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Lothar Mueller
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Innovations in Landscape Research
Lothar Mueller
Frank Eulenstein Editors
Current Trends
in Landscape
Research
Innovations in Landscape Research
Series Editor
Lothar Mueller, Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF),
Müncheberg, Brandenburg, Germany
Aims & Scope
Editors
123
Editors
Lothar Mueller Frank Eulenstein
Guest Scientist Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape
Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF)
Research (ZALF) Müncheberg, Brandenburg, Germany
Müncheberg, Brandenburg, Germany
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Editors’ Preface
Dear Reader,
We are pleased that the title of this book and the contents of some of its chapters
have caught your interest. The subject is, of course, landscapes and their explo-
ration. If you are about to click straight on to the next page, or put the book back
down, you should know that our titles and topics are more than just scientific talk
about regional and local problems caused by tensions between humans and nature.
They examine existential questions of mankind from different perspectives. These
questions and challenges are always related to specific regions and landscapes; to
their functions and values for us.
Landscapes emerged as a result of cosmic and geological processes. This is the
basis on which soils, water, flora, fauna, diverse ecosystems and we ourselves (as
the dominant species) could develop. Landscapes are crucial for our existence, our
plans and our actions. We have used and designed them. They are a living archive
that bears witness to our cultural history. A variety of landscapes shape the present
face of our planet and secure our existence and well-being. Landscapes will be
crucial factors in our survival as a species. Their condition can be used as an
indicator of how good the chances are for our descendants.
The grave problems and conditions facing humans and nature in the twenty-first
century are basically well known. All processes of nature are subject to permanent
change, hence the constant changes to our planet’s landscapes. However, the
existential problems of today are man-made. These problems consist in a crowded
world with a deficient world order, with extreme gradients in terms of ensuring
basic human needs and rights, with unresolved social, economic, ethno-cultural,
and religious issues and conflicts. This affects humanity and nature. Effects include
v
vi Editors’ Preface
the increasing degradation of our resources of fresh water, healthy food, fertile soil,
clean air, energy and raw materials. These entail the irreversible disruption of food
webs and natural cycles, the extinction of species and the man-made aspects of
climate change.
People’s fundamental rights have been addressed in the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals, which are considered a compass for all responsible
citizens and decision-makers. In terms of landscapes, the European Landscape
Convention already provides good guidelines for responsible action. The imple-
mentation of such goals and conventions requires wise decisions at all levels. At the
regional level, the problems and conflicts arising from tension between humans and
nature are very specific. Today’s landscapes are multifunctional and networked in a
globalized world. Depending on a landscape’s natural features and the desired
development goals, the functional mechanisms and gaps in our knowledge can be
addressed.
The state and development of landscapes can and must be explored. Knowledge
has to be disseminated and understood. Only then can improvements be made for
the benefit of man and nature. As editors, we see it as our mission to support this
process of sharing knowledge about solutions for more sustainable landscapes.
Within our series of books, and in this particular book, we would like to go one step
further: to reveal concepts and solutions. That is not possible without reviewing
existing knowledge about landscapes and their exploration, analyzing basic con-
ditions and providing status analyses and definitions. This book, “Current Trends in
Landscape Research”, is dedicated to that task. Other books in this series will then
deal more with specific sub-problems of landscape research and highlight the latest
developments. Scientific and technological innovations and information technolo-
gies are needed more than ever to keep a finger on the pulse of the landscape and to
initiate sustainable solutions.
Landscape research—and this book—can help to overcome boundaries and bar-
riers, especially linguistic ones. One main aim is for knowledge to be exchanged within
the international community of scientists. Language barriers have prevented the broad
exchange of novel ideas and technologies across the globe. Russia has great traditions
in landscape research. Numerous contributions by Russian authors reveal the advan-
tages to be gained by improving the East-West dialogue in science. The book will
benefit many authors by encouraging them to improve the quality of their disciplinary
work and launch inter- and trans-disciplinary projects for landscape sustainability.
What Is the Basic Content of This Book and What Key Message
Do We Want to Convey?
ix
x Contents
xiii
xiv Editors and Contributors
Contributors
Jiajia Liu Forest and Nature Lab, Ghent University, Melle-Gontrode, Belgium;
College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
Joseph R. Lujan U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wildlife Refuge
System, Albuquerque, NM, USA
William A. Mackaness School of Geosciences, Edinburgh, UK
Dmitry Mandychev Central Asian Institute for Applied Geosciences (CAIAG),
Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
Michael Manton Faculty of Forest Science and Ecology, Vytautas Magnus
University, Akademija, Kaunas, Lithuania
Cristina Mattos Esri Deutschland Group GmbH, Kranzberg, Germany
Ronald J. McCormick Environmental Quality and Protection, Bureau of Land
Management, Washington, DC, USA
Blair M. McKenzie The James Hutton Institute, Dundee, UK
Thomas A. Miewald U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, North Pacific Landscape
Conservation Cooperative/National Wildlife Refuge System, Portland, OR, USA
László Miklós Institute of Landscape Ecology, Slovak Academy of Sciences,
Bratislava, Slovakia
Gerhard Milbert Kuratorium Boden des Jahres, Geldern, Germany
Sarah Milliken Department of Landscape, School of Design, University of
Greenwich, Gillingham, UK
Wilfried Mirschel Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF),
Muencheberg, Germany
Bolot Moldobekov Central Asian Institute for Applied Geosciences (CAIAG),
Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
Alejandra Morán-Ordóñez Centre Tecnològic Forestal de Catalunya
(CEMFOR-CTFC), Solsona, Spain;
CREAF, Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
Lothar Mueller Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF),
Muencheberg, Germany;
Kuban State Agrarian University, Krasnodar, Russia
Brent A. Murry U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Caribbean Landscape
Conservation Cooperative, San Juan, PR, USA
Yurij Pautov Silver Taiga Foundation for Sustainable Development, Syktyvkar,
Russia
Pravitasari Anjar Pratiwi Department of Agribusiness, University of Jember,
Jember, Indonesia
Editors and Contributors xix
Keywords Western culture Landscape disciplines Landscape science
History Holism Approaches Ways of seeing
1.1 Introduction
From the perspective of Western European culture, where the word landscape
originated, Antrop and Van Eetvelde (2017) recognized six consecutive phases in
the development of landscape research:
1 Territory and/or Scenery: Concepts and Prospects … 5
Fig. 1.1 Filiation and diffusion of landscape ecology over the world. The numbers are the Google
hits of ‘landscape ecology’ in thousands (situation 2018)
6 M. Antrop and V. Van Eetvelde
the landscape, but it has emerged in the last few decades because, quite clearly,
existing approaches that sought to address a whole range of landscape scale
environmental issues were proving to be inadequate” (p. 138).
One of the oldest references to the word landscape is found in the Dutch language
around the year 1200 AD. The word ‘lantscap’ (also spelled as ‘lantscep’ and
‘landscip’) denotes a tract of land or region. It is composed of the word ‘land,’ in
the sense of a bordered territory, and the suffix-scep, which refers to reclaiming or
creating, as in ‘scheppen’ (to shuffle) and in the German
‘Landschaft’—‘schaffen’ = to make (Antrop and Van Eetvelde 2017). In Old
English, this became ‘landscip,’ the suffix having the meaning of -ship as in kinship
and friendship (Olwig 1996; Cosgrove 2002). Thus, it focuses on land cleared for
settlement in a rural community. Consequently, it also made the distinction between
the rural and the urban lands (town, nowadays also referred to as townscape). In this
sense, landscape is intimately connected to the terrain, the soil and the territory, i.e.,
the area created and managed by the community who lives there. In the Western
culture, land also means property and wealth and many customs and laws were
created to regulate the use of rights for all. When land clearing was defined by the
physical conditions and the available technology, the organization and shaping of
the land reflected the cultural identity of the local community or landowner. Thus,
landscape became the visual manifestation of the interaction between land and
people, and the identity of a society. In Western culture, the representation of the
landscape in prints and paintings only became a distinct genre in pictorial arts in the
fifteenth century. In particular, in the Low Countries, it became a commercially
successful genre, making the word landscape synonymous with a painting of a
landscape scenery. With the Dutch Golden Age of the seventeenth century, the
word became introduced in English language in the meaning of a painting or scene
of the countryside.
The landscape does not only refer to a tangible and complex reality ‘out there’
that can be described and analyzed using objective scientific methods, but also refer
to the subjective experience of its perception generating a ‘mindscape’ as well
(Lowenthal 1975; Cosgrove and Daniels 1988). Unsurprisingly, the approaches to
the landscape are very diverse and not always clearly defined. Most disciplines and
interest groups are dealing with the same tract of land but conceive different
landscapes. There are different ‘ways of seeing the landscape,’ and its meaning
shifts with the context, with the background of the observers and users, and with the
methods and technology to study it (Cosgrove 2002).
8 M. Antrop and V. Van Eetvelde
In common language, the word landscape has multiple meanings and, according to
the focus one makes, different perspectives, readings and interpretations are pos-
sible. Different linguistic interpretations and translations are added to the com-
plexity. The beginnings of landscape research were dominated by a search of the
scientific definition of the new object of study in geography, but failed to resolve in
‘universal’ accepted definition (Zonneveld 1995; Olwig 1996; Claval 2004; Antrop
2005). To clarify the exact meaning one is using, adjectives were added, such as
natural or cultural landscape, rural or urban landscape or designed landscape, and
even in a metaphorical sense as in political landscape. Nevertheless, such precisions
raised new problems and did not solve the loss of holistic thinking about the
landscape as shown in the following examples.
Natural and cultural landscape.
The German geographers from the end of the nineteenth and first half of the
twentieth century debated a lot on the definition of landscape (Paffen 1973). They
introduced the difference between natural and cultural landscapes as the main
paradigm. The distinction was characteristic of an environmental determinism of
the cultural landscape. Geographers elsewhere opposed to this deterministic
approach (Sauer 1925; Vidal de la Blache 1922; Claval 2004), which caused the
development of environmental ‘possibilism’ for the development of the cultural
landscape. Jones and Daugstad (1997) discussed the many problems in using this
distinction as it causes a fundamental split in the holistic nature of the concept
landscape. Nowadays, there is the awareness that the environment is globally
affected by human activities. So, it is more relevant to consider the landscapes in a
continuum on an intensity scale of human impact. As Sauer formulated it: “culture
is the agent, the natural area is the medium, the cultural landscape is the result”
(Sauer 1925). It placed humans as important actors of the changing environment,
which was recognized in the first important symposium on Man’s Role in the
Changing Face of the Earth in June 1955 (Thomas 1956).
When concepts as natural and cultural landscapes have become obsolete in
scientific research, it is not the case in policy as can be seen, for example, in the
definition of ‘cultural landscape’ by UNESCO (see further). In many countries, the
protection of landscape and nature depends on different administrations and follows
different rules and legislation.
Rural and urban landscapes.
The distinction between rural and urban landscapes is based on two different life-
styles and visions about the environment. This distinction was already used in
Roman times and clearly does not correspond to the distinction of built versus
unbuilt land. Rural areas often refer to agricultural (agrarian) land that contains
villages and small towns. Forests, wasteland and wilderness are not included. In the
British tradition, the rural landscape is called countryside and the French speak of la
1 Territory and/or Scenery: Concepts and Prospects … 9
campagne. The difference between rural and urban is more defined by customs and
law than the landscape composition and scenery. However, the distinction is still
used in policy, such as in the Rural Development Programs 2007–2013 of the EU
(European Commission 2008).
Geographers studied the rural landscape from a structural, functional and his-
torical perspective. They considered it as a specific form of cultural landscape,
characterized by settlement patterns, land use zoning and field systems. Rural
landscapes reflect a long history of land reclamation and management that can be
studied as a palimpsest to reveal successive layers of time depth (Claval 2004).
In the past, the distinction between rural and urban was clear, spatially, legally
and socially. With the Industrial Revolution and the general urban sprawl, stimu-
lated by the increasing mobility by railway and cars, the border between rural and
urban has become fuzzy. Also, the settlement types form a continuous gradient
according to size, area and power (Antrop 2000) and ‘the urban’ needed to be
redefined as well. Highly dynamical urban areas affect more than their morpho-
logical extent. New concepts such as functional urban regions (Cheshire 1995),
functional urban areas (Antikainen 2005; OECD 2012) and urban morphological
zones (European Environmental Agency 2002) have been introduced. Many of
these contain fragments of the former natural or rural landscape.
Sublime and ordinary landscapes.
This pair of extreme landscape types is based on a scale of aesthetic appreciation
and preference. It basically refers to the scenery, but not merely to the visual
landscape, but to the experience with all senses when standing in or crossing the
landscape. Sublime and spectacular landscapes refer to the nineteenth-century
romantic travel experiences and in a lesser extent to the beautiful and the pic-
turesque landscapes depicted in arts (Schama 1995; Bell 1999). The ordinary or
quotidian landscapes are the ones experienced daily by urban commuters (Groth
and Bressi 1997).
Formal definitions are based on an agreement between different parties and are
consolidated in a convention that all parties agree to apply in their policy and
legislation. Two formal definitions of landscape have an international scope and
stimulate integrated research of the landscape.
Cultural landscapes in the UNESCO World Heritage Convention.
In 1992, the UNESCO World Heritage Convention introduced a new category for
the list of protected properties, i.e., cultural landscapes (UNESCO 1992). It contains
the first formal definition of landscape. Cultural landscapes are to “represent the
‘combined’ works of nature and man.”
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— Mies, kuka oletkin, astu syrjään, sillä minulla on asiaa
jumalanaiselle.
— Anna minun mennä, sanoi hän. Hän tunsi, pikemmin kuin näki,
pitkän keihään, joka oli ojennettu hänen rintaansa vastaan
pimeässä. — Anna minun olla, niin minä annan sinulle monta säkkiä
suolaa ja putkia enemmän kuin metsässä on puita.
Hän oli vahva kuin nuori leijona, mutta hänen kurkkuunsa tarttuva
käsi ei myöskään ollut heikko. Hetkisen he kamppailivat, ja sitten he
kaatuivat kierien toistensa yli polulla.
*****
Ngombilaisten joukossa oli nainen, jolla oli suloinen kieli. Kun hän
puhui, miehet kuuntelivat innokkaasti, sillä sensukuinen hän oli,
syntymästään asti voimakaspuheinen.
Koko päivän hän makasi maassa ympärillään koko kylän väki, jolle
hän puhui työmiesten sahatessa poikki messinkirengasta hänen
kaulastaan. Päivän mentyä rengas saatiin pois ja päällikkö lähetti
hänet takaisin vanhempansa luo, jolta hän oli tytön ostanut suurella
summalla. Hänen toimenpiteensä kohtasi suurta vastustusta, sillä
nainen oli käyttänyt aikansa hyödyllisesti, ja koko kylä oli niin
kuohuksissaan, että se oli valmis kapinaan.
— Miksi minä puhuisin, kun sinä olet puhunut liikaa? kysyi Otapo
kylmästi. — Kiroan sen päivän, jolloin sinut näin, Mfasimbi, sillä
erehdykseni on maksanut minulle kalaverkon, joka oli kylän paras, ja
palan uutta kangasta, jonka ostin kauppamieheltä; ne on herramme
päällikkö ottanut.
— Jos sinulla olisi ollut miehen mieli, niin Namani, mieheni, olisi
nyt kuollut, ivasi nainen.
— Toivon, että äitini olisi synnyttänyt tytön, kun hän synnytti minut,
sanoi Otapo, — silloin en olisi joutunut häpeään.
Hän sai pian siitä tiedon, sillä nainen juoksi rinnettä hänen
luokseen ja polvistui syleillen hänen jalkojaan.
Päällikkö oli vihainen, sillä hän oli Namania korkeampi herra ja sitä
paitsi valvoi seudun rauhaa komissaarin puolesta.
— Jos sinä olisit ottanut hänet, Muhamed, sanoi vaimo, joka oli
kanonainen ja harras uskovainen, — olisit tullut surulliseksi.
Bosambo oli mies, jolla oli eläimen vaistot. Hän tunsi ilmassa
levottomuutta. Jokainen väräjävä hermosäie toi hänelle viestin:
hänen miehensä olivat luisumassa pois hänen vallastaan. Hän ei
epäröinyt.
Hiu-ii!
Kiiltävä kärki suhahti ilman läpi nopeammin kuin katse voi seurata.
*****
Abibu oli jätetty kylään, josta Mfasimbi oli karkoitettu. Hänet oli
jätetty selvittämään Otapon kuoleman salaisuutta, eikä häntä
helposti säikytetty.
Nyt hän näki selvästi. Yksi joukko oli astunut maihin, ja siellä kävi
kiivas käsirysy.
*****
Ja he tulivat myöskin.
RUKOILEVA MAURILAINEN
Mies nyökkäsi.