SUMMARY

Unit 2. Cell. Organization of the human body

Text A. Cell

Cell is the basic membrane-bound unit that contains the fundamental

molecules of life and of which all living things are composed. A single cell is often a
complete organism in itself, such as a bacterium or yeast. Other cells acquire
specialized functions as they mature. The smallest known cells are a group of tiny
bacteria called mycoplasmas.
A cell is enclosed by a plasma membrane, which forms a selective barrier that
allows nutrients to enter and waste products to leave. The interior of the cell is
organized into many specialized compartments, or organelles.
Nucleus is one of the most important organelle that contains the genetic
information necessary for cell growth and reproduction. Organelles include
mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. In addition,
plant cells contain chloroplasts, which are responsible for photosynthesis.
Between all these organelles is the space in the cytoplasm called the cytosol. The
cytosol contains an organized framework of fibrous molecules that constitute the
cytoskeleton, which enables organelles to move within the cell. Specialized
organelles are a characteristic of cells of organisms known as eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes do not contain organelles and are generally smaller than eukaryotic
cells.
Direct cell division or meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice to
produce four cells containing half the original amount of genetic information.
Indirect cell division or mitosis, a process of cell duplication, or reproduction,
during which one cell gives rise to two genetically identical daughter cells.
 SUMMARY
Unit 2. Cell. Organization of the human body
Text B. Organization of the human body

Human body is composed of living cells and extracellular materials and is

organized into tissues, organs, and systems. Four basic cell types, together with
their extracellular materials, form the fundamental tissues of the human body:
epithelial tissues, muscle tissues, nerve tissues and connective tissues.
The next level of organization in the body is the organ. An organ is a group
of tissues that constitutes a distinct structural and functional unit. Heart is an
organ composed of all four tissues, whose function is to pump blood throughout
the body. The body includes nine major organ systems, each composed of various
organs and tissues that work together as a functional unit. The integumentary
system composed of the skin and associated structures, protects the body from
invasion by harmful microorganisms and chemicals. The musculoskeletal system
composed of the skeletal muscles and bones, moves the body and protectively
houses its internal organs. The respiratory system, composed of the breathing
passages, lungs, and muscles of respiration, obtains from the air the oxygen
necessary for cellular metabolism. The circulatory system, composed of the heart,
blood, and blood vessels, circulates a transport fluid throughout the body,
providing the cells with a steady supply of oxygen and nutrients and carrying away
waste products. The digestive system, composed of the mouth, esophagus,
stomach, and intestines, breaks down food into nutrients, which are then
absorbed from the blood or lymph. The excretory system composed of the
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra, removes toxic nitrogen compounds
and other wastes from the blood. The nervous system, composed of the sensory
organs, brain, spinal cord, and nerves, transmits, integrates, and analyses sensory
information and carries impulses to affect the appropriate muscular or glandular
responses. The endocrine system, composed of the hormone-secreting glands and
tissues, provides a chemical communications network for coordinating various
body processes. The reproductive system, composed of the male or female sex
organs, enables reproduction.
 SUMMARY
The Human Body. Text: The Skeleton

The skeleton of the body is composed of 223 bones which give flexible
support to the soft tissues, muscles and organs. The bony framework of the body
includes the bones of the head, the bones of the trunk, the bones of the lower and
upper limbs. The skeleton of the head is the skull. It consists of the cranium, which
surrounds the delicate brain, and face. The cranium is formed by eight bones: the
frontal bone, two parietal bones, two temporal bones, occipital bone in the back,
the ethmoid bone behind the nose and the sphenoid bone. The face consists of
fourteen bones including the maxilla, mandible and two zygomatics. The bones of
the skull form one large cavity, called the cranial cavity, and some smaller ones:
the oral cavity, the nasal cavity and two orbits holding thee eyeballs. The vertebral
column forms the central axis of the body. The vertebral column is composed of
seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae, five lumbar vertebrae, 5 fused
sacral vertebrae and 2-5 coccygeal vertebrae. The upper limb is attached to the
trunk by the shoulder girdle, which consists of the collar-bone (or clavicle) in front
and the shoulder-blade (or scapula) behind. The upper arm has one bone – the
humerus; the forearm contains the radius and the ulna. In the framework of the
hand and wrist we have twenty-seven bones: 8 carpals, 5 metacarpals and 14
phalanges. The lower limb is attached to the trunk by the pelvic girdle. The thigh
has only one bone – the femur, the leg includes two bones: tibia and fibula; and
the foot is subdivided into a tarsus consisting of 7 bones, metatarsus – 5 bones,
and phalanges, which are 14 in number. The bones of the skeleton are connected
together by the joints or by the cartilages and ligaments.
 SUMMARY
Unit 3. Musculoskeletal System
Text: Muscles

Muscles are bundles of parallel muscle tissue fibers. They produce

movement of or within the body. The special characteristics of the muscular tissue
are irritability, contractility, extensibility, and elasticity. Irritability is the ability to
respond to a stimulus. Contractility is the property which enables muscles to
change their shape. Extensibility means that the muscles can be stretched or
extended. Elasticity is the ability to recoil or bounce back to the muscle's original
length after being stretched. The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal muscle,
smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle. Muscle tissue may be either voluntary or
involuntary. The skeletal muscles of the arm and leg are examples of this type of
muscle. The smooth muscles found in internal organs and cardiac muscles called
also visceral muscle. Skeletal Muscle are fascia motor neurons myoneural junction
striated muscles tendon. A skeletal muscle is directly or indirectly attached to a
bone and produces voluntary movement of the skeleton. Each muscle is wrapped
in layers of fibrous connective tissue called fascia. The fascia tapers at each end of
a skeletal muscle to form a very strong tendon. Skeletal muscles are stimulated by
motor neurons of the nervous system. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the
hollow organs, such as the stomach, tube-shaped organs, the respiratory airways,
and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle, or myocardium, makes up the wall of the heart.
 SUMMARY
Unit 4. Nervous System. Sensory organs of the human body
Text A. Nervous System

The nervous system has three main functions: sensory input, integration of
data and motor output. Sensory input is when the body gathers information or
data. The nervous system is composed of excitable nerve cells and synapses.
These nerves conduct impulses from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal
cord. After the brain has processed the information, impulses are then conducted
from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands called motor output. The
nervous system is composed of two major parts: the central nervous system and
the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system includes the brain and
spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is a vast network of spinal and cranial
nerves that are linked to the brain and the spinal cord. The brain consists of
midbrain, pons, and medulla. The medulla is the control center for respiratory,
cardiovascular and digestive functions. The pons houses the control centers for
respiration and inhibitory functions. The two hemispheres are connected by a
bundle of nerve fibers. The cerebellum is the part of the brain that is located
posteriorly to the medulla oblongata and pons. It coordinates skeletal muscles to
produce smooth, graceful motions. The cerebellum receives information from the
eyes, ears, muscles, and joints. The main function of the cerebellum is
coordination. The cerebellum is also responsible for balance and posture.

SUMMARY
 Unit 4. Nervous System. Sensory organs of the human body
Text B. Human eye

The human eye is a sense organ that reacts to light and allows vision. Rod
and cone cells in the retina allow conscious light perception and vision including
colour differentiation and the perception of depth. The human eye can
differentiate between about 10 million colours. The eye is part of the sensory
nervous system. Six extraocular muscles attach directly to the eyes to assist with
movement. The front visible part of the eye is made up of the whitish sclera, a
coloured iris, and the pupil. The front part is also called the anterior segment of
the eye. The eye is not shaped like a perfect sphere, rather it is a fused two-piece
unit. The anterior segment is made up of the cornea, iris and lens. The cornea is
transparent and more curved. The iris is the pigmented circular structure
concentrically surrounding the centre of the eye, the pupil, which appears to be
black. Light energy enters the eye through the cornea, through the pupil and then
through the lens. The lens shape is changed for near focus and is controlled by the
ciliary muscle. Photons of light falling on the light-sensitive cells of the retina are
converted into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain by the optic
nerve and interpreted as sight and vision.

SUMMARY
 The Cardiovascular System

The circulatory system is composed of the heart and blood vessels,

including arteries, veins, and capillaries. The heart is the key organ in the
circulatory system. The main function of muscular pump is to propel blood
throughout the body. It usually beats from 60 to 100 times per minute. In sleep, it
pumps just enough to provide for the lower amounts of oxygen needed by the
body at rest. The heart has four chambers that are enclosed by thick, muscular
walls. The bottom part of the heart is divided into two chambers called the right
and left ventricles, which pump blood out of the heart. The upper part of the heart
is made up of the other two chambers of the heart, called the right and left atria.
The right and left atria receive the blood entering the heart. Blood vessels carrying
blood away from the heart are called arteries and are the thickest blood vessels.
Unlike the aorta, the body’s other main artery, the pulmonary artery, carries
oxygen-poor blood. From the right ventricle, the pulmonary artery divides into
right and left branches, on the way to the lungs where blood picks up oxygen.
Blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart are called veins. Veins have the
same three layers that arteries do, but they are thinner and less flexible. A
network of tiny capillaries connects the arteries and veins. The capillaries are one
of the most important parts of the circulatory system because it is through them
that nutrients and oxygen are delivered to the cells.

SUMMARY
 The Respiratory System

The respiratory system has one vital function, breathing. When you breathe
in, your body receives oxygen. The human body cannot survive without oxygen for
more than a few minutes. When you breathe out, you rid the body of carbon
dioxide. The lungs are the place in the body where essential oxygen is taken in,
and toxic carbon dioxide is released. Air comes in through either the nose or the
mouth. The trachea splits in two between the lungs sending one branch to each
lung. Air moves in and out of the body by the action of muscles. The lungs take up
most of the space in the chest cavity, which extends from the collarbones to the
diaphragm. The organs of the chest are protected by the ribs. You have two lungs,
one on each side of the chest. The top part of the lung that fits under the
collarbone is called the apex. The bottom part of the lung that rests on the
diaphragm is called the base. Healthy lungs have a smooth, shiny surface because
they are encased in a thin, moist covering called the visceral pleura.

SUMMARY
Digestive System
 The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and accessory organs.
The alimentary canal is formed by the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine and anus. The accessory structures are the teeth,
the tongue, salivary glands, hard and soft palates, the liver, the gallbladder, and
the pancreas. The organs of the digestive system that are contained in the
abdomen are covered with the serous coat – the peritoneum. The peritoneum has
two layers, the visceral and parietal.
The mouth is the first division of the alimentary tract. The oesophagus starts
in the pharynx and finishes in the upper part of the abdominal cavity. The stomach
is a dilated portion of the alimentary canal lying in the upper abdomen just under
the diaphragm. The small intestine is a thin-walled muscular tube about 7 meters
long. Its three portions are: duodenum, jejunum and ileum.The large intestine is
about 1.5 meters long and is divided into caecum, colon and rectum. The liver is
the largest gland in the body The liver secretes bile and has many other important
functions such as stimulation of red bone marrow, production of fibrinogen,
glycogenetic function and urea synthesis. The gallbladder concentrates the bile.
The pancreas forms an external secretion important indigestion and an internal
secretion, insulin, concerned with carbohydrate metabolism.

SUMMARY
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
 The immune system is a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work
together to protect the body from attacks by foreign invaders. Tiny organisms such
as bacteria, parasites, and fungi can cause infections. Viruses also cause
infections, but are too primitive to be classified as living organisms. The human
body provides an ideal environment for many microbes.
The immune system is amazingly complex. It can recognize and remember
millions of different enemies.The secret to its success is an elaborate and dynamic
communications network. Once immune cells receive the alarm, they become
activated and begin to produce powerful chemicals. These substances allow the
cells to regulate their own growth and behavior, enlist other immune cells, and
direct the new recruits to trouble spots.
The immune system is the body’s way of helping to protect itself from
infection. When the body is infected by viruses, bacteria or other infectious
organisms,it starts fighting with the infection and then healing itself. The human
body has two sets of defensive mechanisms, one called innate immunity and
another called adaptive immunity. Innate immunity includes: the skin, the acid in
the stomach, saliva, tears, mucus in the mouth and nose, cells in the blood stream
that can destroy bacteria. The human body’s more complicated second line of
defence is called adaptive immunity or acquired immunity. By adapting to fight
infections from particular bacteria or viruses, the human body can become
immune to infections caused by the same organism in the future. This adaptation
by the body to prevent infection is the basis of immunization.
The terms vaccination and immunization don’t have the same meaning.
Vaccination is the term used for getting a vaccine, while immunization refers to
the process of both getting the vaccine and becoming immune to the disease
following vaccination. If the person comes in contact with the disease in the
future, the body is able to make an immune response fast enough to prevent the
person developing the disease or developing a severe case of the disease.

SUMMARY
ALEXANDER FLEMING. THE DISCOVERY OF PENICILLIN
 Sir Alexander Fleming was a Scottish bacteriologist, known for his discovery
of penicillin. He did research work at one of the hospitals in London and became
interested in bacterial action and antibacterial drugs. Fleming discovered penicillin
by mistake when he was trying to study Staphylococcus bacteria in 1928. He set a
laboratory dish containing the bacteria near an open window. Upon returning to
the experiment, he found that some mould blown in through the open window
onto the dish, contaminating the bacteria.Surprisingly, he saw not only the mould
growing on the bacteria, but a clear zone around the mould. Fleming understood
the importance of what had happened and immediately began to study the
phenomenon. Fleming called the substance penicillin. Aftera lot of investigations,
a method of extracting pure penicillin was found. It was also very difficult for
Fleming to interest biologists and mould experts in penicillin and to decide the
problem of its production. In 1942 Fleming tried his own first experiment. A friend
of his was very ill, but after several injections of penicillin the man was cured. It
marked the beginning of penicillin treatment.
Fleming, Florey and Chain received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1945, for
their discovery which revolutionized medicine. Fleming wrote numerous papers on
bacteriology, immunology and chemotherapy. He said: “Everywhere I go people
thank me for saving their lives. I do not know why they do it. I didn't do anything.
Nature makes penicillin. I only found it.”

SUMMARY
VITAMINS AND MINERALS
 An organic chemical compound is called a vitamin when it cannot be
synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the
diet. The single exception to this rule is vitamin D which can be synthesized in the
skin, but only when exposed to sunlight.
There are 13 universally recognized vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and
9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Fatsoluble vitamins are stored in the
body's fatty tissue, so they do not need to be ingested every day. Water soluble
vitamins cannot be stored, with the exceptions of В12 and Folic Acid.
Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. For example, vitamin A helps to
develop and maintain body tissues such as bone and skin; The B vitamins are
responsible for increasing the production of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Vitamin C heals wounds; and improves the immune system’s performance.
Vitamin E protects the outer cell membranes from harm.
You can develop health problems if you do not get enough of a particular
vitamin. But it is also important to remember that high doses of certain vitamins
can cause vitamin poisoning. Along with vitamins human body needs a certain
amount of minerals. There are 20 minerals, which play significant roles in the
body. They include copper, iodine, chromium, iron, tin, zinc, magnesium, sodium,
potassium, chlorine, phosphorus, calcium, sulfur and others. Zinc is responsible for
helping metabolize proteins and keeping enzymes functioning. Copper is needed
by enzymes for metabolizing. Iodine assists the thyroid gland in working properly.
Calcium and phosphorus build bones and teeth. Iron delivers oxygen to the body’s
cells. Potassium helps muscle contraction, maintains the fluid balance of cells, and
keeps the kidneys and heart working correctly.
Ideally, all of us would get all of the nutrients we need for optimal health
from fresh foods. In reality, however, this is often difficult, if not impossible.
Vitamin supplements are usually available as isolated vitamins or in combination
with other nutrients.They are available in tablet, capsule, gel-capsule, powder,
sublingual, lozenge, and liquid forms. Some vitamins can also be administered by
injection. What is most important, vitamins should not be used as substitutions for
a healthy diet, but rather as supplementation.

Summary
Microorganisms
 Microorganisms are small plant and animal microscopic organisms, invisible
to the naked eye, generally unicellular, with a relatively simple internal
structure.The major groups of microorganisms—namely bacteria, archaea, fungi
(yeasts and molds), algae, protozoa, and viruses—are summarized below.
There is a demonstrated link between exposures to infectious microorganisms
present in built environments and human health.
There is evidence of a link between exposure to indoor microorganisms and
the development of respiratory and allergic symptoms, particularly those arising
from exposure to microorganisms that flourish in damp indoor settings.
Preliminary evidence suggests that certain microbial exposures, including
early-life exposures to diverse microorganisms associated with animals, may have
beneficial health effects, such as protection from allergy and respiratory
symptoms.
A number of additional potential health impacts associated with exposures to
indoor microorganisms are being explored. Impacts on nonrespiratory outcomes
are less well understood. More investigation is needed to understand which
exposures may be beneficial or adverse and by what mechanisms.