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Deep Imaging in Tissue
and Biomedical Materials
Deep Imaging in Tissue
and Biomedical Materials
Using Linear and Nonlinear Optical Methods
editors
edited by
Preben Maegaard Lingyan Shi
Anna Krenz
Wolfgang Palz Robert
RobertR.Alfano
Alfano
Wind Power
for the World
Published by
Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
Penthouse Level, Suntec Tower 3
8 Temasek Boulevard
Singapore 038988
Email: editorial@panstanford.com
Web: www.panstanford.com
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or
to be invented, without written permission from the publisher.
Preface xvii
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 Gaussian Beams 32
2.2.1 Fundamental Gaussian Beams 32
2.2.1.1 The beam spot w 35
2.2.1.2 Beam intensity 37
2.1.1.3 Wavefront 39
2.1.1.4 Gouy phase 39
2.1.1.5 Momentum 40
2.1.1.6 Gaussian-beam optics 42
2.2.2 Hermite–Gaussian Beams 44
2.2.3 Laguerre–Gaussian Beams 47
2.2.3.1 Fundamentals 47
2.2.3.2 Interference 50
2.2.3.3 Angular momentum 52
2.2.4 Relations between Mode Families 54
2.2.5 Laboratory Methods of Production 57
2.2.5.1 Spiral phase plate 58
2.2.5.2 Holographic diffraction 59
2.3 Non-Diffracting Optical Beams 61
2.3.1 Bessel Beams 62
2.3.2 Airy Beams 66
2.4 Beams with Space-Variant Polarization 68
2.4.1 Polarization 68
2.4.2 Vector Beams 71
2.4.3 Poincaré Beams 73
2.5 Discussion and Conclusions 75
3.1 Introduction 82
3.2 Gaussian Beam Model 82
3.3 Parameters in Multiphoton Imaging 84
Contents vii
4.1 Introduction 92
4.2 Monte Carlo Simulations 95
4.2.1 Modeling Light Penetration into a
Thick Tissue 95
4.2.2 Modeling the Shi Experiment of Narrow
Transmission Using Thin Tissues 97
4.2.3 Summary of Results 98
4.3 Discussion 99
6.4.5
Deep Tissue FRET Imaging 184
6.4.6
Multiphoton Imaging of Endogenous
Molecules 185
6.5 Conclusion 188
8.5.1
MIR Light Spectral Imaging of Excised
External Tissue 254
8.5.2 MIR Light Spectral Imaging of Excised
Internal Tissue 258
8.5.3 MIR Light Coherent Imaging 264
8.6 How to Achieve the in vivo MIR Optical Biopsy 264
8.6.1 MIR Optical Components, Circuits
and Detectors 265
8.6.1.1 MIR optical components and
circuits 265
8.6.1.2 MIR detectors 265
8.6.2 MIR Light Sources: Traditional, Emerging
and New 266
8.6.3 Progress on MIR Fiber Lasers: MIR
Supercontinuum Generation 272
8.6.3.1 MIR supercontinuum generation
wideband fiber lasers 272
8.6.3.2 MIR Narrowline Direct-Emission
Fiber Lasers 279
8.7 Summary and Future Prospects 280
9.5.2
Results of Modeling of Polarized Light
Propagation 311
9.6 Summary 316
Index 517
Preface
Lingyan Shi
Robert R. Alfano
New York
January 2017
Chapter 1
Deep Imaging in Tissue and Biomedical Materials: Using Linear and Nonlinear Optical Methods
Edited by Lingyan Shi and Robert R. Alfano
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4745-88-8 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-20655-4 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
Second- and Third-Order Nonlinear Optical Processes
P(t ) = N
m(t ). (1.1)
When the strength of the applied electric field is small compared
to that of the electric field binding the electrons to the nuclei,
i.e., in the weak field limit, the induced polarization can be
written assuming the case of rapid response as
lost and one photon in the output visible light beam is created.
Second harmonic generation is an example of a parametric
generation process since it involves the exchange of energy
between incident and outgoing laser fields while molecules
remain in the ground state after interaction. Other examples
of parametric processes that involve nonlinear electronic
polarization of the molecules under intense pulsed laser light
excitation are third-harmonic generation and four-wave mixing.
Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) discussed in
Section 1.4 is an example of a nonlinear four-wave mixing
parametric process that involves the vibrational states of the
molecules.
(a) (b)
ω ω
ω (2)
χ 2ω 2ω
Pi (wn + wm ) = e0 c(2)
ijk (wn + wm , wn , wm ) E j (wn ) E k (wm ) (1.4)
jk (nm )
N mign mnm
j k
mmg
2 PF mn
c(2)
ijk (w s , wq , w p ) =
, (1.5)
e0 ( wng – ws )(wmg – wp )
n m g
ωq ωp ωq
m g n
ωp ωp
ωq
g n m
Figure 1.2 Various quantum-mechanical contributions to the second-
order nonlinear optical response.
Second- and Third-Order Nonlinear Optical Processes
n2 2 E 2 P ,
NL
2
K – 2 2 = m0 (1.6)
c t t 2
E j (z, t ) = A j (z )e j j + c .c .,
i (k z – w t )
(1.7)
m0 2w2 Dk L
I2 (L) = 2 2
|c(2)|2 I12 L2sinc2 , (1.10)
0 n1 n2c 2
where sinc(x) = sin(x)/x. The condition Dk = 0 is known as
the condition of perfect phase matching, and is a requirement
for efficient generation of second-harmonic radiation. When
Dk = 0 the last factor in the above equation equals unity and the
intensity of SHG signal scales as the square of the incident
intensity I1.
m(t ) = a (t )E(t ), (1.11)
where
(t ) = a + (aQ )Q
a (t ) + ... (1.12)
0
m(t ) = a0 Ae –iw1t + A (a / Q ) Q0[e –i (w1 – wv )t + ij + e –i (w1 + wv )t – ij ] + c .c .
(1.14)
Great Britain,
Papers by Command: Treaty Series, Number 15, 1899.
{335}
"It will be remembered that last year we and the French agreed
upon a delimitation of 'spheres' in West Africa which extended
as far as Lake Chad. As to the country east of Lake Chad
nothing was said. It was left as a kind of No-man's Land. What
has now been done is to extend the area of the French 'sphere'
eastward beyond Lake Chad till it reaches Darfur and the
Bahr-el-Ghazel. Darfur and the region of the Bahr-el-Ghazel
are declared to be in the English 'sphere.' All the rest of
Northern Central Africa is to become French. France, that is,
is to have the great Mahommedan State of Wadai as well as
Baghirmi and Kanem. In the territory between Lake Chad and the
Nile each Power, however, is to allow the other equality of
treatment in matters of commerce. This will no doubt allow
France to have commercial establishments on the Nile and its
affluents, but it will also allow us to have similar
privileges for trade on the eastern shore of Lake Chad. But as
our system of giving equal trading rights to all foreigners
would in any case have secured commercial rights to France, we
are not in the least hampered by this provision, while the
concession to us of equal rights on the eastern shore of Lake
Chad will improve our position in the face of French Colonial
Protection. …
{336}
NIGERIA: A. D. 1897:
Massacre of British officials near Benin.
Capture of Benin.
An unarmed expedition from the Niger Coast Protectorate,
going, in January, on a peaceful mission to the King of Benin,
led by Acting Consul-General Phillips, was attacked on the way
and the whole party massacred excepting two, who were wounded,
but who hid themselves in the bush and contrived to make their
way back. The Consul-General had been warned that the king
would not allow the mission to enter Benin, but persisted in
going on. A "punitive expedition" was sent against Benin the
following month, and the town was reached and taken on the
18th, but the king had escaped.
Great Britain,
Papers by Command: Africa, Number 6, 1897, page 28.
NIGERIA: A. D. 1897:
Subjugation of Fulah slave-raiders.
NIGERIA: A. D. 1899:
Transfer to the British Crown.
NINETEENTH CENTURY:
The date of the ending of the Century.
"The centurial figures are the symbol, and the only symbol, of
the centuries. Once every hundred years there is a change in
the symbol, and this great secular event is of startling
prominence. What more natural than to bring the century into
harmony with its only visible mark? What more consonant with
order than to make each group of a hundred years correspond
with a single centennial emblem? Be it noticed that, apart
from the centennial emblems, there is absolutely nothing to
give the centuries any form. The initial figures 18 are time's
standard which the earth carries while it makes 100 trips around
the sun. Then a new standard, 19, is put up. Shall we wait now
a whole year for 1901, at the behest of the abacists? No, we
will not pass over the significant year 1900, which is stamped
with the great secular change, but with cheers we will welcome
it and the new century. The 1900 men, who compose the vast
majority of the people, say to their opponents: 'We freely
admit that the century you have in your mind, the artificial
century, begins in 1901, but the natural century (which we
prefer) begins in 1900.'"
{337}
NINETEENTH CENTURY:
The epoch of a transformation of the world.
J. N. Larned,
History of England for the Use of Schools,
page 561.
NINETEENTH CENTURY:
Comparison of the Century with all preceding ages,
as regards man's power over Nature.
{338}
"Of course these numbers are not absolute. Either series may
be increased or diminished by taking account of other
discoveries as of equal importance, or by striking out some
which may be considered as below the grade of an important or
epoch-making step in science or civilization. But the
difference between the two lists is so large, that probably no
competent judge would bring them to an equality. Again, it is
noteworthy that nothing like a regular gradation is
perceptible during the last three or four centuries. The
eighteenth century, instead of showing some approximation to
the wealth of discovery in our own age, is less remarkable
than the seventeenth, having only about half the number of
really great advances."
A. R. Wallace,
The Wonderful Century,
chapter 15
(copyright, Dodd, Mead & Company, New York,
quoted with permission).
NINETEENTH CENTURY:
Difference of the Century from preceding ages.
"In the last 100 years the world has seen great wars, great
national and social upheavals, great religious movements,
great economic changes. Literature and art have had their
triumphs and have permanently enriched the intellectual
inheritance of our race. Yet, large as is the space which
subjects like these legitimately fill in our thoughts, much as
they will occupy the future historian, it is not among these
that I seek for the most important and the most fundamental
differences which separate the present from preceding ages.
Rather is this to be found in the cumulative products of
scientific research, to which no other period offers a
precedent or a parallel. No single discovery, it may be, can
be compared in its results to that of Copernicus; no single
discoverer can be compared in genius to Newton; but, in their
total effects, the advances made by the 19th century are not
to be matched. Not only is the surprising increase of
knowledge new, but the use to which it has been put is new
also. The growth of industrial invention is not a fact we are
permitted to forget. We do, however, sometimes forget how much
of it is due to a close connection between theoretic knowledge
and its utilitarian application which, in its degree, is
altogether unexampled in the history of mankind. I suppose
that, at this moment, if we were allowed a vision of the
embryonic forces which are predestined most potently to affect
the future of mankind, we should have to look for them not in
the Legislature, nor in the Press, nor on the platform, nor in
the schemes of practical statesmen, nor the dreams of
political theorists, but in the laboratories of scientific
students whose names are but little in the mouths of men, who
cannot themselves forecast the results of their own labors,
and whose theories could scarcely be understood by those whom
they will chiefly benefit. …
A. J. Balfour,
The Nineteenth Century
(Address before the University Extension Students
at Cambridge, August 2, 1900).
NINETEENTH CENTURY:
The intellectual and social trend of the Century.
{339}
"The mind has been active in all fields during this fruitful
century; but, outside of politics, it is to science that we
must look for the thoughts that have shaped all other
thinking. When von Helmholtz was in this country, a few years
ago, he said that modern science was born when men ceased to
summon nature to the support of theories already formed, and
instead began to question nature for her facts, in order that
they might thus discover the laws which these facts reveal. I
do not know that it would be easy to sum up the scientific
method, as the phrase runs, in simpler words. It would not be
correct to say that this process was unknown before the
present century; for there have been individual observers and
students of nature in all ages. … But it is true that only in
this century has this attitude toward nature become the
uniform attitude of men of science. …
"To sum up, therefore, I should say that the trend of the
century has been to a great increase in knowledge, which has
been found to be, as of old, the knowledge of good and evil;
that this knowledge has become more and more the property of
all men rather than of a few; that, as a result, the very
increase of opportunity has led to the magnifying of the
problems with which humanity is obliged to deal; and that we
find ourselves, at the end of the century, face to face with
problems of world-wide importance and utmost difficulty, and
with no new means of coping with them other than the patient
education of the masses of men."