Schulz, 2021

Food Reviews International
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/lfri20
Phenolic Compounds in Euterpe Fruits:

Composition, Digestibility, and Stability – A Review
Mayara Schulz, Siluana Katia Tischer Seraglio, Luciano Valdemiro Gonzaga,

Ana Carolina Oliveira Costa & Roseane Fett
To cite this article: Mayara Schulz, Siluana Katia Tischer Seraglio, Luciano Valdemiro Gonzaga,
Ana Carolina Oliveira Costa & Roseane Fett (2023) Phenolic Compounds in Euterpe Fruits:
Composition, Digestibility, and Stability – A Review, Food Reviews International, 39:1, 369-396,
DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2021.1909060
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Published online: 31 Mar 2021.
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FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL
2023, VOL. 39, NO. 1, 369–396
https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2021.1909060
REVIEW
Phenolic Compounds in Euterpe Fruits: Composition, Digestibility,

and Stability – A Review
Mayara Schulz , Siluana Katia Tischer Seraglio , Luciano Valdemiro Gonzaga ,
Ana Carolina Oliveira Costa , and Roseane Fett
Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Euterpe fruits have gained prominence over the world due to the high levels Euterpe edulis; euterpe
of phenolic compounds. Meanwhile, these compounds are affected by ripen precatoria; euterpe oleracea;
ing, genotypes, extraction, processing, storage, and gastrointestinal diges anthocyanins; açaí
tion. Therefore, in this review, the available data regarding the Euterpe edulis,
Euterpe oleracea, and Euterpe precatoria fruits phenolic composition and its
bioaccessibility, bioavailability, stability, and new approaches applied to its
stability were summarized and discussed. This work will guide future studies
related to Euterpe fruits phenolic compounds, besides stimulating a better
exploration of these fruits and reinforcing the local economy.
Introduction
Euterpe is a genus of tropical palms that belongs to the family Arecaceae, being Euterpe oleracea
Martius, Euterpe precatoria Martius, and Euterpe edulis Martius, the predominant Euterpe species
producing of edible fruits.[,12] E. oleracea and E. precatoria are grown in the Amazon region in South
America, and their fruits are commonly called “açaí”. E. oleracea is distributed mainly in the Amazon
region, including in other countries besides Brazil, and it is a multiple stemmed palm with up to 33 m
in height, while E. precatoria is a single stem palm with up to 2 m in height found mainly in the north
of Brazil.[1–3] E. edulis is also a single stem palm with up to 20 m in height, but it is native of the
Atlantic Rainforest of Brazil and their fruits are usually called “juçara”.[2,4,5]
Açaí and juçara are rounded fruits with 1.0 to 2.0 cm of diameter produced in bunches of these
palms. When ripe, these berries possess a thin dark purple mesocarp/epicarp covering the only seed
that corresponds to around 85% of the fruit.[2–4] For consumption, these berries are manually or
mechanically mixed with potable water until a thick and purple beverage is obtained, called açaí or
juçara pulp, being the seeds separated.[2,3,6,7] These pulps are consumed directly, frozen, freeze-dried,
and used to produce foods such as yogurt, juice, jelly, and dietary supplement.[6,8–11]
In the last two decades, açaí and juçara fruits have gained prominence over the world as “super
fruits” due to their biological proprieties, which are associated mainly with their bioactive phenolic
compounds.[3,4,12] Indeed, at least 80 phenolic compounds were already reported for these Euterpe
fruits, including anthocyanins, non-anthocyanin flavonoids, phenolic acids, stilbenes, lignans, and
procyanidins.[4,13–15] This rich diversity and amount of bioactive phenolic compounds found in
Euterpe fruits are linked to their promising results as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory,
neuroprotective, cardioprotective, chemopreventive, anti-genotoxic, and other effects.[5,7,16–18] The
biological potential of these fruits is well consolidated in the literature, even already discussed in other
reviews.[4,13–15] However, these properties mostly depend on Euterpe phenolic compounds’ actions,
CONTACT Mayara Schulz schulzmay@gmail.com Departamento de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos, Universidade

Federal de Santa Catarina, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Rodovia Admar Gonzaga, 1346, Itacorubi, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina,
88034-001, Brazil.
© 2021 Taylor & Francis
370 M. SCHULZ ET AL.
which are affected by several factors, including ripening, genotypes, processing, storage, extraction
conditions, and gastrointestinal digestion. This type of information still needs to be explored to
contribute to new approaches that ensure the maximum stability and use of the Euterpe fruits phenolic
compounds.
Despite the potential associated with Euterpe fruits phenolic compounds, there is still a lack of
knowledge on these compounds, which affects the expansion of its use mainly as a functional food
ingredient. In this sense, this review summarizes and discusses the available literature data regarding
the phenolic composition of Euterpe edulis, Euterpe oleracea, and Euterpe precatoria fruits and its
bioaccessibility, bioavailability, stability, and new approaches applied to its stability. We aim to
contribute with information that can guide future research related to Euterpe phenolic compounds
and improve the consumption and commercial exploration of Euterpe fruits.
Methodology used for data research

In our study, literature data were searched on Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar electronic
databases using the following keywords: (“Euterpe edulis” OR “Euterpe oleracea” OR “Euterpe
precatoria” OR “Juçara” OR “Açaí”) AND (“Phenolic compounds” OR “Polyphenols” OR “Phenolic
acid” OR “Anthocyanin” OR “Flavonoid” OR “Stilbene” OR “Stilbenoid” OR “Condensed tannin” OR
“Proanthocyanidin” OR “Lignan” OR “Lignin” OR “Procyanidin” OR “Aldehyde phenolic” OR
“Coumarin”); (“Bioaccessibility” OR “Digestibility” OR “In vitro digestion” OR “Simulated gastro
intestinal digestion” OR “Bioavailability”); (“Ripening” OR “Maturation”); (“Genotypes”);
(“Processing” OR “Storage” OR “Stability”). The search was conducted using the terms together or
differently combined to retrieve the maximum number of studies. Additionally, reference lists of the
published articles were searched for possible related articles. Articles published in English and
Portuguese were included. Whereas scientific interest in Euterpe phenolic compounds is recent, all
studies associated to the topics covered in this review were selected and included. The last search for
potential studies was performed in May 2020.
Phenolic compounds in Euterpe fruits

Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites involved in the protection system of plants. The main
groups of fruit phenolic compounds are flavonoids (anthocyanins and non-anthocyanin flavonoids)
and non-flavonoid compounds (phenolic acids, stilbenes, and lignans).[19–22] The chemical structure
of these compounds has been associated with positive effects on human health, such as antioxidant,
antimicrobial, anticancer, cardioprotective, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory, which are primarily
associated with the presence of an aromatic ring and one or more hydroxyl groups.[19-,21,23,24] Polar
hydroxy substituent can act as a hydrogen donor or acceptor and the occurrence of at least two
adjacent hydroxy groups on the phenyl ring can chelate metals. In addition, the presence of an
additional hydroxy group and/or a carbonyl or a propenoyl ester group provides protection against
DNA damaging solar radiation, due to shifting the absorption maxima within the UV-B light range.[25]
Phenolic acids have a simpler structure, basically consisting of an aromatic ring attached to one or
more hydroxyls, in which the number and position of its hydroxyl groups in the carbon structure have
a strong influence on the bioactive effects of this class of phenolic compounds.[7,19,20] The antioxidant
potential of phenolic acids is an important bioactivity that commonly increases as the degree of
hydroxylation increases, and when the hydroxyl groups are in positions 3 and 4.[26,27] The small
molecular structure of phenolic acids also facilitates their interaction by contact with molecular
targets, which usually increase their inhibition effect on target bacteria and small reactive species
when compared to phenolic compounds with larger molecular structure, such as catechins and
anthocyanins.[21,24,28] On the other hand, flavonoids have as the typical structure two aromatic rings
linked through three carbons, besides the presence of hydroxyl groups. Also, differences in the basic
flavonoid structure are found among flavonoids subclasses, such as a ketone function at C4 and
FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 371
Table 1. Anthocyanins, non-anthocyanin flavonoids, and phenolic acids quantified in Euterpe fruits and pulps.
Phenolic compound Euterpe Euterpe Euterpe
(mg.100 g−1 dry weight) edulis References oleracea References precatoria References
Total phenolics content* 5672–7500 [5, 86, 3120–8120 [1, 44, 87, 143] 4067–7300 [1, 145]
142–144]
Total monomeric anthocyanins** 660–1959 [5, 50, 86, 142] 403–698 [44, 53, 136] 423 a [53]
Anthocyanins
Cyanidin-3-glucoside 85.6–1358 [6, 144, 146] 4.94–1371 [12, 18, 49, 80, 87, 204 b [48]
90, 147]
Cyanidin-3-rhamnoside 7.00 [146] - - - -
Cyanidin-3-rutinoside 137–2307 [6, 144, 146] 17.9–5261 [12, 18, 49, 80, 87, 1843 b [48]
90]
Cyanidin-3-sambubioside 13.0 [146] 0.02–4.00 [49, 87] 0.46 a [53]
Cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside 0.11–0.33** [86] - - - -
Cyanidin-3,5-hexose pentose 12.6** [148] QD [37, 44] - -
Delphinidin-3-glucoside - - NQ – 106 b [47, 48] 11.3 b [48]
Malvidin-3-glucoside QD [5] NQ – 11.0 b [47, 48] 53.8 b [48]
Pelargonidin-3-glucoside 0.60–8.00 [6, 146] 0.06–17.6 [18, 87] 8.41 b [48]
Pelargonidin-3-rutinoside 0.07–5.00 [146] QD [44] - -
Peonidin-3-glucoside 0.33–1.27** [86] 2.44–77.5 b [47, 48] 37.1 b [48]
Peonidin-3-rutinoside 0.46–0.83** [86] 0.29–544 [18, 49, 87] NQ [3]
Non-anthocyanin flavonoids
Apigenin 0.02–0.25 [6, 51] 349 [147] 1.26 [149]
Apigenin diglucoside - - 0.81 a [53] - -
Apigenin dihexoside 97.9* [148] - - - -
Apigenin hexoside 117* [148] - - - -
Apigenin glucoside - - - - 2.86 a [53]
Apigenin deoxyhexoside hexoside 225* [148] - - - -
Aromadendrin 2.04–7.64 [50, 51] - - - -
Catechin 0.35–27.1 [6, 51, 142] 75.0 [147] 87.7 b [48]
Chrysin ND [6] 183 [147] - -
Chrysoeriol - - 0.68 [87] - -
Chrysoeriol-7-glucoside - - 0.03 [87] - -
Chrysoeriol deoxyhesosyl hexoside 199* [148] - - - -
Dihydrokaempferol hexoside 588* [148] - - - -
Dihydrokaempferol acetyl 24.8* [148] - - - -
hexoside
Dihydroluteolin deoxyhexoside 112* [148] - - - -
hexoside
Epicatechin 10.5–49.2 [51, 142] 237 [147] 0.23 a [53]
Eryodictiol 0.01–0.19 b [7] - - - -
Galangin 0.23–1.61 b [7] - - - -
Hispidulin 0.02–0.29 [50] - - - -
Homoorientin - - 3.06 [87] - -
Isoquercitrin 0.36–1.39 [51] - - - -
Isovitexin - - 2.66 [87] 0.42 a [53]
Isovitexin derivate - - 0.37 a [53] - -
Isoorientin - - 0.09–0.47 [12, 53] 2.36 a [53]
Kaempferol 0.16–0.88 [6, 50, 51] - - 0.52 [149]
Kaempferol-3-rutinoside 25.0 [6] - - - -
Kaempferol deoxyhexosyl 63.8* [148] - - - -
hexoside
Luteolin NQ [6] 0.24–257 [87, 147] 2.16 [149]
Luteolin deoxyhexosyl hexoside 333* [148] - - - -
Luteolin diglucoside - - 0.73 a [53] - -
Luteolin-7-glucoside - - <0.01 [87] - -
Myricetin 0.03–0.66 [6, 50, 51] - - - -
Naringenin 0.01–0.55 b [7] - - - -
Orientin QD [5] 0.11–805 [12, 87, 147] 4.77 a [53]
Quercetin 0.17–55.9 [6, 50, 51, 142] 39.0 [18] 13.6 [149]
Rutin 0.02–1.50 [6, 50, 51] QD [44] - -
Scoparin - - 0.58 a [53] - -
Taxifolin 1.09–6.50 [50, 51] 0.20 [87] - -
Taxifolin deoxyhexose - - 0.79 a [53] 0.75 a [53]
Taxifolin derivate - - 0.79 a [53] 0.92 a [53]
(Continued)
Table 1. (Continued).
Phenolic compound Euterpe Euterpe Euterpe
(mg.100 g−1 dry weight) edulis References oleracea References precatoria References
Taxifolin hexoside 118* [148] - - - -
Taxifolin-3-rhamnoside - - 30.3 a [150] - -
Vitexin - - 3.41–219 [87, 147] - -
Phenolic acids
4-aminobenzoic acid 5.98 b [7] - - - -
4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid 2.6 [144] - - - -
Benzoic acid - - 9.10 a [150] - -
Caffeic acid 0.11–0.39 [51, 86] 0.02–76.0 [12, 18, 87, 147] 0.24 [149]
Chlorogenic acid 0.21–1.31 [51, 86] 0.02–41.0 [18, 87, 147] 0.91 [149]
Cinnamic acid 0.05–0.53 b [7] - - - -
trans-Cinnamic acid 0.03 [144] 1.65 [18] - -
m-Coumaric acid 0.4 [144] - - - -
p-Coumaric acid 0.16–2.02 [50, 51, 86, ND – 352 [12, 87, 147] 0.12 [149]
142]
Ellagic acid 0.07–7.15 [6, 51] 5.54 a [151] - -
Ellagic acid derivate - - 1.95 a [151] - -
Ferulic acid 2.27–18.1 [51, 86, 142] 0.22–2.46 [12, 18] 0.32 [149]
Gallic acid 0.14–80.3 [50, 51, 86, 0.02–702 [18, 87, 147] - -
142, 144]
Gallic acid derivate - - 10.2 a [151] - -
Gallic acid hexoside 15.0* [148] - - - -
Gentisic acid - - 28.2 [18] - -
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid 3.40–6.47 [86, 144] 1.00–3.37 [12, 18, 87] 0.24 a [53]
Protocatechuic acid 1.34–52.9 [50, 51, 86, 0.65–5.03 [12, 18, 87] 0.72 [149]
(3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid) 142, 144]
Salicylic acid 0.27 b [7] - - - -
Sinapinic acid 2.38–5.29 [51, 86] - - 0.08 [149]
Synergic acid - - 16.3 b [47] - -
Syringic acid 2.96–6.83 [51, 86] 0.44–11.2 [12, 18, 87] 1.90 [149]
Vanillic acid 3.88–16.5 [51, 86] 1.02–6.97 [12, 18, 87] 4.65 [149]
*mg gallic acid equivalents.100 g−1 dry weight; **mg cyanidin 3-glucoside equivalents.100 g−1 dry weight; a mg.100 g−1 fresh
weight; b mg.100 g−1 extract dry weight; QD: qualitative data; ND: not detected; NQ: not quantified; (-) Data not found.
a double bond at C2-C3.[19,20] Despite their bioactive action by contact being hampered by their size,
flavonoids are strongly linked to bioactive effects, such as antioxidant and neuroprotective.[7] For
example, the presence of a dihydroxy B ring, an unsaturation, and a 4-oxo function on C ring are
chemical characteristics linked to the antioxidant action of this class of phenolic compounds.[29]
As shown in Table 1, high total phenolic content (TPC) was found in Euterpe fruits, reaching up to
8120 mg gallic acid equivalents.100 g−1 dry weight. These contents are similar or higher than those
found in blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum), blackberry (Rubus spp.), red raspberry (Rubus idaeus),
strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa), and sweet cherry (Prunus avium) (up to 8496 mg gallic acid
equivalents.100 g−1 dry weight),[30] and classify the Euterpe fruits as a medium-high concentration
of phenolic compounds.[31]
The phenolic composition of Euterpe fruits includes more than 80 compounds, being anthocyanins,
non-anthocyanin flavonoids, and phenolic acids, the main compounds (Table 1). However, significant
variability in the profile and amount of phenolic compounds was found in these Euterpe species,
demonstrating the influence of many factors (which will be addressed throughout this review), and the
number of studies conducted with each Euterpe species, which is very low for E. precatoria.
Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins are the primary group of phenolic compounds of Euterpe berries. These phenolic
compounds are water-soluble pigments responsible for developing red, blue, and purple colors of
these fruits and other berries during ripening.[20,23] As shown in Table 1, total monomeric anthocya
nins (TMA) content in Euterpe berries is up to 1959 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalents.100 g−1 dry
weight, values much higher than those found in blueberry (V. corymbosum), blackberry (Rubus spp.),
red raspberry (R. idaeus), strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa), and sweet cherry (P. avium), which
reached up to 485 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalents.100 g−1 dry weight.[30] Therefore, Euterpe
fruits can be considered anthocyanin-rich.[30]
The anthocyanins present in Euterpe fruits belong to the pelargonidin group, cyanidin/peonidin
group, and multiple anthocyanidins group.[32] As shown in Table 1, the profile of anthocyanins did not
vary intensely among E. oleracea, E. precatoria, and E. edulis. However, the concentrations among species
and within each species were distinct, indicating the influence of ripening and climatic conditions, for
example.[33–35] Among the anthocyanins groups, cyanidin glycosides are undoubtedly the predominant
compounds in Euterpe fruits, in which cyanidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin-3-rutinoside are the major
anthocyanins of these fruits. Also, other anthocyanins were qualitatively identified in E. oleraceae, mainly
malvidin and cyanidin derivatives, such as petunidin 3-acetyl, peonidin 3-acetyl monoglucoside, mal
vidin-petunidinglucoside-epicatechin, cyanidin 3-(6-O-Pcoumaryl)-monoglucoside, petunidin 3-acetyl
diglucoside, and cyanidin 3-acetyl hexose.[36,37]
Non-anthocyanin flavonoids
Non-anthocyanin flavonoids can be considered the second main class of phenolic compounds found
in Euterpe fruits (Table 1). These compounds are found in nature as glycosides with one or more
sugars moieties and in its free form.[22,38] A diversified profile of non-anthocyanin flavonoids was
found for E. oleracea and E. edulis, while data available for E. precatoria are very scarce. Apigenin,
chrysin, epicatechin, luteolin, orientin, and vitexin are among the main non-anthocyanin flavonoids of
E. oleracea, with concentrations higher than 100 mg.100 g−1 dry weight. Epicatechin, catechin, and
quercetin are among the main non-anthocyanin flavonoids found in E. edulis, while catechin, orientin,
and quercetin can be highlighted for E. precatoria. Euterpe fruits presented similar or higher con
centrations than those found in ripe dark-colored fruits such as blackberry (Rubus ulmifolius), guabiju
(Myrcianthes pungens), jambolan (Syzygium cumini), and jabuticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora) for many
non-anthocyanin flavonoids, including catechin (up to 1.68 mg.100 g−1 dry weight), epicatechin (up to
0.86 mg.100 g−1 dry weight), quercetin (up to 5.51 mg.100 g−1 dry weight), chrysin (up to
5.05 mg.100 g−1 dry weight), apigenin (not detected and/or quantified), and luteolin
(<0.01 mg.100 g−1 dry weight).[34,39,40]
The glycosylated forms were the main non-anthocyanin flavonoids quantified in Euterpe fruits,
including apigenin derivatives, chrysoeriol derivatives, dihydrokaempferol derivatives, luteolin deri
vatives, taxifolin derivatives, and quercetin derivatives (Table 1). However, the low availability of
analytical standard of glycosylated forms difficult the quantitative determination of other non-
anthocyanin flavonoids, being many times employed the acidic hydrolysis during the extraction
process to release the free forms.[22,38] Indeed, qualitative determination indicated the presence of
many other non-anthocyanin flavonoids in E. oleracea, especially glycosylated forms, such as iso
rhamnetin rutinoside, velutin, kaempferol rutinoside, quercetin arabinopyranoside, quercetin rham
noside, kaempferol rhamnoside, aromadendrin 3-glucopyranoside, among other.[41–45] These findings
increase even more the diversity of non-anthocyanin flavonoids found in this Euterpe species and
strongly suggest the presence of other compounds of this class than those shown in Table 1 for
E. precatoria and E. edulis fruits.
Phenolic acids
Phenolic acids are commonly found in nature as insoluble or soluble bound forms, and in low
concentration as free form. Nevertheless, some extraction conditions, such as acidic hydrolysis,
favor breaking bonds and releasing the free form, which is the most determined in plants and related
products.[21,38]
Phenolic acids commonly found in Euterpe fruits are the free forms, and the hydroxybenzoic and
hydroxycinnamic acids derivatives are the main components (Table 1). For E. oleracea and E. edulis,
a varied profile and concentration of phenolic acids were observed, while few data were found for
E. precatoria. Some phenolic acids, such as p-coumaric, gallic, caffeic, and chlorogenic acids, were
found in high concentrations in E. oleracea, while ferulic, gallic, protocatechuic, and vanillic acids can
be highlighted in E. edulis. For E. precatoria, vanillic, syringic, and chlorogenic acids are the main
phenolic acids. These Euterpe species have similar or higher concentrations of many phenolic acids
than those found in ripe dark-colored fruits such as blackberry (R. ulmifolius), guabiju (M. pungens),
jambolan (S. cumini), and jabuticaba (M. cauliflora). These phenolic acids include protocatechuic acid
(up to 1.42 mg.100 g−1 dry weight), gallic acid (up to 14.8 mg.100 g−1 dry weight), caffeic acid (up to
0.07 mg.100 g−1 dry weight), chlorogenic acid (up to 2.05 mg.100 g−1 dry weight), and vanillic acid (not
detected).[34,39,40]
Many phenolic acids bounded with amides, esters, or glycosides were also qualitatively determined
in E. oleracea, such as protocatechuic acid hexoside, hydroxyferuloyl quinic acid, synapoyl deoxyhexo
side, p-coumaroyl hexoside, feruloyl sinapic acid, caffeoyl shikimic acid, sinapoyl hexoside, vanillic
acid 4-glucoside, 4-glucopyranosyl-p-coumaric acid, and protocatechuic acid methyl ester.[43,44,46]
These findings suggest the presence of other phenolic acids in E. precatoria and E. edulis fruits than
those listed in Table 1 and reinforce the premise that all these fruits are rich in phenolic compounds.
Other phenolic compounds

Phenolic compounds from other groups were also found in Euterpe fruits. Resveratrol, a compound
belonging to the stilbenoid class, was found in the three Euterpe species: up to 89.0 mg.100 g−1 extract
dry weight in E. oleracea[47–49]; 2.47 mg.100 g−1 extract dry weight in E. precatoria.[48]; and up to
0.06 mg.100 g−1 dry weight in E. edulis .[50,51]
Condensed tannins, also known as proanthocyanidins, were found in E. oleracea and E. precatoria
fruits. Among these compounds, procyanidin di- to decamers were found at concentrations ranging
from 25 to 64 mg.100 g−1 dry weight, in addition to polymers (980 mg.100 g−1 dry weight) in
E. oleracea.[49,52,53] Procyanidin di- and trimers were also found in E. precatoria, with concentrations
up to 6.84 mg.100 g−1 fresh weight.[53]
Lignans are another group of phenolic compounds reported in E. oleracea. In the study conducted
by Chin et al.,[46] nine lignans were qualitatively determined, namely isolariciresinol; 5-methoxy-
isolariciresinol; erythro-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-[4-(3-hydroxypropyl)-2-methoxyphe
noxy]-1,3-propanediol; threo-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-[4-(3-hydroxypropyl)-2-methoxy
phenoxy]-1,3-propanediol; (7R,8S)-dihydrodehydroconiferyl alcohol; (7R,8S)-5-methoxy-
dihydrodehydroconiferyl alcohol; lariciresinol; pinoresinol; and syringaresinol. Besides them, two
neolignan glucosides, namely (7R,8S)-7′,8′-dihydroxy-dihydrodehydroconiferyl alcohol-9-glucopyra
noside and (7S,8R)-7′,8′-dihydroxy-dihydrodehydroconiferyl alcohol-9-glucopyranoside were also
qualitatively identified in this species.[43]
Additionally, in E. edulis, three lignin-aldehyde derivatives were found, namely vanillin (up to
1.50 mg.100 g−1 dry weight), coniferaldehyde (up to 9.97 mg.100 g−1 extract dry weight), and
syringaldehyde (up to 33.8 mg.100 g−1 extract dry weight).[7,51]
Therefore, considering the data collected, it is evident that the Euterpe fruits present high con
centrations and a diverse profile of phenolic compounds, in which the flavonoid class stands out.
However, important advances still need to be made concerning the investigation of new phenolic
compounds, especially from other classes besides anthocyanins, non-anthocyanin flavonoids, and
phenolic acids, and the expansion of knowledge regarding the phenolic composition of E. precatoria
fruits is mandatory. These data are essential to subsidize future studies related to the Euterpe phenolic
compounds and their bioactivities, stability, and applications.
Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of phenolic compounds of Euterpe fruits

Euterpe fruits have received significant attention regarding their variety and relevant concentrations of
phenolic compounds. However, most studies that include the composition of foods have neglected
physicochemical changes that can occur during gastrointestinal digestion,[54] i.e., bioaccessibility and
bioavailability of these compounds.[55]
Bioavailability is related to the fraction of a compound that reaches the systemic circulation and
may be utilized.[56] In this way, bioavailability can be influenced by various factors, including the form
and stability of the compound, characteristics of the food matrix, gastric emptying, and intestinal
transit time.[55] Consequently, bioavailability is related to the concept of bioaccessibility, which is the
concentration of a compound that is released from the food matrix during gastrointestinal digestion
and becomes available for absorption.[57]
Studies on bioaccessibility are most commonly performed since the simulation of the physiological
conditions of the human digestive tract can be evaluated by in vitro methods. These assays are quick
and inexpensive when compared to in vivo studies performed in humans and animals that are
expensive, time-consuming, and require ethics evaluation.[58,59]
The studies related to the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of phenolic compounds from Euterpe
fruits and pulp are shown in Table 2. Bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds was reported for the
species E. edulis and E. oleracea. For E. edulis fruit pulp, Bernardes et al.[60] found 30.3% of
bioaccessibility for TPC and 24.9% for TMA. Seraglio et al.[61] evaluated the bioaccessibility of
individual phenolic compounds in E. edulis fruit and observed that gallic acid, resveratrol, myricetin,
hispidulin, and kaempferol were not detected after the digestion process, while the highest bioacces
sibility values were found for quercetin (26.0–50.5%) and protocatechuic acid (30.1–43.3%). In
agreement with this study, Schulz et al.[51] also observed that gallic acid, resveratrol, myricetin, and
kaempferol were not bioaccessible in E. edulis fruit. In this study, the sum of the content of all
quantified phenolic compounds in the crude extract was up to 80.0 mg.100 g−1 dry weight, and after
the simulating gastrointestinal digestion, the maximum value was 19.7 mg.100 g−1 dry weight.
For lyophilized E. edulis pulp, Guergoletto et al.[62] demonstrated that 46% of TPC remained after
the simulating gastrointestinal digestion. However, the anthocyanins malvidin-3-glucoside, peonidin-
3-rutinoside, and pelargonidin-3-glucoside were not detected after dialysis. This study also included
the simulation of the colonic fermentation of the distal region of the human large intestine. After 1 h of
incubation, small contents of benzoic, gallic, and syringic acids appeared, while rutin, p-coumaric acid,
and TPC were constants during in vitro fermentation (24 h). The authors of the study suggested that
the phenolic acids generated were mainly anthocyanins degradation products, being syringic and gallic
acids products of malvidin-3-glycoside degradation and benzoic acid generated from A-ring when
anthocyanins degradation occurs.[63,64]
The low bioaccessibility commonly observed for phenolic compounds can be related to gastrointest
inal conditions, especially pH and enzymatic activity since they can be modified during this process.
These conditions lead to changes in the molecular weight, solubility, and chemical structure of some
phenolic compounds, resulting in low bioaccessibility.[63,64] In the oral phase, the availability of phenolic
compounds for the next steps of digestion can be altered since interactions can occur between human
salivary proteins and these compounds .[65,66] In the acidic conditions of the gastric phase, phenolic
compounds are commonly stable, while they are generally unstable under the alkaline conditions of the
duodenal phase of the digestion .[67–69] Enzymatic activities and pH conditions during gastrointestinal
digestion lead to the release of phenolic compounds from the food matrix and hydrolyses depending on
their chemical structure and the interaction with the food matrix. It has been proposed that some
anthocyanins and phenolic acids could be absorbed in the stomach ,[65,70] and polymerized and
glycosylated phenolic compounds need be hydrolyzed to aglycones for absorption in the small intestine
.[57,71] In the large intestine, phenolic compounds can be transformed and/or degraded by colonic
microbiota, e.g., the release of hydroxylated aromatic compounds and phenolic acids from aglycones
degradation[65,72] and transformation of acids such as phenylpropionic, phenylacetic, hippuric, and
Table 2. Summary of studies related to bioaccessibility and bioavailability of phenolic compounds from Euterpe fruits and pulp.
Species Material Studied conditions Main findings Reference
Euterpe Lyophilized In vitro oral, gastric and intestinal simulated Bioaccessible fractions: [62]
edulis pulp digestion + simulation of the colonic TPC: 46%
fermentation of the large intestine Individual anthocyanins: NB – 7.8%
Other individual phenolics: 28.9–146.5%
During colonic fermentation:
Benzoic, gallic, and syringic acids
appeared; TPC, rutin and p-coumaric were
stable
Fruit In vitro gastric and intestinal simulated Bioaccessible fractions: [51]
(epicarp + digestion Individual phenolics: NB – 1088.6%
mesocarp)
Fruit In vitro gastric and intestinal simulated Bioaccessible fractions: [61]
(epicarp + digestion TPC: 84.4–208.5%
mesocarp) Individual phenolics: NB – 50.5%
Pulp In vitro gastric and intestinal simulated Bioaccessible fractions: [60]
digestion TPC: 30.3%
TMA: 24.9%
Euterpe oleracea Lyophilized pulp In vitro gastric and intestinal simulated
digestion, including dialysis membrane +
simulation of the colonic fermentation of
the large intestine
Bioaccessible fractions: [18]
TPC: 42.8%
Individual anthocyanins: NB – 61.7%
Other individual phenolics: NB – 12.8%
After 24 h of colonic fermentation:
p-hydroxybenzoic acid, chlorogenic acid,
ferulic acid, quercetin, and vanillin acid
were recovered
Frozen pulp In vitro oral, gastric and intestinal simulatedBioaccessible fractions: [78]
digestion, including dialysis membrane Individual anthocyanins: NB
Other individual phenolics: NB – 147.2%
Pulp In vitro gastric and intestinal simulated Bioaccessible fractions: [54]
digestion TPC: 22.9–32.3%
Pulp In vitro intestinal absorption of anthocyanins 0.5 to 4.9% of the monomeric anthocyanin- [79]
glycosides were transported from the
apical to the basolateral side of the cell
monolayers, while polymeric anthocyanins
were not transported
Fruit Absorption and excretion of anthocyanins Cyanidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin- [80]
(epicarp + after oral administration of the extracts to 3-rutinoside showed maximum contents
mesocarp) rats (400 mg/kg body weight) at 60 min and 120 min after
administration, respectively. Most of these
anthocyanins were excreted in urine
between 0 and 6 h after administration.
Pulp and Acute crossover clinical trial performed with Cyanidin-3-glucoside showed maximum [81]
clarified healthy human who received 7 mL/kg of concentration in the plasma 2.2 h after
juice body weight consumption for pulp and 2.0 h for juice
NB: Not bioaccessible; TMA: Total monomeric anthocyanins; TPC: Total phenolic content.
benzoic from condensed tannins .[70] In the large intestine also occur passive absorption of small
metabolites .[73] Moreover, during the digestion, the phenolic compounds are susceptible to forming
complexes with other constituents released from the food matrix, such as minerals, dietary fiber, or
proteins, which can favor or not a protection condition to the degradation stimulated by gastrointestinal
digestion .[64,67,74] These compounds are prominent constituents found in Euterpe fruits ,[4,75] probably
influencing their bioaccessibility and bioavailability.In some cases, Euterpe phenolic compounds were
higher after gastrointestinal digestion. This fact occurred for caffeic acid (252–1088%), rutin (130–
175%), epicatechin (163%), ellagic acid (488%), and p-coumaric acid (146%) studied in E. edulis.[51]
These authors suggested that the changes in the structure of some phenolics could be related to the high
content of these compounds after gastrointestinal digestion. For example, epicatechin may have been
generated from partial hydrolysis of proanthocyanidins; caffeic acid from p-coumaric and chlorogenic
acids; while ellagic acid possibly from ellagitannins.[64,66,76,77] Also in E. edulis, Seraglio et al.[61] observed
higher TPC after gastrointestinal digestion (208.5%), suggesting a more significant action of the studied
digestion conditions on the food matrix and consequent higher release of phenolic compounds.
For frozen pulp of E. oleracea, a higher value after gastrointestinal digestion was found for caftaric
acid (147%) by Dantas et al.[78] However, compounds such as catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin B1,
syringic acid, and chlorogenic acid showed bioaccessibility lower than 35%, and 21 compounds were
not detected after the simulation of the gastrointestinal digestion, including eight anthocyanins. The
authors of the study reported that the low bioaccessibility observed can be due to the incomplete
release of non-extractable phenolic compounds linked to cell wall constituents such as fiber and lipids.
The low bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds was also observed in commercial pulps of
E. oleracea studied by Minighin et al.,[54] which found values between 22.9 and 32.3% for TPC
bioaccessibility. Alqurashi et al.,[18] using lyophilized E. oleracea pulp, demonstrated that after the
intestinal phase following dialysis, the concentration of TPC decreased 51%, and the bioaccessibility of
the most individual phenolic compounds studied was less than 15%, with peonidin-3-rutinoside and
gallic, protocatechuic, vanillic, and p-hydroxybenzoic acids not being detected. This study also
included the colonic fermentation simulation, and after 24 h of fermentation, phenolic compounds
such as quercetin and p-hydroxybenzoic, chlorogenic, ferulic, and vanillic acids were recovered.
In vitro and in vivo trials on absorption or bioavailability of phenolic compounds in Euterpe fruits are
still scarce. To the best of our knowledge, only studies for E. oleracea have been published so far.
Pacheco-Palencia et al.[79] used Caco-2 cell monolayers as in vitro model to evaluate the intestinal
absorption of anthocyanins from E. oleracea fruit pulp. The authors observed that cyanidin-3-glucoside
and cyanidin-3-rutinoside were similarly transported from the apical to the basolateral side of the cell
monolayers, following 2 h of incubation. The percentage of transported monomeric anthocyanin-
glycosides ranged from 0.5 to 4.9%, while polymeric anthocyanins were not transported, and their
presence decreased anthocyanins absorption in a dose-dependent manner (up to 40.3%). The authors
reported that this decrease in the transport efficiency of monomeric anthocyanins glycosides is due to the
presence of polymeric anthocyanins associated with the increased hydrogen-bond formation at the
surface of the cell membrane due to the presence of polar hydroxyl group ends. Agawa et al.[80] studied
the absorption and excretion of E. oleracea anthocyanins after oral administration of E. oleracea extracts
to rats (400 mg/kg body weight) and observed that cyanidin-3-rutinoside and cyanidin-3-glucoside
circulated in the bloodstream, and then were immediately excreted into the urine. The plasma concen
tration of cyanidin-3-rutinoside reached a maximum after 120 min (537 nmol/L) of administration and
decreased almost to basal levels after 240 min, while cyanidin-3-glucoside reached a maximum after at
60 min (101 nmol/L) and continued with the same levels until 120 min post-administration. These
anthocyanins also appeared as intact forms in the urine, mainly between 0 and 6 h after administration,
with an average of 0.6 and 1.0% of the total ingested for cyanidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin-3-rutinoside,
respectively. In an acute crossover clinical trial performed with healthy human who received E. oleracea
pulp and E. oleracea clarified juice (7 mL/kg of body weight), the maximum concentration of cyanidin-
3-glucoside in the plasma was observed after 2.2 h (2321 ng/L) for pulp and 2.0 h (1138 ng/L) for juice.[81]
The low contents of anthocyanins in plasma and urine suggest a combination of low absorption
with rapid metabolism. Anthocyanins are absorbed faster than other phenolic compounds, and their
bioavailability is low since these molecules have low stability in the mild alkaline of the small intestine.
Besides, fecal excretion, rapid accumulation in different tissues, metabolism resulting in ring fission,
and metabolism by gut microflora are factors that must be considered.[82]
The available studies demonstrated that the gastrointestinal digestion significantly influences the
bioaccessibility and bioavailability of phenolic compounds in Euterpe fruits and pulp, generally with
a decrease in the contents of these compounds, being anthocyanins the most affected. On the other
hand, robust conclusions are not yet possible, especially because different in vitro gastrointestinal
digestion conditions are used between studies, making it difficult to compare results. In addition, it
is essential to consider the need for the investigation of the factors associated with the low
bioaccessibility and bioavailability of phenolic compounds in these fruits and their products, such as
interactions or not with other components of these food matrices, mainly proteins, minerals, and
fibers, or with enzymes of the digestive system itself. Some findings suggested the possible formation
of new compounds from the degradation of other phenolic compounds from Euterpe products. In
this context, the next important step is also to identify the circulating metabolites derivatives to
better understand parent compounds and possible correlation to bioefficacy of Euterpe phenolic
compounds.
Factors affecting phenolic compounds of Euterpe fruits

Ripening
Euterpe fruits have a long ripening cycle (usually between 70 and 85 days),[4,83] in which a series of
biochemical and metabolic changes of primary and secondary compounds occurs, including biosynth
esis and degradation of phenolic compounds.[84]
Anthocyanins contents are related to the external fruit color, which is the main parameter used to
determine the ripening degree.[4,83] The anthocyanins biosynthesis kinetics in fruits, including Euterpe
fruits, has three phases: a phase of progressive increase in concentration, a phase of stabilization, and
a phase of decrease.[83,85]
Schulz et al.,[50] when evaluating TMA in seven ripening stages of E. edulis, observed the maximum
concentration (1610 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside.100 g−1 dry weight) 56 days after the appearance of red
fruits in the bunches (stage 6), with a subsequent decrease (976 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside.100 g−1 dry
weight) in stage 7 (13 days after). Bicudo et al.[86] also evaluated TMA during E. edulis ripening. Of the
six evaluated stages, the maximum concentration (236 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside.100 g−1 dry weight)
was found in stage 5 (ripe dark purple), with a predominance of cyanidin-3-rutinoside. A decrease in
TMA (210 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside.100 g−1 dry weight) was observed in stage 6 (14 days after), in
which cyanidin-3-glucoside became predominant. For E. oleracea, Rogez et al.[85] determined the
kinetics of anthocyanins accumulation during ripening and the time necessary to reach the maximum
anthocyanins concentrations (1090 to 1650 mg.kg−1) was between 69 and 94 days after the first black
fruits appeared, depending on the location. This study also showed that at the beginning of the
ripening cycle, cyanidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin-3-rutinoside showed similar proportions, while in
the last stages, cyanidin-3-rutinoside became more abundant. This fact was also observed in the study
performed by Gordon et al.[87] with E. oleracea of three different ripening stages: unripe (green fruits);
intermediate (reddish-brown fruits); and ripe (deep purple fruits).
Antagonistically to anthocyanins, in which a specific behavior is found during ripening, other
phenolic compounds in Euterpe fruits do not show a specific trend. For E. edulis, in general, phenolic
acids showed higher contents in most unripe fruits (stages 1–3) and flavonoids in more ripe fruits
(stages 4–7) when seven ripening stages were evaluated.[50,51] On the other hand, Bicudo et al.,[86]
when evaluating six ripening stages, observed that phenolic acids such as protocatechuic, vanillic,
sinapinic, and ferulic acids were higher in the last ripening stages studied. Seraglio et al.,[61] evaluating
three ripening stages of E. edulis (vitrin – reddish fruits; mature – purple fruits; and tuíra – deep purple
fruit) found a higher concentration of TPC in the mature stage, while compounds such as gallic acid,
p-coumaric acid, myricetin, and kaempferol were higher in the vitrin stage. For E. oleracea, all 16
phenolic compounds studied, except gallic acid, showed the highest concentrations in unripe
E. oleracea (green fruits).[87]
These findings suggest that the synthesis and degradation of phenolic compounds in Euterpe fruits
may vary depending on the species, even if they are of the same genus. Also, differences in the behavior
of these compounds in the same species can be related mainly to environmental factors (light,
temperature, rainfall, soil nutritional potential, mechanical damage, and pathogenic attacks), which
vary according to the place and date of collection of the fruits.[83,85,88,89] The ripening stages that were
evaluated in each study also need to be considered. For E. oleracea, only three stages were studied, and
green fruits were included, while for E. edulis, studies were carried out with three, six, and seven
ripening stages and green fruits were not evaluated.
Considering the long ripening cycle of Euterpe fruits, the studies available on phenolic compounds
during ripening of these fruits can contribute to select the best stage for harvesting, according to the
interest, considering benefits to health and industrial value. Despite a higher richness of anthocyanins
in more mature Euterpe fruits, it is important to consider that extracts of less ripe fruits may also be
interesting for applications in dietary supplements, food additives, and cosmetics due to their high
levels of other phenolic compounds.
Genotypes
Considering the increase in demand for Euterpe fruit products and the interest in producing high-
quality fruits with high-yield pulp and with high concentrations of bioactive compounds,[12] such as
phenolic compounds, characterization of different Euterpe genotypes has been carried out.
Anthocyanins contents were evaluated in six E. oleracea genotypes (L09P09, L22P13, BRS-
PAMISTA, L11P09, L06P13, and L04P16) obtained from the Active Germplasm Bank of Embrapa
Amazônia Oriental.[90] The breeding program resulted in significant changes in the anthocyanins
levels since the genotype L22P13 showed the highest total anthocyanins content (TAC) (64.8 mg.g−1
lyophilized pulp) when compared with other genotypes (9.15–55.1 mg.g−1 lyophilized pulp), as well as
an increase in cyanidin-3-rutinoside (146%) and TAC (86%) when compared to the commercial
sample. An increase for TAC in commercial sample was also observed for L09P09 and BRS-PAMISTA
genotypes (42 and 58%, respectively). In contrast, other E. oleracea genotypes from Embrapa
Amazônia Oriental (L4P16, L1P17, and Blend APS) were studied by Carvalho et al.,[12] and showed
lower cyanidin-3-rutinoside and cyanidin-3-glucoside levels or no statistically difference to commer
cial samples. The same occurred for non-anthocyanin compounds, except for caffeic acid, which was
higher in the L4P16 and L1P17 genotypes.
For E. edulis, differences between genotypes have also been observed. Six genotypes of this species
(J1 – J6) were supplied from Capixaba Institute for Research, Technical Assistance, and Rural
Extension (INCAPER), Espírito Santo, Brazil and studied by Barroso et al.[5] J1 and J4 showed higher
phenolic compounds contents (168 and 166 μg gallic acid.g−1 dry weight, respectively), while J2 and J5
had higher anthocyanin levels (378 and 392 μg cyanidin-3-glucoside.g−1 in a 10% solution of fruit,
respectively). Protocatechuic acid hexoside, methylhydroxybenzoate hexoside, and rutin were detected
in all E. edulis genotypes.
Although few studies have been carried out with different genotypes of Euterpe species, significant
changes in phenolic compounds among different specimens were evident. Therefore, there is a need
for continued advances in Euterpe fruits breeding programs to produce fruits with a high content of
these compounds, maximizing potential health benefits, as well as with high industrial value. Besides,
these data stimulate further in vitro and in vivo research in order to evaluate the biological activities of
the most promising genotypes of Euterpe fruits.
Extraction conditions
Euterpe fruits are highly complex matrices since they contain various components, which differ in size
and polarity.[4] Besides, phenolic compounds are found at low concentrations, and an extraction
efficient for the accurate characterization of these compounds is an important step to evaluate its
biological properties and for the production of products rich in phenolic compounds.[91,92] The
summary of the optimized conditions for the extraction of phenolic compounds from Euterpe fruits
are shown in Table 3. The main studied parameters were solvent, extraction time, solid-to-liquid ratio,
temperature, and pH.
For E. edulis fruit, no significant changes in TPC and TAC were observed when different
concentrations of ethanol were studied.[93] However, the extracts of industrial E. edulis fruit residue
Table 3. Summary of studied conditions for extraction of phenolic compounds from Euterpe fruits, pulp, and residue.
Species Material Studied conditions Optimum conditions Reference

E. edulis Frozen pasteurized Total flavanols: Total flavanols: [95]
pulp Ultrasonic extraction time: 15 min Solvent: methanol/0.1 M HCl
Solid-to-liquid ratio (w/v): 1:10 Solid-to-liquid ratio (w/v):
Solvents: water/0.01 M HCl; water/0.1 M HCl; 1:50–1:100
methanol; methanol in water (50%, v/v); Extraction time:15 min
methanol/0.01 M HCl; methanol/0.1 M HCl; TMA:
methanol/1 M HCl; ethanol; ethanol in water Solvent: methanol/1.5 M HCl
(70%, v/v); ethanol in water (50%, v/v); Solid-to-liquid ratio (w/v):
ethanol/0.01 M HCl; acetone; acetone in water 1:30–1:50
(80%, v/v); and acetone in water (80%, v/v) Extraction time: 24 h
0.01 M HCl
TMA:
Maceration in the dark (−5°C): 24 h
Solid-to-liquid ratio (w/v): 1:10
Solvents: water/0.1 M citric acid; water/0.01 M
citric acid; water/0.1 M HCl; water/0.01 M HCl;
methanol; methanol in water (50%, v/v);
methanol/0.01 M HCl; methanol/1.5 M HCl;
ethanol; ethanol in water (70%, v/v); ethanol in
water (50%, v/v); ethanol/0.01 M HCl; and
ethanol/1.5 M HCl
Fruit (epicarp + Ultrasound-assisted extraction TPC: [93]
mesocarp) Time: 5–62 min Extraction time: 62 min
Ethanol in water: 1–94% (v/v) Solid-to-liquid ratio (w/v): 6%
Solid-to-liquid ratio (w/v): 3–25% No significant difference for
ethanol concentration
TAC:
Extraction time: 30 min
Solid-to-liquid ratio (w/v):
10%
No significant difference for
ethanol concentration
Residue Pressurized liquid extraction TPC: [96]
Temperature: 40, 60, and 80°C Solvent: mixture of ethanol in
Solvent: ethanol, water, acidified mixture of water (50%, v/v) (pH 2.0)
ethanol in water (50%, v/v) (pH 2.0), and Temperature: 80°C
acidified water (pH 2.0) TMA and individual
Pressure: 10 MPa anthocyanins:
Solvent: water (pH 2.0)
Temperature: 40°C
Residue Solid-liquid extraction TPC and TMA: [94]
Solvent: 30–70% ethanol in water (v/v) Solvent: 30% ethanol in water
Temperature: 30–70°C (v/v) (pH 1)
Time: 30–60 min Temperature: 70°C
pH: 1.0 and 2.0 Time had no statistically
significant effect
E. oleracea Fruit Solid-liquid extraction TPC and TAC: [91]
Solid-to-liquid ratio (w/v): 1:1–1:16 Extraction time: 240 min
Time and temperature: 6–240 min at 60.5°C; Solid-to-liquid ratio (w/v): 1:4
15–240 min at 45.0 °C; and 90–480 min at Temperature: 58°C
29.5°C Ethanol in water (v/v):
Ethanol in water (v/v): 16.4–83.6% 70–80% Hydrochloric acid
Hydrochloric acid concentration: concentration:
0.006–0.074 mol/L 0.065–0.074 mol/L
(Continued)
Species Material Studied conditions Optimum conditions Reference
Lyophilized pulp CO2 supercritical extraction TPC: [99]
CO2 density: 700, 800, and 900 kg/m3 Temperature and pressure:
Temperature and pressure: 50°C (150, 220, and 50°C/350 bar
350 bar), 60°C (190, 270, and 420 bar), and 70° Solvent density (kg/m3): 900
C (220, 320, and 920 bar) TAC:
Temperature and pressure:
50°C/220 bar
Solvent density (kg/m3): 800
Frozen pulp Pressurized liquid extraction Individual anthocyanins: [97]
Solvent: pure ethanol and ethanol in water Solvent: ethanol in water
(50%, v/v) (50%, v/v) without citric acid
Citric acid: 0 and 0.3% (w/v) Temperature and pressure
Pressure: 20 and 80 bar did not significantly affected
Temperature: 30 and 60°C the anthocyanin extraction
Lyophilized pulp Ultrasound-assisted extraction TPC: [152]
Solvent: 25–75% (v/v) methanol in water Solvent: methanol in water
pH: 2–7 Temperature: 10–70°C (49%, v/v)
Amplitude: 30–70% of the maximum (200 W) Temperature: 41°C
Cycle 0.2–0.7 s pH: 6.98
Solid-to-liquid ratio (g:mL): 0.5:10–0.5:20 Cycle: 0.2 s
Amplitude: 30%
Sample-solvent ratio (g:mL):
0.5:10
TAC:
Solvent: methanol in water
(51%, v/v)
Temperature: 31°C
pH: 6.38
Cycle: 0.7 s
Amplitude: 65%
Solid-to-liquid ratio (g:mL):
0.5:10
Lyophilized pulp Pressurized liquid extraction TPC: [100]
Temperature: 50–100°C (42%, v/v) Temperature: 99.6°
Pressure: 100–200 atm C
Purge time: 30–90 s Pressure: 100 atm
pH: 2–7 Purge time: 65 s
Flushing: 50–150% pH: 3.92
Flushing: 150%
TAC:
(43%, v/v) Temperature: 81°C
Pressure: 200 atm
Purge time: 60 s
pH: 7
Flushing: 50%
Lyophilized pulp Microwave-assisted extraction. TPC: [101]
Temperature: 50–100°C (74.2%, v/v)
pH: 2–7 Solid-to-liquid ratio (g:mL): Temperature: 99.14°C
0.5:10–0.5:20 pH: 5.46 Solid-to-liquid ratio
(g:mL): 0.5:20
TAC:
(38%, v/v)
Temperature: 99.63°C
pH: 3 Solid-to-liquid ratio (g:
mL): 0.5:10
TAC: Total anthocyanins content; TMA: Total monomeric anthocyanins; TPC: Total phenolic content.
with higher TPC and TMA were obtained using a solid-liquid extraction with ethanol in water
(30%, v/v, pH 1, 70°C).[94] In contrast, Borges et al.[95] found the highest content of total flavonoids
and TMA for extraction of E. edulis fruit pulp performed with acidified methanol when compared
to ethanol, water, acetone, and mixtures, all acidified. The addition of an acid to the solvent
improves the rupture of the cell walls of the plant material, increasing the extraction capacity,
and improving anthocyanins stability.[91,95] The E. edulis extracts cited were obtained by solid-
liquid and ultrasound-assisted extractions. However, pressurized liquids and supercritical fluids
were evaluated for industrial E. edulis fruit residue.[96] Concerning pressurized liquid extraction, the
highest TPC was achieved with the acidified mixture of ethanol in water (50%, v/v) (pH 2.0) at 80°
C, while TMA and individual anthocyanins with acidified water (pH 2.0) at 40°C. This study also
demonstrated that supercritical fluid extraction using an acidified mixture of ethanol and water
(50%, v/v) as co-solvent, showed the highest TPC, TMA, and individual anthocyanins when
compared to extractions using soxhlet, agitated bed, and ultrasound. Extractions with pressurized
liquid and supercritical fluid are considered an alternative to conventional methods. The first
involves the use of moderate to high temperatures and pressures, which to keep the solvent in
a liquid state, besides improving the solvent diffusion in the pores of the matrix, increasing the
extraction efficiency of phenolic compounds.[96,97] Supercritical CO2 extraction allows the selective
extraction of compounds soluble in CO2 and more polar molecules with the addition of a co-
solvent. Also, the conditions applied can avoid chemical changes and degradation of phenolic
compounds.[98]
Supercritical CO2 and pressurized liquid extractions were also studied for E. oleracea fruit pulp.
Using CO2 supercritical extraction, Batista et al.[99] observed that extracts obtained at 50°C/350 bar
and solvent density of 900 kg/m3 demonstrated the highest TPC, while at 50°C/220 bar and solvent
density of 800 kg/m3 the highest TAC were found. Alcázar-Alay et al.,[97] using pressurized liquid
extraction, observed that increasing the water proportion in the extraction solvent improved the
extraction of individual anthocyanins of E. oleracea fruit pulp, while the opposite occurred with the
increase in citric acid. In this sense, the optimum conditions were ethanol in water (50%, v/v) without
citric acid, while temperature and pressure did not significantly influence the anthocyanin content.
The authors of the study suggested that the citric acid increased the release of other compounds, which
has the counter-effect of lowering the anthocyanin yield. Aliaño-González et al.[100] when evaluated
methanol in water (25–75%) as a solvent, the highest TPC and TAC in lyophilized E. oleracea fruit
pulp were obtained at a temperature of 99.6 and 81.0°C and a pressure of 100 and 200 atm,
respectively. This study also evaluated the best conditions for purge time (65 s), pH (3.92), and
flushing (150%).
This research group also optimized TPC and TAC extraction conditions using microwave[101] and
ultrasound.[100] For microwave-assisted extraction, factors such as solvent, temperature, pH, and
solid-to-liquid ratio influenced TPC and TAC. For ultrasound-assisted extraction, in addition to
these factors, it was observed that cycle and amplitude also need to be considered.
Still, the solid-liquid extraction of E. oleracea fruit was optimized by Pompeu et al.[91] The
conditions that maximized TPC and TAC yields were extraction time of 240 min, solid-to-liquid
ratio of 1:4 (w/v), ethanol proportion between 70 and 80%, temperature of 58°C, and hydrochloric acid
concentration between 0.065 and 0.074 mol/L. This study demonstrated that the variables that
influenced the extraction performance could be ranked as temperature > ethanol proportion >
hydrochloric acid concentration.
The available data on optimizing extraction conditions for Euterpe fruits products rich in phenolic
compounds demonstrated a predominance for solid-liquid and ultrasound extraction. However, the
extraction optimization using pressurized liquid and supercritical CO2 has been taking the first steps
to extract Euterpe phenolic compounds. Due to the growing interest in extraction processes with
reduced solvent consumption, high extraction capacity, shorter extraction time, and lower environ
mental impact, there is a need for continued advances in this direction in order to achieve accurate
characterization of phenolic compounds and to sustain their use in food and pharmaceutical
industries.
Processing and storage

As already widely described in the literature, processing and storage conditions significantly affect the
chemical structure of phenolic compounds in plant foods, which may increase or decrease depending
on the type of process and the food matrix.[102,103] The effects of processing and storage on phenolic
compounds from Euterpe fruits and their products are shown in Table 4.
Euterpe fruits and their pulps are highly perishable, with a maximum conservation time of 12 hours,
even under refrigeration. In this way, heat treatment is the most commonly used method for
prolonging the shelf life of Euterpe fruit pulp,[104, 105] but the degradation of phenolic compounds is
commonly observed, mainly anthocyanins (Table 4). These compounds contain high sensitivity to
temperature rise, leading to structural modification of the flavylium cation either by the loss of
conjugated double bonds or by opening the C ring and cleavage of the B ring.[105,106]
For E. edulis pulp, the application of temperatures of 72, 80, and 88°C for 60 s caused a loss of TMA
between 41 and 45%,[104] while were stable at 100°C/5 s.[107] For E. oleracea pulp, when applied heat
treatment of 85°C/1 min, there was a decrease of 16.3% in TMA[108] and 31% in its juice, including
44% for cyanidin-3-glycoside and 42% for cyanidin-3-rutinoside.[9] A TAC degradation also occurred
in E. oleracea (34.0%) and E. precatoria (10.3%) pulps heated at 80°C for up to 60 min.[53] Also,
cyanidin-3-rutinoside showed higher thermal stability (7% loss) than cyanidin-3-glucoside (up to 72%
loss) in both species, demonstrating that the higher anthocyanins thermal stability in E. precatoria was
possibly due to higher concentrations of cyanidin-3-rutinoside compared to E. oleracea. These results
were in agreement with a previous study on the stability of anthocyanins in E. oleracea juice and pulp
during storage (7 and 20°C), where half-lives of cyanidin-3-rutinoside (18–82 days) were higher than
those of cyanidin-3-glucoside (9.4–43 days).[109] Other studies evaluated thermal degradation kinetics
of anthocyanins from Euterpe fruits, which followed a first-order kinetic model, and as expected, the
degradation of anthocyanins increased with increasing temperature.[110,111] For TAC from E. edulis
pulp extract, Peron, Fraga, and Antelo[110] found a half-life of 516 h at 50°C and 9 h at 90°C, while for
E. oleracea pulp TAC half-lives were 25.8 h at 50°C and 10.7 h at 80°C.[111] On the other hand, it is
essential to highlight that although heat treatment decreases the anthocyanin content, the half-life of
these compounds during storage is higher in the pasteurized pulp than in the untreated pulp. During
8.3 h at 40°C, the E. oleracea pasteurized pulp exhibited 8% of decay in TAC, while in the non-
pasteurized pulp the decrease was 42%.[112]
Unlike anthocyanins, TPC and non-anthocyanin phenolic compounds of Euterpe fruits are less
affected by heat treatment, since losses were lower (<5 – 14.5%).[9,53,107,108] Besides, an increase in
compounds such as 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, syringic acid, ferulic acid, and orientin
was found ,[9] suggesting that depending on the heat treatment applied can improve the extractability
of bound phenolic compounds from the food matrix.[106] Contrary, the sun drying process and
blanching (in an aqueous solution at 1% ascorbic acid and 0.6% of citric acid/98°C/1 min) of
E. oleracea pulp to obtain flour caused a great decrease in TPC (68.1%) and, despite the high
thermolability of anthocyanins, this processing not modified TAC.[113]
Considering the loss of phenolic compounds related to heat treatment, Oliveira et al.[114] studied
the use of non-thermal techniques (ultrasonic-assisted and ozone gas) in E. oleracea juice processing.
However, both procedures and the combination of these processes decreased TAC (13.9–18.8%).
According to the authors, TAC reduction in ultrasonic-assisted occurred due to the cavitation, which
generates high temperature, pressure, and mechanical action between solid and liquid interfaces. In
contrast, cavitation may lead to the rupture of the cell wall, and the release of bound phenolic
compounds, which may be related to the increase (10.9%) in the TPC observed in this study for
ultrasonic-assisted. Degradation of TPC and TAC using ozone gas can be due to direct reactions with
ozone or radicals produced by its decomposition.[115] Degradation of TAC by ozone treatment also
384
Table 4. Effects of processing and storage on phenolic compounds from Euterpe fruits, pulp, and other products.
Species Material Conditions evaluated Summarized effects References
E. edulis Pulp Heat treatment (100°C/5 s) ↓ TPC (10.6%); TMA stable [108]
Pulp Heat treatment (72, 80, and 88°C/60 s) ↓ TMA (41–45%) [104]
Pulp Fermentation (Lactobacillus plantarum After fermentation (72 h): [120]
and Lactobacillus reuteri) up to ↑ TPC (25.3% for L. plantarum and 12.7% for L. reuteri)
72 hours and storage for 28 days at 4°C After storage (28 days):
↑ TPC (16.3% for L. plantarum and 24.1% for L. reuteri)
M. SCHULZ ET AL.
Probiotic and symbiotic sorbets produced with Storage at −18°C for 120 days TPC and TAC stable [121]
pasteurized pulp and polydextrose,
Lactobacillus acidophilus, and Lactobacillus
paracasei
E. oleracea Pasteurized and unpasteurized pulp Storage temperature (0, 25, and 40°C) TAC half-life time in pasteurized pulp: [112]
40°C: 23.9 h
25°C: 42.9 h
0°C: 373 h
Storage at 40°C during 8.3 h:
Pasteurized pulp: ↓ TAC (8%)
Unpasteurized pulp: ↓ TAC (42%)
Fruit Blanching (80 and 90°C for 10 s) and Blanching at 80°C: TAC stable [116]
aqueous ozonation (4 mg L−1 for Blanching at 90°C: ↓ TAC (20.8%)
10 min) Aqueous ozonation: ↓ TAC (48.4%)
Yogurt and fermented milk added of pulp Storage at 4°C during 28 days Yogurt: ↓ TAC (40.6%) [153]
Fermented milk: ↓ TAC (50.4%)
Pulp Clarifying process using pectinases and ↓ TAC (50.0%) [117]
chitosan
No-added sucrose chewy candies containing Effects of production and storage (25°C/ After production: [122]
frozen pulp, spray-dried, or freeze-dried pulp 60% relative humidity for 6 months) Chewy candies produced with frozen pulp: ↓ TAC (51.5%); ↑ TPC
powders (7.2%)
Chewy candies produced with spray-dried pulp powder: ↓ TAC
(26.9%); ↑ TPC (34.6%)
Chewy candies produced with freeze-dried pulp powder: ↓ TAC
(21.6%); ↑ TPC (53.9%)
After storage:
Chewy candies produced with frozen pulp: TAC stable; ↓ TPC
(24.3%)
Chewy candies produced with spray-dried pulp powder: ↓ TAC
(15.9%); ↓ TPC (21.9%)
Chewy candies produced with freeze-dried pulp powder: ↓ TAC
(14.5%); ↓ TPC (28.4%)
(Continued)
Species Material Conditions evaluated Summarized effects References
Juice Thermal treatment (85°C/1 min) ↓ TMA (31%); ↓ TPC (14.5%); ↓ cyanidin-3-glycoside (44%); ↓ [9]
cyanidin-3-rutinoside (42%); ↓ 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (0.4%); ↓
caffeic acid (4.9%); ↓ p-coumaric (21.1%); ↓ isoorientin (10%); ↑
3.4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (14.2%); ↑ vanillic acid (7.6%); ↑ syringic
acid (26.1%); ↑ ferulic acid (10.2%); ↑ orientin (2.3%)
−1
Juice Ultrasonic-assisted (350 and 700 J mL ) Ultrasonic-assisted: ↑ TPC (10.9%); ↓ TAC (18.8%) [114]
and ozone gas (5 and 10 min with Ozone gas: ↓ TPC (10.2–19.1%); ↓ TAC (13.9%)
1.5 ppm) Ultrasonic-assisted + ozone gas: TPC stable; ↓ TAC (17.6–20.7%)
Pulp Thermal treatment (85°C/1 min) ↓ TMA (16.3%); ↓ TPC (~10.0%) [105]
Pulp Storage in polyethylene terephthalate ↓ TAC (~13.0%); ↓ TPC (~8.0%) [154]
transparent at 3°C and 45% relative
humidity for 5 days
Pulp Blanching (in an aqueous solution at 1% TAC stable; ↓ TPC (68.1%); ↓ tannins (31.4%) [113]
ascorbic acid and 0.6% of citric acid/
98°C/1 min) and solar dehydration
Pulp Clarification (with diatomaceous earth) Clarification: [109]
and ascorbic acid fortification ↓ TAC (20.4%); ↓ TPC (21%); ↓ procyanidin (48–74%); ↓
p-coumaric acid (21%)
Ascorbic acid fortification:
2.1 to 2.5 higher TAC losses; higher non-anthocyanin polyphenolic
retention rates (92.5%); smaller decreases in procyanidin (<25%) and
p-coumaric acid (<5%)
Pulp Thermal holding cycle (80°C for 1, 5, 10, ↓ TAC (34%); ↓ cyanidin-3-rutinoside (7%); [53]
30, or 60 min) in the presence and ↓ cyanidin-3-glucoside (up to 72%); non-anthocyanin polyphenolics
absence of oxygen were stable (↓<5%); no significant differences were observed
between the presence or absence of oxygen on polyphenolic
degradation
E. precatoria Pulp Thermal holding cycle (80°C for 1, 5, 10, ↓ TAC (10.3%); ↓ cyanidin-3-rutinoside (7%); [53]
30, or 60 min) in the presence and ↓ cyanidin-3-glucoside (up to 72%); non-anthocyanin polyphenolics
absence of oxygen were stable (↓<5%); no significant differences were observed
between the presence or absence of oxygen on phenolic compounds
degradation
↑: Increased; ↓: Decreased; TAC: Total anthocyanins content; TMA: Total monomeric anthocyanins; TPC: Total phenolic content.
FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL
385
was observed by Bezerra et al.[116] In this study, the sanitizing of E. oleracea fruits by aqueous
ozonation (4 mg.L−1/10 min) and blanching at 80 and 90°C (10 s) were compared. The aqueous
ozonation was the treatment that most negatively affected TAC, decreasing its concentration in 48.4%,
followed by blanching at 90°C (20.8%). However, TAC was stable by blanching at 80°C.
Clarification, a method employed to removing lipids and insoluble solids while improves aesthetic
properties and fruit juice acceptability, was applied in E. oleracea pulp. The juice obtained from the
clarification using pectinases and chitosan showed a 50% reduction in TAC, probably due to the
polycationic chitosan bound to the anthocyanin-based polymers.[117] On the other hand, the clarifica
tion performed with diatomaceous earth resulted in a 20.4% loss of TAC, 21% of TPC, 48 to 74% of
procyanidins, and 21% of p-coumaric acid.[109] This study also demonstrated that the fortification with
ascorbic acid accelerated anthocyanins degradation in clarified juice since it can occur condensation
between these compounds, and cleavage of the pyrilium ring from ascorbic acid oxidation or its
degradation products.[109]
The stability of TAC and TPC was also evaluated during the storage of E. oleracea pulp. Rogez
et al.[118] aiming to describe the kinetics of anthocyanin oxidation during the storage of E. oleracea
pulp at 30°C in the dark, found a mean half-life of 50 h for TAC. Neves et al.[119] stored the pulp in
polyethylene terephthalate transparent at 3°C and 45% relative humidity for 5 days and observed
a decrease in TPC and TAC around 8 and 13%, respectively.
On the other hand, the fermentation process using probiotic bacteria (Lactobacillus plantarum and
Lactobacillus reuteri) increased phenolic compounds in E. edulis pulp. Guergoletto et al.[120] observed
an increase in TPC after up to 72 h of fermentation (25.3% for L. plantarum and 12.7% for L. reuteri),
and after 28 days in refrigerated storage at 4°C (16.3% for L. plantarum and 24.1% for L. reuteri). The
authors reported that the fermentation could lead to structural breakdown of plant cell wall materials
in the pulp due to a decrease of pH that favors enzymatic processes to release bound phenolic
compounds.
Finally, phenolic compounds stability was evaluated in products made with Euterpe fruits pulp,
such as sorbet, yogurt, fermented milk, and candy. The storage at −18°C for 120 days of probiotic and
symbiotic sorbets produced with the pasteurized pulp of E. edulis did not affect TAC and TPC,[121]
while yogurt and fermented milk added of E. oleracea pulp stored at 4°C during 28 days decreased 40.6
and 50.4% of TAC, respectively. Still, Da Silva et al.[122] investigated the effects of the production and
storage of no-added sucrose chewy candies added of frozen pulp, spray-dried, and freeze-dried
powders of E. oleracea on TAC and TPC. Storage at 25°C/60% relative humidity for 6 months
decreased TPC in 21.9 to 28.4%, while TAC decreased <15%. After production, chewy candies
containing freeze-dried pulp showed higher retentions of TAC (78.4%) and TPC (153.9%), while
chewy candies added of frozen pulp presented the higher decrease of TAC, with 51.5% of degradation.
This decrease occurred mainly because frozen pulp was added in the cooking step (27 min until the
mass reaches 132°C). In contrast, the powders were added in the cooling step (mass at approximately
80°C and quickly reduced to 45–50°C), which demonstrates the importance of the selection of the type
of Euterpe fruit product as an ingredient considering the stability of phenolic compounds.
The data on processing and storage published so far, in addition to demonstrating the stability of
phenolic compounds, can contribute to the definition of the shelf-life of Euterpe fruits products.
Additionally, these results may guide future studies on other processing and storage conditions to
improve the preservation of these compounds. Still, it is important to highlight the need for further
studies related to the E. precatoria species, and works that include the stability of individual phenolic
compounds.
New approaches applied to Euterpe phenolic compounds stability

Considering that the phenolic compounds of Euterpe fruits are unstable during most technological
processes, some strategies have been studied for better preservation of these compounds from this
food matrix. Euterpe fruits pulp powder production has been considered a useful tool to avoid
enzymatic and oxidative degradation and overcome the limitations in the stability of phenolic
compounds.[105,123,124] Spray drying was successfully applied to obtain powder from Euterpe pulp or
juice. Different carrier agents, which to act as a protective barrier avoiding effects of external factors,
have already been used, such as maltodextrin,[60,105,125–133] gum Arabic,[60,123,126,127,129–132]
inulin,[60,125,126] oligofructose,[125] tapioca starch,[129] manioc starch,[105] modified starch,[123] whey
protein concentrate,[123] soy protein isolate,[123] and gelatin.[131,132] In general, maltodextrin and gum
Arabic present higher retention of phenolic compounds of Euterpe pulp powders; however, mixtures
of carrier agents resulted in higher retention than pure agents.[123,125,130] On the other hand, Pereira
et al.[134] obtained E. edulis pulp spray-dried without carrier agent, demonstrating comparable or
better results than those using carrier agents. Operating conditions such as air temperature and feed
flow have been optimized to obtain powders with high phenolic compounds retention.[105,126,128,131]
As an alternative to spray drying, the spouted bed has been studied for drying of E. oleracea pulp,
since this method produces E. oleracea powders with similar or superior TAC content at significantly
lower costs.[135,136] The study performed by Costa et al.[135] also included the optimization of operating
variables such as drying air temperature, airflow rate, and maltodextrin concentration for better
product quality, including high anthocyanin content. Also, electrospinning encapsulation technology
was used for the development of zein capsules containing hydroalcoholic E. oleracea extract, improv
ing the thermal stability of phenolic compounds when exposed to high-temperature treatments such
as sterilization and baking.[137] Other promising results in relation protection of phenolic compounds
were obtained by encapsulation of E. edulis extract using adsorption technique with blank alginate
beads combined with a complexation process using chitosan, providing higher protection of mono
meric anthocyanins during storage.[138]
Regarding the loss of phenolic compounds caused by heat treatment, high hydrostatic pressure
(HHP) showed to be effective as an alternative to that process. Studies performed by De Jesus et al.[108]
and Da Silveira et al.[9] demonstrated that HHP promoting a significant increase in the extractability of
TMA, TPC, and individual phenolic compounds in E. oleracea juice, since this process increases the
penetration of solvent into the plant cell and increases the extraction yield.[139]
Still, concentrated E. edulis anthocyanin-rich extracts were successfully obtained by membrane-
based nanofiltration.[140] Besides, this study evaluated six distinct polymer membranes on nanofiltra
tion performance, and Desal 5-DL, Desal 5-DK, and NP030 revealed the highest cyanidin-3-rutinoside
and cyanidin-3-glucoside retention capacity. This technology allows the concentration and fractiona
tion of phenolic compounds without applying high temperatures, i.e., contributing to better preser
ving these compounds.[141–154]
The studies demonstrated the growing interest in technologies that seek lower losses of Euterpe
fruits phenolic compounds, being encapsulation the most studied. However, important advances still
need to be made about selecting the best processing conditions for powders production, and incor
porating into the food products, studying sensory characteristics, storage stability, and effects of the
gastrointestinal digestion. These future trends should also consider the use of industrial waste from
Euterpe fruit pulps production as an economical and promising source of fruit phenolic compounds as
natural food additives.
Conclusion
Euterpe fruits are considered important sources of phenolic compounds, stands out in variety and
concentration. Indeed, the richness of phenolic compounds in these fruits was shown in this
review, besides their bioaccessibility, bioavailability, stability, and new approaches applied to its
stability.
The data demonstrated that bioaccessibility and bioavailability of phenolic compounds in Euterpe
fruits and their pulps were affected, generally with a decrease in their contents after gastrointestinal
digestion. The studies available on phenolic compounds during ripening and in different genotypes
showed the importance of select the best stage for harvesting and a need for advances in breeding
programs to obtain Euterpe fruits with a high content of phenolic compounds, according to the
interest, considering health benefits and industrial value. In addition, there is a growing interest in
technologies that seek lower losses of Euterpe fruits phenolic compounds during processing, which
were demonstrated mainly during thermal treatment. Advances in optimizing extraction conditions of
phenolic compounds from Euterpe fruits products have been also found, with growing interest in
techniques with reduced environmental impacts. However, it is important to consider a need for
continued expansion of studies on these topics, especially on bioaccessibility and bioavailability of
Euterpe phenolic compounds and new technologies or the optimization of existing ones to increase the
stability of these compounds. This information is even more scarce when considering data on Euterpe
precatoria species.
The data compiled in this review can guide future research related to Euterpe phenolic compounds
and is essential to improve Euterpe fruits consumption as foods rich in these compounds, increasing
the financial profit for local populations and the environmental restoration by increasing the cultiva
tion of these Euterpe species.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) and
Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) (Finance code 001) for fellowships and
financial support.
Disclosure statement
The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Brazil
[150371/2019-5,160175/2019-4].
ORCID
Mayara Schulz http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9082-8626
Siluana Katia Tischer Seraglio http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4087-0695
Luciano Valdemiro Gonzaga http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3895-1509
Ana Carolina Oliveira Costa http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5101-9604
Roseane Fett http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7284-9324
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Food Reviews International

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Phenolic Compounds in Euterpe Fruits:

Mayara Schulz, Siluana Katia Tischer Seraglio, Luciano Valdemiro Gonzaga,

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2021.1909060

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Phenolic Compounds in Euterpe Fruits: Composition, Digestibility,

CONTACT Mayara Schulz schulzmay@gmail.com Departamento de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos, Universidade

Methodology used for data research

Phenolic compounds in Euterpe fruits

Other phenolic compounds

Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of phenolic compounds of Euterpe fruits

Factors affecting phenolic compounds of Euterpe fruits

Species Material Studied conditions Optimum conditions Reference

Processing and storage

New approaches applied to Euterpe phenolic compounds stability

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