa took up the problem of how the strategy
dynamics and the dynamism of inter-organizational network strategies influenced
the general development of network systems. The authors conducted a detailed
analysis of relations between the strategy dynamics of inter-organizational networks
(centralized or decentralized) and network development in the sense of increasing
the effectiveness of activities within the considered systems. The last article in Part II
was written by Katarzyna Liczmańska-Kopcewicz and Maciej Zastempowski. The
article is an analysis of the relationship between a proactive responding to client’s
needs and the creation of innovative products in the fast-moving consumer goods
industry.
In Part III, the contributing authors proposed that the conditions brought by
Industry 4.0 make up a specific work and development environment. Here, Cezary
Suszyński focused on outlining the main trends in the evolution of a company from
the perspective of industrial revolutions to date. He highlighted the challenges and
the changes introduced in how the business is done due to Industry 4.0. Afterwards,
Mariusz Bratnicki and Wojciech Dyduch described the way our irrational percep-
tion of reality has an effect on the strategic decision-making in companies, which in
turn determines how the values in organizations are created and captured. Another
author, Andrzej Lis, identified new research areas in the context of the management
of the development of organizations. Later, Dagna Siuda described the issue of
co-creating the value of a brand in social media, whereas Agnieszka Izabela Baruk
focused her attention on selected aspects of how the image of an employer is
created by employees who are also prosumers. Automation in the context of
Industry 4.0 was dealt with by Andrzej Kamiński. The author described an original
concept of cooperation between heterogenic information systems in production by
means of the integrated platform. The authors, Aldona Glińska-Neweś, Paweł
Brzustewicz, Iwona Escher, Yulia Fomina, Barbara Józefowicz, Irina Katunin,
Joanna Petrykowska and Dawid Szostek, pointed out in their article that the idea of
corporate social responsibility (CSR) is being questioned nowadays, mainly due to
its doubtful significance and its alleged lack of implementation in companies. In the
authors’ view, the basic requirement that needs to be met in order to make CSR
work is to engage the workforce in projects that promote sustainable development.
viii Preface
The authors pointed out that such projects have the potential to introduce a positive
social change within the organization and bring about many other benefits. Finally,
Monika Kulikowska-Pawlak discussed political will in strategic management. The
author provided insight into the range of political motivations that support stake-
holder management and proposed an integrative model offering the necessary
political mechanism for an organization’s value creation.
Papers included in this proceedings volume have been written by scientists,
researchers and practitioners, and they were presented during the 10th Conference
on Management of Organizations’ Development (MOD) organized by Department
of Management of Lodz University of Technology in Poland. This proceedings
volume highlights the complexity and diversity problems of organizations’ devel-
opment in the age of Industry 4.0 and the underlying challenges. It will cover a
wide range of key areas from essence, determinants and forms of cooperation and
coopetition, to networks creating and organization managing, and also culture and
social problems connected with conditions of Industry 4.0. Combining the newest
theory and practice, the book will provide a realistic outlook on the network
economy in the age of Industry 4.0 and interdependencies between sectors and
within them. That is why the proceedings will be a valuable source of knowledge
for researchers in universities and research institutions, graduate students and
practitioners in management in both private and public institutions.
Łódź, Poland Agnieszka Zakrzewska-Bielawska

Iwona Staniec
Contents
Part I Challenges of Industry 4.0

1 Barriers of Creating Competitive Advantage in the Age
of Industry 4.0: Conclusions from International Experience . . . . . . 3
Anna Adamik and Michał Nowicki
2 Industry 4.0 in Poland: A Systematic Literature Review
and Future Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Michał Młody and Adam Weinert
3 “Valleys of Death” in Creating, Commercializing, and Diffusion
of Key Enabling Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Edyta Gwarda-Gruszczyńska
4 Analysis of Ground-Breaking Technologies and Their Effect
on the Functioning of Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Edyta Bielińska-Dusza
5 Knowledge Sharing and Creativity: Individual
and Organizational Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Aleksandra Rudawska
6 Organisational Culture in the Industry 4.0 Era:
Introduction to Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Katarzyna Szymańska
Part II Cooperation and Coopetition

7 Network Approach in Industry 4.0: Perspective
of Coopetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Jerzy Niemczyk and Rafał Trzaska
8 Interorganizational Trust in Business Relations:
Cooperation and Coopetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Dagmara Lewicka and Agnieszka Zakrzewska-Bielawska
ix
x Contents
9 From Coopetition by Cooperation to Consolidation.

Contemporary Challenges of University Mergers
and Acquisitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Łukasz Sułkowski, Robert Seliga and Andrzej Woźniak
10 Communication Between Scientific Units and Companies
in the Context of Their Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Magdalena Grębosz-Krawczyk and Sławomir Milczarek
11 The Risk Perceptions as Antecedents of Opportunism
in Technological Entrepreneurship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Iwona Staniec and Yochanan Shachmurove
12 Financial Services Companies’ Abilities to Collaborative
Technology Absorption Versus Their Innovativeness . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Waldemar Glabiszewski, Agata Sudolska, Joanna Górka
and Angelika Pańka
13 Proximity: Synthesis, Six-Dimensional Typology,
and Significance for Cooperation Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Patrycja Klimas
14 The Tourism Sector’s Development and Popularization
of Sharing Economy. The Impact on Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Dagmara Wójcik, Patrycja Klimas, Katarzyna Czernek-Marszałek
and Patrycja Juszczyk
15 Conflicts in Foreign Inter-organisational Relationships
of Multinational Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Aleksandra Hauke-Lopes, Krzysztof Fonfara
and Milena Ratajczak-Mrozek
16 Dynamics and the Dynamism of Strategy in Inter-organizational
Network—Research Project Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Aleksandra Sus and Michał Organa
17 Significance of Proactive Customer Orientation in Creating
Product Innovations in Cooperation with the Consumer . . . . . . . . 331
Katarzyna Liczmańska-Kopcewicz and Maciej Zastempowski
Part III Problems of Organizations’ Development in the Age

of Industry 4.0
18 Revolutionary Context of the Evolution of a Business
Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Cezary Suszyński
Contents xi
19 Understanding Cognitive Biases in Strategic Decisions

for Value Creation and Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Mariusz Bratnicki and Wojciech Dyduch
20 Managing Organization Development: Identifying Research
Patterns and Mapping the Research Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Andrzej Lis
21 Virtual Brand Communities as a Source of Value Co-creation . . . . 397
Dagna Siuda
22 Chosen Aspects of Co-creating an Employer’s Image
by Employees as Prosumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Agnieszka Izabela Baruk
23 Interoperability of Manufacturing Information Systems . . . . . . . . . 427
Andrzej Kamiński
24 Company Involvement in Sustainable Development—Proposition
of a Theoretical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Aldona Glińska-Neweś, Paweł Brzustewicz, Iwona Escher,
Yulia Fomina, Barbara Józefowicz, Irina Katunina,
Joanna Petrykowska and Dawid Szostek
25 Political Will: Mechanisms of Stakeholder Management . . . . . . . . . 453
Monika Kulikowska-Pawlak
Part I
Challenges of Industry 4.0
Chapter 1
Barriers of Creating Competitive
Advantage in the Age of Industry 4.0:
Conclusions from International
Experience
Anna Adamik and Michał Nowicki
Abstract Industry Revolution 4.0 generate significant issues to still a large group
of enterprises and often even barriers to the processes of their further growth or
improving market competitiveness. Unfortunately, awareness among the businesses
regarding their specificity, prevalence and real consequences is limited. This is why
identification of major problems of effective shaping of enterprises’ competitive-
ness in the Industry 4.0 era is the research problem. Consequently, the main goal
of the paper is to identify and map the key barriers and potential sources of failure
in processes of building competitive advantage of enterprises operating in the age
of Industry 4.0, the so-called Black Points and creation of a specific “Road Map”,
which is a path/algorithm of actions illustrating how organisations can better pre-
pare themselves to overcome these key barriers. The research was based on a review
of the literature on strategic management, competitiveness of businesses, theory on
competitive advantage or describing requirements that organisations face in the age
of IR 4.0. The collected data was compared with the empirical results of research by
global management consultancies who assessed the problems and degree of imple-
mentation of IR 4.0 solutions and preparation of enterprises from various countries
to the requirements of IR 4.0.
Keywords Organisation competitiveness · Competitive advantage · Company

development · Industry 4.0 revolution · Black Points Industry 4.0
JEL L29 · O31 · O32 · O33
A. Adamik (B) · M. Nowicki

Department of Management, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland
e-mail: anna.adamik@p.lodz.pl
M. Nowicki
e-mail: michal.nowicki@p.lodz.pl
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 3

A. Zakrzewska-Bielawska and I. Staniec (eds.), Contemporary Challenges
in Cooperation and Coopetition in the Age of Industry 4.0, Springer Proceedings
in Business and Economics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30549-9_1
4 A. Adamik and M. Nowicki
1.1 Introduction
Industry Revolution 4.0, IR 4.0, brings not only chances and opportunities to con-
temporary organisations,1 but also difficult challenges.2 Many of those challenges
generate significant issues to still a large group of enterprises and often even bar-
riers to the processes of their further growth or creating market competitiveness.3
Unfortunately, the awareness among the businesses regarding their prevalence and
real consequences is limited. This brings surprises, discouragement and resistance in
relation to the changes required on the path to building competitive advantage typical
to the age of IR 4.0, changes and the accompanying investment/implementation pro-
cesses. Seemingly, the occurrence of such situations can be limited. Support may be
given by promoting, among businesses, academic lecturers and students the so-called
good business practices for the discussed subject and signalling the key, most com-
mon issues, called “Black Points”. Regrettably, the latter ones are rarely described in
the literature on the subject, even though they may act as significant “warning signs”
in the organisational transition processes that are currently conducted in practice.
The research problem of the article is identification and help in reducing major
problems of effective shaping of enterprises’ competitiveness in the Industry 4.0
era. That is why the main goal of the paper is to identify and map the key barriers
and potential sources of failure in processes of building competitive advantage of
enterprises operating in the age of Industry 4.0., the so-called Black Points (Black
Points of Competitive Advantages IR 4.0—BPCA 4.0), and propose a specific “Road
Map”, which is a path/algorithm for actions that will make it possible to avoid them
or prepare for them.
In the theoretical part (Sect. 1.2) of the paper, research was based on a systematic
review of world literature on strategic management, competitiveness of businesses,
theory on competitive advantage and describing requirements and organisational
issues in the age of IR 4.0. The bibliometric analyses were conducted on Web of
Science Core Collection and Scopus databases. The research resulted in collecting
the data showing the current state and growth in the interest in the problems of
Industry 4.0, which also allows for indicating some theoretical/empirical gaps. Given
the above, in Sect. 1.3, the authors focused on presenting a (prototype) of a model
concept for the process of achieving competitive advantage in the age of Industry
4.0. The key CA IR 4.0 barriers and inhibitors, as well as catalysts and accelerators
for this process, were separately presented in blocks.
After methodical Sect. 1.4, in the empirical part of the paper (Sect. 1.5, Results and
Discussion), the model presentation was compared to results of research published
in various scientific articles about “Industry 4.0” (see the references), as well as
published by global management consultancies attempting to assess the degree of
implementation of IR 4.0 solutions in various industries and the degree to which
businesses from various countries are prepared for the requirements of IR 4.0. The
1 See, i.e. [9, 21, 22, 47].

2 See, i.e. [32, 40, 42, 58].
3 See, i.e. [2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 12, 33, 49].
1 Barriers of Creating Competitive Advantage in the Age … 5
following reports were analysed: [16, 31, 41, 55]. Empirical research showing and
verifying the validity of the proposed model was carried out. Verification of the
hypotheses formulated in the paper and an attempt to assess how commonly in
the economic practice the key “Barriers of CA IR 4.0” occur using the individual
platforms then acted as a basis for formulating the “Map of Black Points of CA IR
4.0 creation” and proposing the recommendation on how to circumvent or defeat
those barriers. The study is summarised with the conclusions from the conducted
research.
1.2 Literature Review
In order to identify the key drivers for the processes of building competitive advantage
of enterprises operating in the age of Industry 4.0, the literature on the subject was
researched. Bibliometric research is the first part of conducted desk research. It aimed
to confirm the existence and assess the size of identified research gap related to the
problems and barriers of building a competitive advantage of enterprises in the Indus-
try 4.0 era. In-depth (systematic) literature review is the second part of conducted
desk research. Its purpose was to systematise and prioritise negative determinants
(barriers) of effective building a competitive advantage in the Industry 4.0 era.
The bibliometric research was conducted using the method of a systematic review
of the literature on “Industry 4.0” available in two international databases—WoS CC
and Scopus. It was supported with in-depth bibliometric research.
The analytical work was focused on studying the selected data sets, taking
account of “type of publication”4 and “scientific field/research area”.5 Such approach
is a certain novelty as compared to the bibliometric analyses of the subject of “Indus-
try 4.0” performed by other researchers.6 Secondary research of the selected papers
showed that in most of such publications, reviews and comparisons used full aggrega-
tion, i.e. selection of data was knowingly given up, i.e. the research field/specialisation
was disregarded. Therefore, the results obtained in the above cases may be considered
to be low reliability and not fully valid if the objective is to recognise and analyse
the output of the literature on “Industry 4.0” within the discipline of management
and related sciences.
4 Only the following types of publications were taken into account: articles, proceedings, reports,
book chapters. Therefore, publications excluded included, e.g. reviews, news items/notes, or edito-
rial materials, etc.
5 In the case of analyses based on WoS CC resources, only the publications indexed in
at least one of the following Web of Science Categories were taken into account: busi-
ness/business finance/economics/management/operations research management science/planning
development/engineering manufacturing. When selecting the data sets to be obtained from Scopus
database, filters were used, which caused further analyses to be conducted on publications indexed in
at least one of the following categories (Scopus): Business, Management and Accounting/Computer
Science/Decision Sciences/Economics, Econometrics and Finance/Engineering/Environmental
Science/Social Sciences.
6 See: [6, 30¸ 43].
The work started by preparing the bibliometric map. To do that, VOSviewer

software was used,7 to which the data obtained from WoS CC database was input
(obviously, taking account of only the literature in the field/discipline of management
and related sciences) reflecting the volume of indexed publications containing in the
title the keywords {Industry 4.0,8 competitiveness,9 competitive advantage,10 open
resources,11 open culture,12 open knowledge13 }.
In the era of Industry 4.0 “open culture”, “open knowledge” and “open resources”
are the basic sources of enterprises competitive advantage. If they are successfully
developed in a conscious and long-term manner, they have a chance to generate their
7 Itis a software tool for constructing and visualizing bibliometric networks.

8 Industry 4.0 → The concept of Industry 4.0 appeared in the literature in the year 2011 [27, 50].
It helped entrepreneurs to realise key developmental directions for the near future that determine
the possibilities of gaining and maintaining competitive advantages. The Industry 4.0 challenges
encompassed several areas such as: Autonomous Robots, Simulations, Vertical/Horizontal Software
Integration, Machine-to-Machine Communication (M2M), Industrial Internet of Things, Internet
of Services, Big Data and Analytics, Clouds, Additive Manufacturing, Augmented Reality, Virtual
Reality, Cyber-Physical Systems, Digital Twin, Artificial Intelligence, Neural Networks, Cyberse-
curity and Mass Customisation. At the same time, considerations accompanying the concept pointed
to a need to respect six key principles of effective competition under the conditions of Industry 4.0.
These principles are: (1) inter-organisational cooperation, (2) virtualisation of business activities,
(3) decentralisation of management processes, (4) real-time assessment of all kinds of organisational
capabilities (e.g. production, sales, transport, warehousing capabilities, etc.), (5) service orientation,
and (6) modularity of the proposed products, services and other types of solutions Hermann et al.
(2015).
9 Competitiveness → The organisation’s competitiveness is the state of the organisation’s dynamic
balance, developed due to its strategic fit. It is a relatively permanent system of relations between
the organisation and its environment, as well as within the organisation itself, which allows it to
comply with the requirements of the organisation’s environment and members (in the material and
technical, as well as political and social sense).
10 Competitive advantage → It is the ability of a given organisation to consciously identify, imple-
ment, develop, protect and obtain benefits of unique resources and skills (encompassing all the
organisation’s value chain links) which, being desired and valued by the market, are not available
to the same extent to other competitors. Such an advantage appears when resources are configured
and exploited in a proper manner. It leads to a situation in which a company has something that
distinguishes it in the market out of the ranks of its competitors, i.e. special assets that allow it to do
something better or differently from its competitors, and consequently achieves better results that
lead to a specific superiority over other.
11 Open resources → This openness should apply to an enterprise’s resources as well as resources
of its customers, suppliers and competitors. In fact, it should encompass entities that have comple-
mentary skills and do not hesitate to use them in relationships of co-creation with other sectors.
12 Open culture → It is the type of culture characterized by the so-called openness to space, which
means openness to change, openness to uncertainty and openness to flexibility. Such culture should
be characterized by openness to learning as well as promoting and encouraging flexibility and
creativity.
13 Open knowledge → It is a common good from which everyone can benefit, a staff member and an
organization itself or its business partners. Moreover, everyone can participate in its development.
Knowledge is open if everyone has free access to it, can use, modify and share it with others,
subject to the requirements of, at most, the determination of the sources of its origin or maintaining
its openness.
Fig. 1.1 Bibliometric map of keyword associations. Source Own elaboration
high competitiveness. The reason “why it is as it is” is quite simple. Due to enterprises’
openness in different areas of their business activity, they can dynamically respond
to changes in a volatile environment and reduce its complexity. Therefore, openness
of enterprises should be seen as a key factor in raising the competitiveness of the
European economy [5].
The map in Fig. 1.1 shows the subject of Industry 4.0 is closely related to compet-
itiveness (cluster: “competitiveness”), development (cluster: “development”), enter-
prises/entrepreneurship (cluster: “enterprise” and “SMEs”) and performance (clus-
ter: “performance”). Contrary to the expectations, there was no statistically sig-
nificant connection between the subjects: “Industry 4.0” and “barriers of creating
competitive advantage in the age of industry 4.0”.
This result encouraged us to explore the case closer. To that goal, detailed analyses
were performed, consisting of several stages, using the principle “from the general
to the specific”. Working on WoS CC database, first we prepared a comparison
of bibliometric data including publications containing the keyword “Industry 4.0”,
which described the character of the article (filter: “topic”), then limiting them to
those containing the keyword “Industry 4.0” in the title (filter: “title”). To achieve
a deeper analysis, then data sets were created containing publications containing
in their titles the combination of keywords: “Industry 4.0 and barriers”, “Industry
4.0 and competitiveness”, “Industry 4.0 and competitive advantage”, “Industry 4.0
and open resources”, “Industry 4.0 and open culture” and “Industry 4.0 and open
knowledge”. A similar approach was applied to the analyses of Scopus database.
First, for the keyword “Industry 4.0”, a set was filtered using “article title, abstract,
keywords”,14 and then using the filter “article title”.15 The deepened analyses used
the filter which allowed us to pick up the articles with given subjects (again filter
14 Equivalent of filter “topic” used with WoS CC.

15 Equivalent of filter “title” used with WoS CC.
“article title, abstract, keywords”). The achieved data was then subjected to detailed
analyses.16
Next, a ranking of “Top publishing” countries was created, and histograms
showing the increments in publishing articles containing a given keyword/keywords
in the title (or specifying the subject matter). The results of the above work are
presented in Table 1.1 (WoS CC database bibliometric data), Table 1.2 (Scopus
database bibliometric data) and Fig. 1.2 (WoS CC and Scopus data about dispropor-
tion between articles about Industry 4.0 and articles about barriers of Industry 4.0)
and Fig. 1.3 (WoS CC and Scopus data about top publishing countries).
After analysis of the data shown in Table 1.1 (WoS CC database bibliometric
data) and 2 (Scopus database bibliometric data) and those shown in Fig. 1.2 (WoS
CC and Scopus data about disproportion between articles about Industry 4.0 and
articles about barriers of Industry 4.0) and 3 (WoS CC and Scopus data about top
publishing countries), it can be concluded that:
1. The subject of Industry 4.0 is relatively often discussed in articles representing
the subject matter (discipline) of management and related sciences. The database
WoS CC indexed n = 711 and 224 (filter: “topic” and “title”) articles containing
keyword “Industry 4.0”. For Scopus database, it was, respectively, n = 2732 and
820 publications.
2. There is a high disproportion between the volume of articles “generally”
discussing the subject matter of Industry 4.0 (n = 711 and 224 for WoS CC
and n = 2732 and 820 for Scopus), and the volume of articles focusing on the
specialised aspects, i.e. “the barriers for implementing solutions related to
Industry 4.0” (n = 13 and 34—see Fig. 1.1), “competitiveness” (n = 49 and 77)
and “creating competitive advantages” (35 and 49) in the reality of Industry 4.0
revolution, or relations to the use of “open resources” (n = 17 and 24), “open
culture” (4 and 4) and “open knowledge” planes (17 and 23).
3. The most often cited publications related to Industry 4.0 are cited much more
often than others—those with “average” citations (WoS CC: h-index = 23 and
16 Based on the data obtained from WoS CC, the following were determined:
1. n = number of articles indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection database that contain a
given keyword;
2. h = h – index for all articles;
3. C = sum of times cited (without self-citations);
4. WoS “X” = highest citation value;
5. ACR = average citations per item;
Based on the data obtained from Scopus, the following were determined:
1. n = number of articles indexed in the Scopus database that contain a given keyword;
2. C = sum of times cited;
3. HCV = highest citation value for an article;
4. “X/Y /Z/…” = number of citations of article with highest citation value (descending order);
5. FWCI = Field-Weighted Citation Impact.
Table 1.1 WoS CC database bibliometric data
Keyword Web of science core collection data Publications by year: 2010–2018
Industry 4.0 (filter: Number of articles n = 711 Countries with the 1. Germany
“topic”) indexed in the Web h–index = 23 largest number of (156/21.94%)
of Science Core C = 2063 publications 2. Italy (55/7.74%)
Collection database WoS A = 192 indexed in the Web 3. USA (51/7.17%)
that contain a given ACR = 338 of Science Core 4. England
keyword Collection database (49/6.89%)
[N = number of that contains a given 5. China
articles/h—index keyword (48/6.75%)
…
for all articles/C =
13. Poland
sum of times cited
(23/3.23%)
(without
Industry 4.0 (filter: self-citations)/WoS n = 224 1. Germany
“title”) X = highest citation h–index = 11 (41/18.30%)
value/ACR = C = 623 2. Czech Republic
average citations WoS B = 60 (24/10.71%)
per item] ACR = 3.29 3. England
(18/8.04%)
4. Brazil
1 Barriers of Creating Competitive Advantage in the Age …
(15/6.70%)
5. Italy (15/6.70%)
…
10. Poland
(11/4.91%)
(continued)
9
Table 1.1 (continued)
10

Industry 4.0 and n = 13 1. England (3)
barriers h–index = 3 2. Germany (3)
(filter: “title”) C, ART. 63 3. Brazil (2)
WoS C = 26 4. USA (2)
ACR = 4.85 5. Czech Republic
(1)
…
10. Poland (1)
Industry 4.0 and n = 49 1. Czech Republic

competitiveness h–index = 6 (8)
(filter: “title”) C = 99 2. Germany (6)
WoS D = 25 3. England (4)
ACR = 2.08 4. Poland (4)
5. Lithuania (3)
Industry 4.0 and n = 35 1. Malaysia (7)

competitive h–index = 4 2. Germany (4)
advantage C = 66 3. Czech Republic
(filter: “title”) WoS E = 13 (3)
ACR = 1.89 4. Denmark (3)
5. Turkey (3)
…
9. Poland (2)
(continued)
A. Adamik and M. Nowicki
Industry 4.0 and n = 17 1. USA (4)
open resources h–index = 5 2. Germany (3)
(filter: “title”) C = 68 3. Malaysia (3)
WoS F = 19 4. England (2)
ACR = 4 5. Russia (2)
…
X. Poland (0)
Industry 4.0 and n=4 1. England (1)

open culture h–index = 2 2. Malaysia (1)
(filter: “title”) C = 10 3. Russia (1)
WoS G = 6 4. South Africa (1)
ACR = 2.50 5. USA (1)
…
X. Poland (0)
Industry 4.0 and n = 17 1. England (3)

open knowledge h–index = 6 2. Germany (3)

(filter: “title”) C = 95 3. Spain (3)
WoS H = 29 4. Italy (2)
ACR = 5.59 5. Sweden (2)
…
X. Poland (0)
Source Own elaboration

11
Table 1.2 Scopus database bibliometric data
12
Keyword Scopus data Publications by year

Industry 4.0** Number of articles n = 2732 Countries with the 1. GER
indexed in the C = - NA - largest number of (777/28.44%)
Scopus database that SCOP A = 692 publications 2. Italy
contain a given 2018: 335 indexed in the (233/8.53%)
keyword 2017: 222 Scopus database 3. USA
[n = number of 2016: 116 that contain a given (195/7.14%)
articles/C = sum of 2015: 19 keyword 4. CHPR
times cited/ HCV = FWCI = 8697 (182/6.66%)
highest citation value 5. Spain
for an article/number (131/4.80%)
…
of citations of article 14. Poland
with highest citation (63/2.31%)
value (descending
Industry 4.0* order: 2018–2015) n = 820 1. GER
FWCI = C = 3049 (285/34.76%)
Field-Weighted SCOP B = 692 2. Italy (66/8.05%)
Citation Impact] 2018: 335 3. UK (42/5.12%)
2017: 222 4. Spain
2016: 116 (40/4.88%)
2015: 19 5. USA (37/4.51%)
FWCI = 8697 …
12. Poland
(23/2.80%)
(continued)
Industry 4.0 and n = 34 1. Germany (8)
barriers C = 80 2. USA (7)
SCOP C = 33 3. Italy (5)
2018: 26 4. Brazil (4)
2017: 6 5. UK (3)
2016: 1 …
FWCI = 5.72 14. Poland (1)

competitiveness C = 253 2. Italy (10)
SCOP D = 66 3. UK (7)
2018: 31 4. Spain (6)
2017: 20 5. USA (6)
2016: 11 …
2015: 3 33. Poland (1)
FWCI = 22.52

competitive C = 49 2. UK (4)
advantage* SCOP E = 8 3. Denmark (3)
2018: 6 4. Italy (3)
2017: 2 5. Austria (2)
FWCI = 2.14 …
10. Poland (2)
(continued)
13
14

Industry 4.0 and n = 24 1. Italy (5)
open resources* C = 29 2. USA (4)
SCOP F = 10 3. China (3)
2018: 10 4. Austria (2)
FWCI = 3.02 5. Germany (2)
…
X. Poland (0)
Industry 4.0 and n=4 1. China (2)

open culture * C=0 2. Austria (1)
SCOP G = 0 3. Bangladesh (1)
FWCI = - NA - 4. Ethiopia (1)
5. Greece (1)
…
X. Poland (0)
Industry 4.0 and n = 23 1. China (3)

open knowledge* C = 32 2. Germany (3)
SCOP H = 17 3. Spain (3)
2018: 16 4. Norway (2)
2017: 1 5. UK (2)
FWCI = 6.49 …
X. Poland (0)
Source Own elaboration

* query in the Scopus database with parameter “topic”
** query in the Scopus database with parameter “title”
Fig. 1.2 WoS CC and Scopus data about disproportion between articles about Industry 4.0 and
articles about barriers of Industry 4.0. Source Own elaboration
Fig. 1.3 Top publishing countries about Industry 4.0 (WoS CC and Scopus data). Source Own
elaboration
ACR = 3.38 and h-index = 11 and ACR = 3.29; Scopus: FWCI for the most
often cited article = 6.97!).
4. In terms of publications, the top centres are from Germany, Italy, and the USA,
given the number of publications indexed in WoS CC/Scopus, for which the key-
word “Industry 4.0” described the subject matter (filter “topic”). It is respectively
n = 156 and 777 for publications from Germany, n = 55 and 233 for publications
from Italy and n = 51 and 195 for publications from the USA.
5. In terms of the volume of articles published, for which the keyword “Industry 4.0”
is included in the title, the most publications are from centres in Germany, Czech
Republic, England (WoS CC: n = 41/24/18) or Germany, Italy and England
(Scopus: n = 285/66/42).
6. Both databases indexed publications from Poland, however, their share at best
ranks “us” at the end of the top ten most active publication “centres”.
7. The three (3) articles generally dealing with the subject matter of Industry 4.0
with highest number of citations containing a given keyword/keywords:
– WOS CC17 : [37]/(Times Cited = 226)]; [35], (Times Cited = 197)];
[56]/(Times Cited = 122)];
– Scopus18 : [36]/Citations in Scopus = 709; FWCI = 86.97]; [37]/Citations in
Scopus = 328; FWCI = 113.95]; [35]/Citations in Scopus = 310; FWCI =
21.26].
8. The three (3) most often cited articles dealing with the subject of the benefits
(advantages) of implementing Industry 4.0 are:
– WOS CC: [34]/(Times Cited = 8)]; [54]/(Times Cited = 3)]; [21]/(Times Cited
= 1)];
– Scopus: [34]/Citations in Scopus = 17; FWCI = 7.51]; [19]/Citations in Sco-
pus = 5; FWCI = 0.79]; [22]/Citations in Scopus = 3; FWCI = 0.38].
9. The three (3) most often cited articles dealing with the subject of barriers and
issues in implementing Industry 4.0 are19 :
– WOS CC: [29]/Times Cited = 3]; [11]/Times Cited = 2]; [58]/Times Cited =
2];
– Scopus: [42]/Citations in Scopus = 2; FWCI = 1]; [40]/Citations in Scopus
= 1; FWCI = 1,12]; [32]/Citations in Scopus = 0; FWCI = 0.00].
The general and detailed bibliometric analyses conducted clearly showed that
even though the subject of barriers to building competitive advantage in the age of
Industry 4.0 is developing, the publication volume on that subject20 is relatively low
as compared to the publication volume of articles on the general subject of “Industry
4.0”21 (see Tables 1.1 and 1.2). Due to the fact that the essence of IR 4.0 is most
often considered in practice to be skilful implementation of a combination of new IT
technologies, Internet of things mainly and new production, transport and handling
technologies plus new materials and related processes, contemporary organisations
must learn to live and function in networks of various types of relationships not only
in the real but also in the virtual/cyber plane of activity (in the virtual reality). In
order to meet this challenge, they unfortunately must undergo changes related to:
(1) technologies they use,
(2) their organisational solutions, but also the
(3) relationships they use and develop and their social competencies.
17 The search used the filter “title”.

18 The search used the filter “article title” (equivalent of “title” in WoS CC).
19 As an exception, filter “topic” was used, as the filter “title” yielded very little valuable results.
20 During the last 5 years for WoS CC:0/1/2/5/5 and for Scopus: 1/1/3/10/17.
21 During the last 5 years for WoS CC:2/5/36/103/73) and for Scopus: 32/83/122/226/319.
New technologies [23, 48] must be supported by concepts and models that are
appropriate for IR 4.0 [10], as well as appropriate strategies of both development
and competition of businesses [2, 1], functional strategies [13], structural solutions
[15, 44] and their supporting relationships, competencies and social attitudes of
employees and managers [39]. Due to the fact that such solutions concern so many
different areas, business practitioners often find it difficult to formulate consistent,
well-directed and highly effective programs that prepare their companies to the age
of Industry 4.0.
This observation inspired us to work on “Determinants of achieving competitive
advantage in the age of Industry 4.0 → CA IR 4.0” (stimulating and blocking factors),
on three special blocks/platforms: Technological Platform, Knowledge Platform
and Human Resource Platform.
It should be noted that the in-depth literature review has provided convincing
evidence that when describing the most important CA IR 4.0 barriers one should
focus on: Technological Platform, Knowledge Platform and Human Resource
Platform [1–4, 11, 13, 15, 23, 29, 32, 40, 39, 42, 44, 48]. That is why authors decided
to define and try to validate the following main hypothesis:
• MH: Barriers of creating Competitive Advantage in the age of Industry 4.0 (Black
Points CA IR 4.0) are present on many related to each other planes (platforms) of
competitive potential of contemporary organisations.
In order to be able to better verify the above main hypothesis, detailed hypotheses
were formulated:
• H1: Barriers and shortages occurring on Human Resource Platform block the
contemporary companies’ readiness to effectively use the Knowledge Platform
resources;
• H2: Barriers and shortages occurring on Knowledge Platform block the contempo-
rary companies’ readiness to effectively use the Technological Platform resources;
• H3: Barriers and shortages occurring on Technological Platform block the contem-
porary companies’ readiness to obtain various Competitive Advantages associated
with Industry Revolution 4.0. (CA IR 4.0) and thus build strong (high) competi-
tiveness.
1.3 Determinants of Achieving Competitive Advantage

in the Age of Industry 4.0—Framework of Conception
The performed review of the literature allowed us to identify two problem areas that
are a key for the processes of building advantage: the plane of factors blocking the
readiness companies to creating CA IR 4.0 (Black Points) and the plane of stimulating
factors, fostering the real creation of CA IR 4.0 (Lighthouses). Those planes are
interconnected and compatible. They are connected by the plane of transitory and
adjustment actions to IR 4.0. Research showed that similarly to the mythical “tree
of life”,22 or the model cycle of organisation’s life by Greiner23 [25] organisations

reach readiness to creating CA IR 4.0 by skilfully coping with crisis situations typical
to IR 4.0. They do this by overcoming Black Points generated by their competitive
potential [17, 28, 53]. It is only the knowledge and experience acquired in these
actions that give them the skills necessary to create, stimulate and utilise the sources
of competitive advantage effective in IR 4.0 (Lighthouses), as shown in the research,
currently mainly inherent in the ability to create the so-called: Open Culture, Open
Knowledge and Open Resources [4, 5, 46, 57]. These observations were shown in
the original concept of the model “Tree of Life of CA IR 4.0”.
The model shows the role of quick and effective identification and elimina-
tion of key Black Points that may occur in each of the three, hierarchically inter-
connected platforms (HR/Knowledge/Technological Platform). By eliminating the
Black Points, organisations gradually increase the level of their readiness to create
competitiveness in the conditions of IR 4.0 by which they get closer to “PLANE
2—READINESS TO CREATING CA IR 4.0”. In order to go further and transit to
PLANE 3, they must be able to effectively implement and use methods, techniques,
tools, strategies and other solutions that are key to the age of IR 4.0, which should
support efficient creation of Open Culture, Open Knowledge and Open Resources
that are present in IR 4.0.
Due to the objectives of the paper, further analyses focus on PLANE 1—Black
Points of CA IR 4.0. Those barriers occur in many planes of the organisation (HG),
however, most often in Human Resource Platform, Knowledge Platform and Techno-
logical Platform. What is important, the factors from the first platform are the source
of multiplying Black Points, in the next two platforms. At the same time, the barriers
occurring in the second one (Knowledge Platform) initiate new issues in the third
(Technological Platform). This way, each of the platforms causes blocking of the
READINESS OF MODERN ORGANISATIONS TO CREATE CA IR 4.0 (H1, H2,
H3). Similarly, effective overcoming Black Points related to Human Resource Plat-
form reduces issues in the Knowledge Platform and coping in that platform weakens
barriers them may occur in the Technological Platform.
Therefore, the key to ensure effective competitiveness of enterprises in IR 4.0
seemed to be identifying the most common barriers to competitiveness on the base
platforms listed above, therefore the real Black Points of CA IR 4.0. This was
attempted in the empirical part of the paper.
22 The Tree of Life perceived as a cultural pattern, symbolised the perpetual rebirth of nature and
had the gift of giving immortality (in Jewish, Christian, Muslim, Buddhist traditions, the Greek
myth of Heracles); it is also a bridge between two worlds—the lower, problematic one (roots, earth)
and the ideal, dream one (crown, heaven) [24, 38].
23 History shows that the same organizational practices are not maintained throughout a long-life
span. This demonstrates a most basic point: management problems and principles are rooted in
time.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
throws light on a much contested subject; namely, the nature of the
so-called "intertentacular organ" (i, Fig. 234, p. 469), described so
long ago as 1837 by Farre,[573] but looked for in vain by the majority
of later observers.
The failure to find this organ, even in species which possess it, in
certain individuals, according to Farre's statements, is now
satisfactorily explained by M. Prouho, who shows that while it is
absent in a large number of polypides, it is normally present in those
individuals which possess an ovary, and in those only; and that its
primary function is that of an oviduct.
The intertentacular organ is an unpaired ciliated tube, which is

situated between the two tentacles which are nearest to the
ganglion. In the retracted condition of the polypide, it opens from the
body-cavity into the tentacle-sheath; and in the expanded condition,
directly to the exterior.
In the remarkable case of Alcyonidium duplex, each zooecium

normally possesses two sexual polypides. The first of these
produces a testis and then becomes a "brown body." The second is
meanwhile developed, and produces an ovary and an intertentacular
organ, a structure which was not present in the male polypide. The
eggs pass through the intertentacular organ into the tentacle-sheath,
and attach themselves to the diaphragm (d, Fig. 234), where they
remain during their development.
Although the intertentacular organ has been found by Prouho in

female polypides only, it would perhaps be going too far to assert
that it is confined to polypides of that sex. Hincks[574] has observed
the passage of spermatozoa in enormous numbers through the
organ, although it may be noted that there is no sufficient proof that
eggs were not present as well in these zooecia. It further appears
that in some cases waste matters may be removed from the body-
cavity through the same passage.
It may be presumed that the egg is normally fertilised by a
spermatozoon, although this is at present largely a matter of
inference. It is believed by Joliet[575] that fertilisation is reciprocal,
although Prouho has come to the opposite conclusion. Joliet has,
however, very justly pointed out that the enormous number of
spermatozoa developed by a single individual would be
disproportionately large, if their function were merely to fertilise the
ovum in the same zooecium. According to his view, the egg is
fertilised by a spermatozoon after it has passed into the tentacle-
sheath or ovicell, or some other place where it is in free
communication with the outside water.
Development and Affinities.—Few parts of the history of the

Polyzoa are more fascinating than that which deals with their
development; and it is probable that no other is capable of giving so
much insight into the affinities of the several groups to one another
and to other groups of the animal kingdom.
Fig. 252.—Diagrams of larvae. A, Loxosoma, × 208; a, anus; b, brain,

with left eye and ciliated pit; c, ciliated ring; ep, epistome; m,
mouth; o, oesophagus; st, stomach; x, aboral adhesive organ: B,
Cyphonautes larva of Membranipora (Electra) pilosa, × about 90;
a, m, o, st as in A; c, anterior part, and c', posterior part of the
ciliated ring; e, epidermis; ms, adductor muscle of shells; p,
pyriform organ, of unknown function; sh, shell; v, vestibule; the
"internal sac" or sucker, by which fixation is effected, is seen
between a and ms. (B, after Prouho.)
The comparative study of the larvae of the Polyzoa may be said to
date from 1877, when J. Barrois published an elaborate
Monograph[576] on this subject. Although some of Barrois' earlier
opinions have been subsequently modified, this work still gives the
best figures of the external form of the beautiful larvae of many
genera. A detailed account of the larval forms of Polyzoa must be
omitted from want of space; and the general conclusions only can be
given.
The larvae of the Entoprocta (Fig. 252, A) resemble the so-called

"Trochosphere" of Polychaeta (see p. 274). The common characters
shared by the larvae of Chaetopoda, Echiuroid Gephyrea, Mollusca,
and Polyzoa, and by adult Rotifera, may well point to the derivation
of these groups from a common ancestor. On this assumption, it is
possible that the Polyzoa have been derived from forms which
existed long ages ago, which combined the common characters of
these groups, and the structure of which we can picture to ourselves
only so far as the "Trochosphere" larva can be taken to represent it
in a much simplified condition. Such a view harmonises well with the
great antiquity of the Polyzoa. Certain Ectoproct forms have a larva,
known as Cyphonautes (Fig. 252, B), which closely resembles the
larval form of the Entoprocta; and it is a fact which probably has
considerable significance that this type of larva is known to occur
only in those species of Membranipora (Electra), Alcyonidium, and
Hypophorella, which lay eggs.[577] This may perhaps be regarded as
a primitive form of development which has been lost in species in
which development takes place inside the parent. Cyphonautes
compressus (Fig. 252, B), one of the commonest objects taken in the
surface-net off our own coasts, is the larva of Membranipora
(Electra) pilosa. Whilst this larva is provided with a well-developed
alimentary canal, those of most other Ectoprocta possess a mere
rudiment of this structure, and depend for their nutrition either on
yolk present in the egg or on material supplied by the parent. In most
cases the mature larva has no recognisable trace of a digestive
system; and, although it has a free-swimming period, it does not
become truly pelagic.
The alimentary canal of the larva of Pedicellina is known to persist in
the primary individual of the colony. In all other known cases, even in
that of Cyphonautes, the larva at fixation loses practically all its
internal organs, and becomes a mere body-wall containing a mass of
degenerated larval tissues. It is in fact a zooecium containing a
"brown body." A polypide-bud is now developed, the body-cavity
appears as the result of the shrinkage of the "brown body," and the
primary individual of the colony is thereby established.
The larvae of the Ectoprocta form a tolerably complete series,

starting from Cyphonautes, itself allied to the larva of the Entoprocta,
and ending with the Phylactolaemata. Alcyonidium (Fig. 253, B)
possesses a rudimentary alimentary canal,[578] although the most
conspicuous structures are those connected with the fixation and
other phenomena of larval life. The larvae of many of the encrusting
Cheilostomes (Fig. 253, A) resemble that of Alcyonidium, while those
of Bugula, Scrupocellaria, etc., belong to a type easily derivable from
that of the encrusting forms. The branching Ctenostomes
(Bowerbankia, etc.) have a larva which may be regarded as derived,
along slightly different lines, from that of Alcyonidium. The
Cyclostomata and the Phylactolaemata have the most modified
forms of larva. That of the former group may owe some of its
peculiarities to the occurrence of a remarkable process of embryonic
fission, which takes place in the ovicell, and as the result of which
each egg gives rise to a large number of larvae.[579] The
Phylactolaemata have a larva which is not unlike that of
Bowerbankia.
Fig. 253.—A, Aboral view of free larva of Lepralia foliacea Ell. and Sol.;
a, long cilia of pyriform organ; g, aboral groove: B, longitudinal
section of embryo of Alcyonidium, × 135; c, ciliated ring; g, aboral
groove; m, mouth; n, nervous system; p, "pyriform organ," of
unknown function; s, "internal sac" or "sucker," by which fixation is
effected; st, stomach.
We have seen that the larva at fixation becomes a zooecium, which

in the Gymnolaemata forms a polypide-bud after fixation. The
peculiarities of the Phylactolaematous larva may be explained by
assuming that it becomes a zooecium while it is still free-swimming.
Thus the larva of Plumatella develops one or sometimes two
polypides, which actually reach maturity before fixation takes place.
That of Cristatella develops from two to twenty[580] polypides or
polypide-buds at the corresponding period, and it is in fact a young
colony while still free-swimming.
Now in most colonial animals, such as Coelenterates and Ascidians,

the larva metamorphoses itself into a temporarily solitary animal,
which then gives rise to the remainder of the colony by budding. The
majority of the Gymnolaemata behave in this way; while the
Phylactolaemata may not only develop a multiplicity of polypides in
their larval stage, but the individuality of the zooecia is then just as
much obscured as in the adult state. These facts are more easily
explained if we assume that Cristatella is the end-point in a series
than if we suppose it to be a starting-point.
On the view maintained by many authorities, that the Polyzoa are
related, through Phoronis, with the Gephyrea and the Brachiopoda,
we should expect to find in those Polyzoa which most closely
resemble Phoronis in their adult state—that is to say in the
Phylactolaemata—some indications of affinity to that animal in their
development. This is emphatically not the case. The hypothesis that
the Phylactolaemata are related to Phoronis leads, moreover, to the
improbable conclusion that the similarities between the Entoproct-
larva and Cyphonautes, on the one hand, and the Trochosphere
larva of Polychaeta, on the other hand, is entirely superficial and
meaningless. In spite, therefore, of the similarity between Phoronis
and a single individual of the Phylactolaemata, and in spite of the
marked resemblance between its nephridia and structures which
have been described in Cristatella[581] and Pectinatella[582] the
comparative study of the development appears to indicate that the
resemblances between Phoronis and the Phylactolaemata are the
result of a coincidence rather than of any close relationship.
A few points connected with the metamorphosis of the Polyzoa

deserve more special notice. There is generally great difficulty in
persuading larvae to fix themselves when kept in a small quantity of
water, which becomes over-heated in the air of a laboratory. The
difficulty may be surmounted by placing colonies containing
embryos, together with some clean pieces of the seaweed on which
the adults are habitually found, in a vessel closed by a piece of fine
muslin, and by leaving the vessel attached to a buoy or in a deep
tide-pool. The larvae being without an alimentary canal, fix
themselves, after a very short free life, on the seaweed.
It is probable that a great struggle for existence normally takes place

at the commencement of the metamorphosis. Any one who will
examine, in June or July, rocks covered by Fucus on which Flustrella
hispida is growing, will probably find numerous young fronds of
Fucus, from half an inch to an inch or two in length, growing under
the shelter of the older fronds. The bivalve larvae of Flustrella show
a marked preference for fixing on these young fronds—perhaps in
order that the duration of life of the colony may coincide with that of
the Fucus—and these young fronds are commonly covered by very
numerous recently-fixed larvae, and by young colonies of various
ages. Or, it is easy to observe, by placing pregnant colonies of
Bowerbankia in a vessel of water, that the larvae, which are hatched
out in thousands, fix themselves in dense masses on certain parts of
the wall of the vessel. It is clear that but a small proportion of these
larvae will find room for further development.
Next with regard to the mode of fixation. Attachment always takes

place by the surface on which the mouth or its rudiment is situated,
and the permanent alimentary canal opens on the opposite surface.
In Pedicellina, the one case in which the larval digestive organs are
known to become those of the first adult individual, this presupposes
a rotation of the alimentary canal, in order to bring it into its new
position.
It is well known that the larvae of other fixed animals may undergo a
somewhat similar change. Thus those of Ascidians and of Barnacles
fix themselves by their anterior end, and ultimately reach their adult
form by performing a kind of a somersault. The process may
perhaps be explained by supposing that some part of the anterior
end or of the oral surface is specially sensitive, and that the larva
fixes itself by that portion of its body which is best fitted for
ascertaining which is the proper substance on which to fix.
Budding.—The formation of a new individual may take place by the

outgrowth of part of the body-wall, as in Pedicellina (Fig. 243, p. 487)
and in Bowerbankia (Fig. 238, p. 480). In Pedicellina a young stalk is
formed by an outgrowth near one of the growing points, and the
upper part of this outgrowth becomes constricted off to form the
calyx. In other cases (cf. the growing ends of the branches in Fig.
237) a partition grows across the body-cavity at the growing edge of
the colony, and so cuts off a part destined to become a new
zooecium.
The zooecium formed in one of these ways acquires an alimentary
canal by the formation of a polypide-bud, some stages in the growth
of which are shown in Fig. 235 (p. 472). Contrary to what happens in
Coelenterates and Tunicates, in which the endoderm takes part in
the budding, there is good reason for believing that in Polyzoa the
polypide-bud is developed entirely from ectoderm and mesoderm.
[583] The bud is a two-layered vesicle, attached to the inner side of
the body-wall. Its inner layer is derived from the ectoderm, which at
first projects into the body-cavity in the form of a solid knob
surrounded by mesoderm-cells. A cavity appears in the inner,
ectodermic mass, and the upper part of the vesicle so developed
becomes excessively thin, forming the tentacle-sheath, which is
always developed in the condition of retraction. The lower part
becomes thicker; its inner layer gives rise to the lining of the
alimentary canal, to the nervous system, and to the outer epithelium
of the tentacles, which grow out into the tentacle-sheath (cf. Fig.
235). The outer layer gives rise to the mesodermic structures, such
as the muscles, connective tissue, and generative organs.
These processes are fundamentally similar, whether in the

metamorphosed larva, in a young zooecium, in an old zooecium
after the formation of a "brown body," or in the germinating statoblast
of the Phylactolaemata.
CHAPTER XIX
POLYZOA (continued)
CLASSIFICATION—GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION—PALAEONTOLOGY—
METHODS FOR THE EXAMINATION OF SPECIFIC CHARACTERS—
TERMINOLOGY—KEY FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE GENERA OF
BRITISH MARINE POLYZOA
Our account of the Polyzoa would be manifestly incomplete without
some reference to the systematic arrangement of these animals. An
outline of the principal groups has been given on p. 475. So far, the
classification is easy, but it is otherwise when we attempt to
subdivide most of the groups any further.
Systems of classification which depend exclusively upon the external

characters of animals have been repeatedly shown to be
unsatisfactory. Now with regard to the Polyzoa, not only is it the case
that the great majority of forms are only known in their external
characteristics, but current systems of classification cannot be
regarded as final, because it is not yet certain which of the external
features have most systematic value. Two obvious points can be at
once selected—namely, the character of the zooecium and the
character of the entire colony. One or two instances will serve to
show what different results are obtained by depending exclusively on
either of these characters by itself.
According to the older writers, the habit of the colony was taken as
the most important generic character; and there can indeed be no
doubt that this feature has great importance within certain limits. Any
one who has examined different species of such genera as Flustra,
Cellaria, Bugula, Retepora, etc., must feel that the form of the colony
goes for a good deal. But a consideration of other cases shows that
there is great risk in the indiscriminate use of this method of
arranging the Polyzoa. The old genus Eschara, composed of forms
with an erect coral-like habit,[584] included species which are now
placed in such different genera as Lepralia, Porella, Microporella,
etc. The older works on Polyzoa include all encrusting forms of
Cheilostomata, with a completely calcareous front wall, in the genus
Lepralia, the members of which are now distributed in numerous
widely separated genera.
As an instance of the converse arrangement—essential similarity of

the zooecia with great differences of the general habit—may be
mentioned the common Membranipora (Electra) pilosa.[585]
Ordinarily growing in the form of close encrustations on seaweeds,
this species may take on entirely different habits of growth. The
zooecia are now dissociated, growing in single lines over the
substratum; now forming erect tufts, composed of single lines of
zooecia or of several rows. The erect, branching habit appears to be
induced in the first instance by the character of the seaweed on
which the colony begins life. Thus colonies which encrust the thin
branches of Corallina may have impressed on them something of the
mode of growth of the seaweed, so that when they extend beyond
the tips of the branches of the Corallina, they continue to grow in
delicate branches, which still retain more or less the same diameter
as those which form their base. An extreme variation results in the
beautiful form known as Electra verticillata, in which the zooecia are
arranged with great regularity in whorls, which together form erect
branches.[586] But with all these variations, the zooecia are so much
alike that it is hardly possible to regard the extreme forms as more
than varieties of a single species. A careful examination of this case
would convince most observers that the characters of the zooecium
are a more trustworthy guide to classification than those of the entire
colony, a result which was first clearly stated by Smitt, and amply
confirmed by Hincks.[587]
The avicularia of the Cheilostomata afford useful help in classifying

this group; but while certain genera are always provided with
avicularia, others include some species with these organs, and other
species without them. Again, while the species of some genera (e.g.
Cellepora) possess a great variety of forms of avicularia, the same
pattern of avicularium may characterise several widely different
genera. Further, the position of the avicularium may be very different
in species which are apparently closely related. Well-developed
vibracula, although constant in their occurrence in such forms as
Scrupocellaria (Fig. 254) and Caberea (Fig. 242), occur here and
there in species of encrusting forms which are ordinarily placed in
very different families.
Now although some of these discrepancies are perhaps due to
errors in classification, whereby species which are really allied have
been wrongly placed in distinct genera, this explanation would not
prove satisfactory in all cases. Thus in Bugula, a genus which is
specially characterised by the high development of its avicularia,
these organs are normally absent in B. neritina. The fact that this
species was rightly placed in the genus has been confirmed by the
discovery made by Waters[588] that avicularia occur in specimens
which are believed to be identical with that species.
Fig. 254.—A, Front view, and B, back view of part of a branch of

Scrupocellaria scabra, Van Ben., Durham Coast, × 43; a, lateral
avicularium; a', smaller median avicularium; ap, membranous
aperture; f, fornix; r, rootlet; s, seta of vibraculum; v.z, vibracular
zooecium.
1. The Cyclostomata appear to fall naturally into two main groups,

(A) the Articulata, including the Crisiidae (Fig. 237), distinguished
by their erect branches, divided at intervals by chitinous joints; and
(B) the Inarticulata, which include the remaining families, whether
erect or encrusting, agreeing in the negative character of being
unjointed.
2. The Cheilostomata consist of (A) the Cellularina, including the

flexible, erect forms, such as Bugula (Fig. 233) and Scrupocellaria
(Fig. 254); (B) the Flustrina, to which belong Flustra (Fig. 232),
Membranipora (Fig. 256, A, B), Micropora (Fig. 256, C), and other
forms in which the front wall of the zooecium is either membranous,
or depressed and marked off by a ridge-like margin; (C) the
Escharina, including the great majority of forms, in which no part of
the front wall remains membranous, the wall of the zooecium being
wholly calcified.
3. The Ctenostomata comprise (A) the Alcyonellea or encrusting

forms; and (B) the Vesicularina or branching forms. The zooecia in
the latter subdivision (Fig. 238) are given off from a tubular stem or
stolon, which is usually erect and branching.
We thus have the following arrangement of recent forms. The genera

mentioned are for the most part those which have already been
alluded to in the preceding account:—
Sub-class I. Entoprocta.
Loxosoma, Pedicellina, Urnatella.
Sub-class II. Ectoprocta.

Order 1. Gymnolaemata.
Sub-order 1. Cyclostomata.
A. Articulata. Crisia.
B. Inarticulata. Hornera, Idmonea, Tubulipora,
Stomatopora,
Diastopora, Entalophora, Lichenopora.
Sub-order 2. Cheilostomata.
A. Cellularina. Aetea, Eucratea,[589] Catenicella,
Cellularia, Gemellaria, Menipea, Scrupocellaria,
Caberea, Notamia (= Epistomia), Bicellaria, Bugula,
Beania.
B. Flustrina. Cellaria, Flustra, Membranipora, Electra,
Lunulites, Membraniporella, Cribrilina, Micropora,
Selenaria.
C. Escharina. Retepora, Microporella, Lepralia, Porella,
Smittia, Mucronella, Schizoporella, Schizotheca,
Mastigophora, Porina, Cellepora.
Sub-order 3. Ctenostomata.
A. Alcyonellea. Alcyonidium, Flustrella.
B. Vesicularina. Vesicularia, Amathia, Bowerbankia,
Farrella, Hypophorella, Triticella, Mimosella,
Victorella, Paludicella.
Order 2. Phylactolaemata.
Fredericella, Plumatella (including Alcyonella), Lophopus,
Cristatella, Pectinatella.
Even this classification, which deals only with the larger groups,
must not be made use of without a word of warning. The division of
the Cheilostomata is a matter of great difficulty; and no scheme
which has yet been suggested can be regarded as more than
tentative. The great number of forms included in this group makes its
subdivision extremely desirable from the point of view of
convenience; but a further knowledge of the anatomy and of the
development of many of the forms of doubtful systematic position is
probably necessary before any scheme which is likely to be
permanent is put forward. Those who desire to make a further study
of the classification of the Polyzoa should refer to the works of
Hincks,[590] Busk,[591] MacGillivray,[592] and Gregory.[593]
The Polyzoa do not appear to lend any valuable assistance towards

settling the disputed problems of Geographical Distribution. They are
not in any case terrestrial, while the fresh-water species do not
always respect the limits between the great zoogeographical
regions. It has already been pointed out (p. 504) that Plumatella,
Fredericella, and Lophopus are believed to occur in Australia, and
the first-named genus is practically world-wide in its distribution.
Many marine forms also have a surprisingly wide distribution. Thus

among the British species which are described by Mr. Hincks as
occurring from Norway to New Zealand are Membranipora pilosa,
Scrupocellaria scruposa, Cellaria fistulosa, Microporella ciliata, and
M. malusii. Even if it should be proved that specific differences do
exist between the southern forms and our own, there can be no
doubt of the wide distribution of certain species. It was pointed out by
D'Orbigny that Bugula neritina has the habit of attaching itself to the
bottoms of ships, a fact which may possibly account for the wide
distribution of this species; although it would not be safe to assume
this explanation of the facts in all cases. Other Polyzoa, on the
contrary, have a more restricted range. Thus Catenicella is specially
characteristic of the Australian region.
It is perhaps surprising that marine Polyzoa should in so many cases

have so wide a range. Even though it is the rule for Polyzoa to have
free larvae, the period during which these larvae are free-swimming
is, so far as is known, a short one in most cases. Cyphonautes is a
common pelagic form (see p. 510), and probably remains for a
considerable period in the larval condition. Other Polyzoon-larvae
appear to fix themselves very soon after their birth; and this would
not appear to give much time for them to be carried to great
distances by ocean-currents. It may, however, be suggested that it
does not follow that because we know that a larva may, under
favourable conditions fix itself a few minutes after it becomes free,
we should be justified in assuming that that larva would not retain for
a long period the power of undergoing a normal metamorphosis
should it be drifted away from suitable fixing-grounds.
Palaeontology.[594]—The number of fossil Polyzoa is enormous.

D'Orbigny devoted two hundred plates and more than a thousand
octavo pages[595] to a Monograph on the Cretaceous Polyzoa of
France. Many of the fossil forms are extraordinarily well preserved,
and there is often no difficulty in recognising the identity between
certain fossil species belonging to the more recent formations and
living forms. It thus becomes necessary to consult Palaeontological
memoirs in working at recent Polyzoa.
While the great majority of fossil Polyzoa do not differ in any

essential particular from recent species, this is not altogether the
case with the Palaeozoic forms. Leaving out of account the
Stromatoporoids, which have been variously referred to the
Sponges, Hydrozoa, and Foraminifera, as well as to the Polyzoa, the
Palaeozoic strata contain large numbers of peculiar Cyclostomata,
together with members of the Trepostomata, a fourth Sub-order of
Gymnolaemata, allied to the Cyclostomata. The Trepostomata are
for the most part Palaeozoic, but a few survived as late as the
Jurassic period.[596] These, with the other Polyzoa from the same
formations, are considered by Dr. Gregory in his recently published
Catalogue of the Fossil Bryozoa in the British Museum (1896).
The number of Polyzoa recorded from the earlier secondary strata is

small. The majority of the known Jurassic forms belong to the
Cyclostomata; and one or two Cheilostomes are recorded from the
same period. Recent papers by Walford[597] on Jurassic Polyzoa
contain the description of genera which are believed to be
intermediate between the Cyclostomata and Cheilostomata,
particularly with regard to the characters of their ovicells. Although it
is not impossible there may be a connection between the ovicells of
these two groups, it has yet to be proved that the two sets of
structures are homologous.
The Cretaceous period marks the commencement of a large number

of Cheilostome genera, although the Cyclostomes still remain
numerous.
In the Tertiary formations the Cyclostomes gradually become less

numerous, and although in earlier geological periods they far
outnumbered the Cheilostomes, these relations are now reversed.
Certain Tertiary strata, and particularly the Coralline Crag (Pliocene),
are remarkable for the extremely large number of Polyzoa they
contain. It will be noticed that no mention has been made of the
Entoprocta, the Ctenostomata, and the Phylactolaemata. Their
absence in the fossil condition[598] need not, however, be a matter
for surprise, as none of these forms are so well suited for being
fossilised as are the calcareous Cyclostomata and Cheilostomata.
There is consequently no adequate reason for assuming that the
absence of a palaeontological record implies that these groups have
been recently evolved.
Determination of Genera of Marine Polyzoa.—The species to
which a Polyzoon belongs can only be determined, in most cases,
with the assistance of the low powers of a microscope. There are
very great advantages in the use of a binocular instrument, by
means of which a microscopic preparation appears with its parts
standing up in proper relief.
In the case of the calcareous forms, the external characters may be

more readily made out in a dry preparation than in any other way.
For this purpose, the colony should be washed with fresh water, in
order to remove the salts, which otherwise crystallise out on drying
and obscure the surface. Preparations of this kind must be looked at
with the aid of reflected light. Canada-balsam or glycerine
preparations are also valuable, whether stained or unstained; and
are essential for the examination of the softer forms. In the case of
erect species, both surfaces of the branch should be looked at. The
opercula, avicularia, and rosette-plates afford important systematic
characters in the case of the Cheilostomata.
It must not be forgotten to take account of the condition of the

zooecia at different ages. The old zooecia often become entirely
altered in form, by the deposition of additional calcareous matter, or
by the loss of certain parts present in the younger zooecia. Thus the
marginal spines may be entirely lost in the older individuals, while in
those forms which develop a "peristome" (see Fig. 255 and p. 524),
the characters of the orifice can often be determined in the young
zooecia only. It is thus essential to examine the growing ends of the
branches or the rim of the colony, as the case may be.
Fig. 255.—Illustrating the nature of a secondary orifice

(Cheilostomata). A, Mucronella coccinea Abildg., Scilly Is., × 40.
The ovicell (o) overhangs the primary orifice, which is concealed
by the great development of the peristome, produced into the
mucro (mu); t, the three teeth (denticles) within the secondary
orifice; a, avicularium. B, Porella compressa Sowb., Norway, × 40;
p.o. primary orifice, above which is a concave lamina, the
beginning of the ovicell. In the lower zooecium the ovicell (o) is
further grown. The primary orifice is still visible, but it is partially
concealed by the growth of the peristome, which encloses a
minute avicularium; m, mandible of avicularium. C, Older part of
the same colony; pr, peristome; s.o, secondary orifice; o', adult
ovicell; p, pores.
In order to make preparations with the tentacles expanded,

hydrochlorate of cocaine, chloral hydrate or spirit should be added
gradually to the water. When the animals are completely
anaesthetised they may be killed by means of a 7-10 p.c. solution of
sulphate of copper (best made in distilled water or in rain water).
This method gives admirable results in the case of both fresh-water
and marine Polyzoa. The use of formaline (see p. 229) may be
strongly recommended for the Vesicularina.
The only recent work dealing with all the marine British forms is Mr.
Hincks' invaluable History of the British Marine Polyzoa.[599] As the
use of this book, unaided by any artificial help, is by no means easy
to the beginner, the following key has been compiled as an index to
the genera. The Entoproct forms, Loxosoma and Pedicellina (see pp.
488-491), are not included in the table.
Fig. 256.—Illustrating the terminology of the front surface of the

zooecium (Cheilostomata). A, Membranipora (Electra) pilosa L.,
Cromer, × 47; ap, the membranous "aperture;" o, orifice. B,
Membranipora flemingii Busk, Plymouth, × 60; ap, the aperture,
enclosed in a calcareous "area" (a); av, avicularium; s, marginal
spines. C, Micropora coriacea Esper, Plymouth, × 43; a, area
(calcareous); o, operculum; ov, ovicell.
In order to facilitate the use of the table here given in conjunction

with Mr. Hincks' work, the nomenclature there adopted has been
followed throughout. References to other descriptions of the species
may be obtained by consulting Miss Jelly's admirable Synonymic
Catalogue of the Recent Marine Bryozoa.[600]
Terminology.—A few technical terms must of necessity be

employed. The colony is adherent when its zooecia are attached to
the object on which the colony is growing. The zooecium is the body-
wall of a single individual; and, except in transparent species, is the
only part which can be seen from the outside in the retracted
condition of the polypide or tentacles with the alimentary canal. The
outermost layer of the zooecium is known as the ectocyst; it may be
simply membranous, or calcified, or may be rendered opaque by
foreign bodies; its surface in calcareous forms is often marked by
pores (Fig. 239, C, p), which are vacuities in the calcareous wall,
closed externally by membrane. A special median pore (Fig. 241, A,
m.p) may occur, and is in some cases at least a complete perforation
through the body-wall.
The tentacles are protruded through the orifice, which in

Cheilostomata is usually guarded by a movable chitinous lid, or
operculum (Fig. 256, A, o). Should the ectocyst be thickened or
raised into a ridge surrounding the orifice, a tubular passage results,
known as the secondary orifice (Fig. 255), at the deeper end of
which is the true orifice. The peristome (Fig. 255, C, pr) is the raised
or thickened part which gives rise to the secondary orifice. Should
the zooecium be outlined by a raised ridge, the part so enclosed is
known as the area (Fig. 256, C, a), if calcareous. The aperture or
opesia (Fig. 256, A, B, ap) is a membranous part of the front surface;
and may consist of the whole or part of the area. The orifice or the
aperture is commonly provided with spines (Fig. 256, B, s).
Fig. 257.—A, Cribrilina annulata Fabr., Norway, × 33; c, calcareous
bars concealing the membranous aperture: B, Membraniporella
nitida Johnst., Plymouth, × 45; a, calcareous bars growing up
round the margin of the aperture; b, the same, further developed;
c, the same, completely formed (as in A); av, avicularium; o,
immature, and o', mature, ovicell; s, marginal spines.
The avicularium and the vibraculum are specially modified zooecia

(see p. 482), which occur in a great variety of forms, in certain
Cheilostomata only. The operculum of the ordinary zooecium is
represented by the mandible (Fig. 239, B, m) in the avicularium, and
by the seta (Fig. 242, s) in the vibraculum. The representative of the
zooecium itself is known as the avicularian (Fig. 239, A, a.z) or
vibracular zooecium (Fig. 242, v.z).
An ovicell is a swelling in which the embryo develops, in certain

Cyclostomata (Fig. 237) and Cheilostomata (Fig. 241, A, o). A stolon
(Fig. 238, B, st) is a stem, not formed of fused zooecia, from which
new individuals originate. An internode, in a jointed colony, is the
part between any two joints. The fornix or scutum (Fig. 254, A, f) is a
modified spine which in some Cheilostomata overhangs the
aperture. A mucro (Fig. 255, A, mu) is a spike or protuberance
developed just below the orifice. A sinus (Fig. 239, B, s) is a slight
bay on the lower margin of the orifice.
The orifice opens at the upper end of the zooecium, on its front
surface. The length of the zooecium is the distance from the upper to
the lower ends, and the width the distance between its sides.
1. One or more of the following characters: orifice provided with

an operculum; avicularia or vibracula present; a globular
ovicell above the orifice of certain zooecia (Cheilostomata)
7
Opercula, avicularia, vibracula, and ovicells completely
absent, or inconspicuous. Calcareous or non-calcareous. If
calcareous, the orifice is not at the end of a free cylindrical
portion
3
Calcareous; zooecia cylindrical, often united for the greater
part of their length, but usually ending in a free cylindrical
portion, which bears the terminal orifice. The zooecia may
be much obscured by calcifications surrounding their basal
parts
2
2. Zooecia long, tubular, with a lateral membranous region at

the upper end, given off quite separately from a creeping
stolon
Aetea
Zooecia more or less united to one another, orifice without
chitinous operculum (Cyclostomata[601])
63
3. Zooecia without marginal spines; arising from a branching

axis, which is not formed of zooecia
74
Colony adherent; or erect, fleshy and slightly branched; or
erect, encrusted with earthy matter and repeatedly branched
72
Characters not as above 4
4. Zooecia minute, boat-shaped, united by a delicate tube.

Aperture large, with marginal spines
Beania mirabilis
Colony delicate, erect; zooecia wider above than below 5
5. No marginal spines 6

PDF Contemporary Challenges in Cooperation and Coopetition in The Age of Industry 4 0 10Th Conference On Management of Organizations Development Mod Agnieszka Zakrzewska Bielawska Ebook Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

PDF Contemporary Challenges in Cooperation and Coopetition in The Age of Industry 4 0 10Th Conference On Management of Organizations Development Mod Agnieszka Zakrzewska Bielawska Ebook Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PDF Contemporary Challenges in Cooperation and Coopetition in The Age of Industry 4 0 10Th Conference On Management of Organizations Development Mod Agnieszka Zakrzewska Bielawska Ebook Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Contemporary Challenges in

Cooperation and Coopetition in the Age

Scheduling in Industry 4 0 and Cloud Manufacturing

Are Regions Prepared for Industry 4 0 The Industry 4 0

Contemporary Management and Science Issues in the Halal

Optimization in Large Scale Problems Industry 4 0 and

Information Systems for Industry 4 0 Proceedings of the

Advances in Non-Integer Order Calculus and Its

Translation in the Digital Age Translation 4 0 1st

Report on the Development of Cruise Industry in China

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11960

ISSN 2198-7246 ISSN 2198-7254 (electronic)

Industry 4.0 is a concept relating to the use of automation in industries, data

identiﬁed the changes occurring in the functioning of organizations caused by

leveraging effectiveness and performance of both cooperating (or coopeting) orga-

Łódź, Poland Agnieszka Zakrzewska-Bielawska

Part I Challenges of Industry 4.0

Part II Cooperation and Coopetition

9 From Coopetition by Cooperation to Consolidation.

Part III Problems of Organizations’ Development in the Age

19 Understanding Cognitive Biases in Strategic Decisions

Anna Adamik and Michał Nowicki

Keywords Organisation competitiveness · Competitive advantage · Company

JEL L29 · O31 · O32 · O33

A. Adamik (B) · M. Nowicki

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 3

1 See, i.e. [9, 21, 22, 47].

1.2 Literature Review

The work started by preparing the bibliometric map. To do that, VOSviewer

7 Itis a software tool for constructing and visualizing bibliometric networks.

Fig. 1.1 Bibliometric map of keyword associations. Source Own elaboration

14 Equivalent of filter “topic” used with WoS CC.

Keyword Web of science core collection data Publications by year: 2010–2018

Industry 4.0 and n = 49 1. Czech Republic

Industry 4.0 and n = 35 1. Malaysia (7)

Industry 4.0 and n=4 1. England (1)

Industry 4.0 and n = 17 1. England (3)

open knowledge h–index = 6 2. Germany (3)

Source Own elaboration

Keyword Scopus data Publications by year

Industry 4.0 and n = 77 1. Germany (20)

Industry 4.0 and n = 49 1. Germany (6)

Keyword Scopus data Publications by year

Industry 4.0 and n=4 1. China (2)

Industry 4.0 and n = 23 1. China (3)

Source Own elaboration

17 The search used the filter “title”.

1.3 Determinants of Achieving Competitive Advantage

of life”,22 or the model cycle of organisation’s life by Greiner23 [25] organisations

The intertentacular organ is an unpaired ciliated tube, which is

In the remarkable case of Alcyonidium duplex, each zooecium

Although the intertentacular organ has been found by Prouho in

Development and Affinities.—Few parts of the history of the

Fig. 252.—Diagrams of larvae. A, Loxosoma, × 208; a, anus; b, brain,

The larvae of the Entoprocta (Fig. 252, A) resemble the so-called

The larvae of the Ectoprocta form a tolerably complete series,

We have seen that the larva at fixation becomes a zooecium, which

Now in most colonial animals, such as Coelenterates and Ascidians,