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Dingyü Xue

Differential
Equation Solutions
®
with MATLAB
|
Author
Prof. Dingyü Xue
School of Information Science and Engineering
Northeastern University
Wenhua Road 3rd Street
110819 Shenyang
China
xuedingyu@mail.neu.edu.cn

MATLAB and Simulink are registered trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc. See www.mathworks.com/
trademarks for a list of additional trademarks. The MathWorks Publisher Logo identifies books that
contain MATLAB and Simulink content. Used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the
accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB and Simulink
software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of
a particular use of the MATLAB and Simulink software or related products. For MATLAB® and
Simulink® product information, or information on other related products, please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
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Tel: 508-647-700
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ISBN 978-3-11-067524-5
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e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-067531-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020931439

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2020 Tsinghua University Press Limited and Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Cover image: Dingyü Xue
Typesetting: VTeX UAB, Lithuania
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck

www.degruyter.com
Preface
Scientific computing is commonly and inevitably encountered in course learning, sci-
entific research and engineering practice for each scientific and engineering student
and researcher. For the students and researchers in the disciplines which are not pure
mathematics, it is usually not a wise thing to learn thoroughly low-level details of re-
lated mathematical problems, and also it is not a simple thing to find solutions of com-
plicated problems by hand. It is an effective way to tackle scientific problems, with
high efficiency and in accurate and creative manner, with the most advanced com-
puter tools. This method is especially useful in satisfying the needs for those in the
area of science and engineering.
The author had made some effort towards this goal by addressing directly the so-
lution methods for various branches in mathematics in a single book. Such a book,
entitled “MATLAB based solutions to advanced applied mathematics”, was published
first in 2004 by Tsinghua University Press. Several new editions were published after-
wards: in 2015, the second edition in English by CRC Press, and in 2018, the fourth
edition in Chinese were published. Based on the latest Chinese edition, a brand new
MOOC project was released in 2018,1 and received significant attention. The number
of registered students was around 14 000 in the first round of the MOOC course, and
reached tens of thousands in later rounds. The textbook has been cited tens of thou-
sands times by journal papers, books, and degree theses.
The author has over 30 years of extensive experience of using MATLAB in scientific
research and education. Significant amount of materials and first-hand knowledge has
been accumulated, which cannot be covered in a single book. A series entitled “Profes-
sor Xue Dingyü’s Lecture Hall” of such works are scheduled with Tsinghua University
Press, and the English editions are included in the DG STEM series with De Gruyter.
These books are intended to provide systematic, extensive and deep explorations in
scientific computing skills with the use of MATLAB and related tools. The author wants
to express his sincere gratitude to his supervisor, Professor Derek Atherton of Sussex
University, who first brought him into the paradise of MATLAB.
The MATLAB series is not a simple revision of the existing books. With decades of
experience and material accumulation, the idea of “revisiting” is adopted in author-
ing the series, in contrast to other mathematics and other MATLAB-rich books. The
viewpoint of an engineering professor is established and the focus in on solving var-
ious applied mathematical problems with tools. Many innovative skills and general-
purpose solvers are provided to solve problems with MATLAB, which is not possible
by any other existing solvers, so as to better illustrate the applications of computer
tools in solving mathematical problems in every mathematics branch. It also helps
the readers broaden their viewpoints in solving scientific computing, and even find

1 MOOC address: https://www.icourse163.org/learn/NEU-1002660001

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110675252-201
VI | Preface

innovative solutions by themselves to scientific computing which cannot be solved by

any other existing methods.
The first title in the MATLAB series, “MATLAB Programming”, can be used as an
entry-level textbook or reference book to MATLAB programming, so as to establish
a solid foundation and deep understanding for the application of MATLAB in scien-
tific computing. Each subsequent volume tries to cover a branch or topic in mathe-
matical courses. Bearing in mind the “computational thinking” in authoring the se-
ries, deep understanding and explorations are made for each mathematics branch in-
volved. These MATLAB books are suitable for the readers who have already learnt the
related mathematical courses, and revisit the courses to learn how to solve the prob-
lems by using computer tools. It can also be used as a companion in synchronizing
the learning of related mathematics courses, and viewing the course from a different
angle, so that the readers may expand their knowledge in learning the related courses,
so as to better learn, understand and practice the materials in the courses.
This book is the fifth one in the MATLAB series and fully devoted to the solutions
of various differential equations, with extensive use of MATLAB. The analytical so-
lutions of ordinary differential equations are studied first, followed by numerical so-
lutions to initial value problems of various ordinary differential equations, including
conventional and special equations, delay differential equations, and fractional dif-
ferential equations. Some property analysis tasks are also covered in this book, and
block diagram-based patterns to various differential equations are addressed. Discus-
sions are also made to the numerical solution approaches to boundary value problems
and partial differential equations.
At the time the books are published, the author wishes to express his sincere grati-
tude to his wife, Professor Yang Jun. Her love and selfless care over the decades provide
the author immense power, which supports the authors’ academic research, teaching,
and writing.

September 2019 Xue Dingyü

Contents
Preface | V

1 An introduction to differential equations | 1

1.1 Introduction to differential equation modeling | 1
1.1.1 Modeling of an electric circuit | 1
1.1.2 Modeling in mechanical systems | 3
1.1.3 Models in social systems | 4
1.2 A brief history of differential equations | 6
1.3 Outline and main topics in the book | 8
1.4 Exercises | 10

2 Analytical solutions of ordinary differential equations | 11

2.1 Analytical solutions of first-order differential equations | 11
2.1.1 Differential equation solvable by simple integrals | 12
2.1.2 Homogeneous differential equations | 13
2.1.3 Inhomogeneous linear differential equations | 14
2.1.4 Nonlinear differential equations with separable variables | 15
2.2 Special functions and second-order differential equations | 17
2.2.1 Gamma function | 17
2.2.2 Hypergeometric functions | 19
2.2.3 Bessel differential equations | 20
2.2.4 Legendre differential equations and functions | 22
2.2.5 Airy functions | 23
2.3 Solutions of linear differential equations with constant
coefficients | 25
2.3.1 Mathematical modeling of linear constant-coefficient differential
equations | 25
2.3.2 Laplace transform-based solutions | 26
2.3.3 Solutions of inhomogeneous differential equations | 28
2.3.4 Solutions of differential equations with nonzero initial values | 29
2.4 Analytical solutions of ordinary differential equations | 32
2.4.1 Analytical solutions of simple differential equations | 32
2.4.2 Analytical solutions of high-order linear differential equations with
constant coefficients | 35
2.4.3 Analytical solutions of linear time-varying differential equations | 38
2.4.4 Solutions of time-varying differential equation sets | 40
2.4.5 Solutions of boundary value problems | 41
2.5 Solutions of linear matrix differential equations | 42
2.5.1 Analytical solutions of linear state space equations | 43
2.5.2 Direct solutions of state space models | 45
VIII | Contents

2.5.3 Solution of Sylvester differential equation | 46

2.5.4 Kronecker product-based solutions of Sylvester differential
equations | 47
2.6 Analytical solutions to special nonlinear differential equations | 48
2.6.1 Solvable nonlinear differential equations | 48
2.6.2 Nonlinear differential equations where analytical solutions are not
available | 50
2.7 Exercises | 51

3 Initial value problems | 55

3.1 Initial value descriptions for first-order explicit differential
equations | 55
3.1.1 Mathematical forms of initial value problems | 55
3.1.2 Existence and uniqueness of solutions | 56
3.2 Implementation of fixed-step numerical algorithms | 57
3.2.1 Euler’s method | 57
3.2.2 Second-order Runge–Kutta algorithm | 60
3.2.3 Fourth-order Runge–Kutta algorithm | 62
3.2.4 Gill’s algorithm | 64
3.2.5 The mth order Runge–Kutta algorithm | 65
3.2.6 Multistep algorithms and implementation | 68
3.3 Variable-step numerical algorithms and implementations | 70
3.3.1 Measures to increase efficiency | 71
3.3.2 An introduction to variable-step algorithms | 72
3.3.3 The 4/5th order Runge–Kutta variable-step algorithm | 73
3.3.4 The differential equation solver provided in MATLAB | 74
3.3.5 Solutions of differential equations with additional parameters | 80
3.3.6 Avoiding the use of additional parameters | 82
3.4 Validations of numerical solutions | 83
3.4.1 Validation of the computation results | 83
3.4.2 Dynamic manipulation of intermediate results | 86
3.4.3 More accurate solvers | 87
3.4.4 Step-sizes and fixed-step display | 88
3.4.5 Demonstrations of high-order nonlinear differential equations | 91
3.5 Exercises | 93

4 Standard form conversions of ordinary differential equations | 99

4.1 Conversion method for a single high-order differential equation | 99
4.1.1 Conversion of explicit equations | 100
4.1.2 Solutions of time-varying differential equations | 104
4.1.3 Singularities in differential equations | 106
4.1.4 State augmentation for constant parameters | 108
 Contents | IX

4.2 Conversions of complicated high-order differential equations | 109

4.2.1 Equations containing the square of the highest-order derivative | 110
4.2.2 Equations containing odd powers | 112
4.2.3 Equations containing nonlinear operations | 113
4.3 Conversions of differential equation sets | 114
4.3.1 Simple explicit differential equation sets | 115
4.3.2 Limitations with fixed-step methods | 122
4.3.3 Simple implicit differential equations | 124
4.3.4 Even more complicated nonlinear differential equations | 127
4.4 Conversions for matrix differential equations | 129
4.4.1 Conversion and solutions of differential equations in matrix
form | 129
4.4.2 Sylvester differential equations | 132
4.4.3 Riccati differential equations | 133
4.5 Conversions of a class of Volterra integro-differential equations | 135
4.6 Exercises | 139

5 Special differential equations | 145

5.1 Stiff differential equations | 145
5.1.1 Time constants in linear differential equations | 146
5.1.2 Demonstrations of stiff phenomena | 146
5.1.3 Direct solution of stiff differential equations | 149
5.1.4 Stiffness detection | 152
5.1.5 Fixed-step solution of stiff differential equations | 157
5.2 Implicit differential equations | 158
5.2.1 Mathematical description of implicit differential equations | 159
5.2.2 Consistent initial value transformation | 160
5.2.3 Direct solution of implicit differential equations | 163
5.2.4 Implicit differential equations with multiple solutions | 166
5.3 Differential-algebraic equations | 168
5.3.1 General form of differential-algebraic equations | 168
5.3.2 Indices of differential-algebraic equations | 169
5.3.3 Semi-explicit differential-algebraic equations | 169
5.3.4 Limitations of the direct solver | 173
5.3.5 Implicit solvers for differential-algebraic equations | 175
5.3.6 Index reduction for differential-algebraic equations | 180
5.4 Switched differential equations | 183
5.4.1 Linear switched differential equations | 183
5.4.2 Zero-crossing detection and event handling | 185
5.4.3 Nonlinear switched differential equations | 188
5.4.4 Discontinuous differential equations | 190
5.5 Linear stochastic differential equations | 191
X | Contents

5.5.1 Transfer function model for linear stochastic differential

equations | 192
5.5.2 Erroneous methods in continuous stochastic system simulation | 193
5.5.3 Discretizing stochastic linear systems | 195
5.6 Exercises | 199

6 Delay differential equations | 205

6.1 Numerical solutions of delay differential equations with constant
delays | 205
6.1.1 Ordinary and delay differential equations | 205
6.1.2 Delay differential equation with zero history functions | 207
6.1.3 Nonzero history functions | 212
6.2 Differential equations with variable delays | 214
6.2.1 Variable delay models | 215
6.2.2 Time-dependent delays | 215
6.2.3 State-dependent delays | 219
6.2.4 Delay differential equations with generalized delays | 221
6.3 Neutral-type delay differential equations | 222
6.3.1 Neutral-type equations | 223
6.3.2 Neutral-type differential equations with variable delays | 226
6.4 Volterra differential equations with delays | 228
6.5 Exercises | 229

7 Properties and behaviors of ordinary differential equations | 233

7.1 Stability of differential equations | 233
7.1.1 Stability of linear differential equations with constant
coefficients | 233
7.1.2 Routh–Hurwitz stability criterion | 236
7.1.3 Lyapunov function and Lyapunov stability | 239
7.1.4 Autonomous conversion of time-varying differential equations | 240
7.1.5 Stability assessment of nonlinear systems by examples | 241
7.1.6 Stability assessment of complicated systems with simulation
methods | 243
7.2 Special behaviors of differential equations | 246
7.2.1 Limit cycles | 246
7.2.2 Periodic solutions | 251
7.2.3 Chaos and attractors | 254
7.2.4 Poincaré mapping | 259
7.3 Linearization approximation of differential equations | 261
7.3.1 Equilibrium points | 261
7.3.2 Linearization of nonlinear differential equations | 265
7.3.3 Properties of equilibria | 269
 Contents | XI

7.4 Bifurcation of differential equations | 269

7.5 Exercises | 270

8 Fractional-order differential equations | 273

8.1 Definitions and numerical computation in fractional calculus | 273
8.1.1 Definitions of fractional calculus | 274
8.1.2 Relationships and properties of different fractional calculus
definitions | 275
8.1.3 Numerical computation for Grünwald–Letnikov derivatives | 277
8.1.4 Numerical computation for Caputo derivatives | 277
8.2 Analytical solution of linear commensurate-order differential
equations | 279
8.2.1 Mittag-Leffler functions | 279
8.2.2 Commensurate-order linear differential equations | 280
8.2.3 An important Laplace transform formula | 281
8.2.4 Partial fraction expansion-based analytical approach | 282
8.3 Numerical solutions of linear fractional-order differential equations with
constant coefficients | 287
8.3.1 A closed-form solution | 287
8.3.2 Riemann–Liouville differential equations | 289
8.3.3 Caputo differential equations | 291
8.3.4 Computing equivalent initial values | 294
8.3.5 High precision algorithms | 297
8.4 Solution of nonlinear fractional-order differential equations | 300
8.4.1 Predictor method | 300
8.4.2 Corrector method | 304
8.4.3 Matrix method for implicit Caputo differential equations | 305
8.5 Exercises | 308

9 Block diagram solutions of ordinary differential equations | 311

9.1 Simulink essentials | 312
9.1.1 An introduction to Simulink | 312
9.1.2 Relevant blocks in Simulink | 312
9.2 Block diagram modeling methodologies in differential
equations | 314
9.2.1 Integrator chains and key signal generation | 314
9.2.2 Differential equation description methods | 315
9.2.3 Solutions of differential equations | 318
9.2.4 Algorithms and parameter settings | 319
9.3 Modeling examples of differential equations | 321
9.3.1 Simple differential equations | 321
9.3.2 Differential-algebraic equations | 325
XII | Contents

9.3.3 Switched differential equations | 327

9.3.4 Discontinuous differential equations | 330
9.3.5 Delay differential equations | 330
9.3.6 Delay differential equations with nonzero history functions | 333
9.3.7 Stochastic differential equations | 334
9.4 Simulink modeling of fractional-order differential equations | 336
9.4.1 Fractional-order operator block | 337
9.4.2 Modeling and solution of Riemann–Liouville differential
equations | 339
9.4.3 Block for Caputo derivatives | 341
9.4.4 Modeling and solving of Caputo differential equations | 341
9.4.5 Fractional-order delay differential equations | 344
9.5 Exercises | 346

10 Boundary value problems for ordinary differential equations | 349

10.1 Standard boundary value problems | 349
10.2 Shooting methods in two-point boundary value problems for
second-order differential equations | 350
10.2.1 Shooting algorithms for linear time-varying differential
equations | 351
10.2.2 Finite difference algorithm for linear differential equations | 354
10.2.3 Shooting algorithms for nonlinear differential equations | 357
10.3 Two-point boundary value problems for high-order differential
equations | 360
10.3.1 Direct solver in MATLAB | 361
10.3.2 Solution of simple boundary value problems | 362
10.3.3 Descriptions of complicated boundary conditions | 366
10.3.4 Boundary value problems with undetermined coefficients | 368
10.3.5 Boundary value problems with semi-infinite intervals | 370
10.3.6 Differential equations with floating boundary values | 372
10.3.7 Boundary value problems of integro-differential equations | 373
10.4 Optimization-based boundary value problem solutions | 374
10.4.1 Illustrative example to simple boundary value problems | 375
10.4.2 Boundary value problems for implicit differential equations | 376
10.4.3 Boundary value problems for delay differential equations | 379
10.4.4 Multipoint boundary value problems | 381
10.4.5 Floating boundary value problems revisited | 383
10.4.6 Boundary value problems for block diagrams | 384
10.4.7 Boundary value problems for fractional-order differential
equations | 386
10.5 Exercises | 387
 Contents | XIII

11 Partial differential equations | 391

11.1 Numerical solutions of diffusion equations | 392
11.1.1 Mathematical form and analytical solutions of one-dimensional
diffusion equations | 392
11.1.2 Discretizing diffusion equations | 393
11.1.3 Inhomogeneous diffusion equations | 397
11.1.4 Multidimensional diffusion equations | 399
11.2 Several special forms of partial differential equations | 399
11.2.1 Classification of partial differential equations | 400
11.2.2 Eigenvalue-type partial differential equations | 401
11.2.3 Classification of boundary conditions | 402
11.3 User interface of typical two-dimensional partial differential
equations | 402
11.3.1 An introduction of the user interface | 402
11.3.2 Geometric region design | 404
11.3.3 Boundary condition description | 405
11.3.4 Examples of partial differential equation solutions | 406
11.3.5 Other solution display methods | 407
11.3.6 Partial differential equations with functional coefficients | 409
11.4 Solutions of partial differential equations | 410
11.4.1 Creating a blank partial differential equation object | 411
11.4.2 Statement description of geometric regions | 411
11.4.3 Boundary and initial condition descriptions | 415
11.4.4 Partial differential equations descriptions | 415
11.4.5 Numerical solutions of partial differential equations | 417
11.5 Exercises | 423

Bibliography | 425

MATLAB function index | 429

Index | 433
1 An introduction to differential equations
Equations are equalities containing unknown variables. Equations are often classified
into algebraic and differential equations. In Volumes III and IV in the series, algebraic
equations and their solutions were fully addressed. Algebraic equations are used to
describe static relationships among the unknowns, while differential equations are
used to describe dynamic relationships. Differential equations are the mathematical
foundations of dynamic systems.
In Volume II, foundations and computations of functions and calculus were fully
covered. Ordinary differential equations are used to describe relationships among un-
knowns, their derivatives and independent variables such as time t. Besides, relation-
ships among the present and past values of the unknowns are also involved. Generally
speaking, the description and solutions of differential equations are much more com-
plicated than those of their algebraic counterparts.
In Section 1.1, examples are studied for the modeling of electric, mechanical and
social systems. A method is described of how to establish differential equation models
from phenomena. In Section 1.2, a brief history of differential equations is presented.
In Section 1.3, the outline and brief introduction to the materials in this book are
proposed.

1.1 Introduction to differential equation modeling

In scientific research, including social sciences, and even in daily life, a phenomenon
or a system can be described by differential equations. In this section several simple
examples are given to demonstrate the modeling of circuit and mechanical systems,
and some examples of the models in social sciences are presented.

1.1.1 Modeling of an electric circuit

In electric circuit theory, it is known from Ohm’s law that the relationship between the
current and voltage of a resistor is static, u(t) = Ri(t). That is, the voltage u(t) can be
computed from the current value of the current i(t). Therefore for a resistive network,
the system can be modeled by algebraic equations. The current in any branch and the
voltage across any component can be modeled by static equations.
If two other types of electric components – capacitors and inductors – are in-
volved, differential equations must be employed to describe the relationship between
the instantaneous voltage and current.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110675252-001
2 | 1 An introduction to differential equations

(1) If there is a capacitor C in a circuit, the following differential equation is needed

to describe the instantaneous voltage u(t) and current i(t):
du(t)
i(t) = R . (1.1.1)
dt
(2) If there is an inductor element L in a circuit, the following differential equation
can be used to describe the relationship between its instantaneous voltage u(t)
and current i(t):
di(t)
u(t) = C . (1.1.2)
dt

An example is given next to demonstrate the differential equation modeling proce-

dures of a simple electric circuit.

Example 1.1. Consider the simple circuit in Figure 1.1. Establish the mathematical
model of the circuit.

L i(t) R
+
+

u(t) C uc (t)
−
−

Figure 1.1: Serially connected resistor, capacitor and inductor.

Solutions. In the circuit, the signals of common interest are the supplied voltage u(t)
and the voltage uc (t) across the capacitor. The former is referred to as the input signal,
while the latter, the output signal. The current i(t) in the loop is the intermediate
signal. It is known from the fundamental circuit theory that the voltage across the
inductor L and the loop current i(t) satisfy the following differential equation:
di(t)
ul (t) = L . (1.1.3)
dt
Therefore, from the well-known Kirchhoff’s law, the equation between the input
and output signals can be written as
di(t)
u(t) = Ri(t) + L + uc (t). (1.1.4)
dt
Besides, it is known from circuit theory that the voltage uc (t) across the capacitor
and the loop current i(t) satisfy the following differential equation:
duc (t)
i(t) = C . (1.1.5)
dt
 1.1 Introduction to differential equation modeling | 3

Substituting (1.1.5) into (1.1.4), it is found that the entire differential equation for
the circuit can be written as

duc (t) d2 uc (t)

u(t) = RC + LC + uc (t). (1.1.6)
dt dt 2
Besides, if uc (t) and i(t) are selected as the states of the circuit, the following state
space model can be written; more state space models will be studied later in this book:

duc (t) 1
{ dt = C i(t),
{
{
(1.1.7)
{ di(t) = 1 u(t) − R i(t) + 1 u (t).
{
{
{ dt L L L c
It can be seen that differential equation models can be set up easily for simple cir-
cuits, with the essential knowledge of calculus. If there are more loops, high-order dif-
ferential equations can be established. If there are nonlinear elements such as diodes
and transistors, nonlinear differential equations for the circuits may be created. It
can be seen that differential equations are the ubiquitous modeling tool in describing
dynamic behaviors in electric circuits.
The commonly used modeling technique introduced here is for lumped parameter
circuits. In real circuits, if there exists leakage resistance or other factor, ordinary
differential equations are not adequate in modeling the circuit. Partial differential
equations must be introduced to model distributed parameter circuits.

1.1.2 Modeling in mechanical systems

The Newton’s second law in mechanics, which is usually learnt in high school, is
mathematically represented as

F(t) = Ma(t) (1.1.8)

where the mass M is a constant. For better describe the dynamic relationship among
the variables, the external force and acceleration are both represented as functions of
time t. They can be regarded as the instantaneous external force F(t) and acceleration
a(t). It seems that they satisfy an algebraic relation.
In practice, the acceleration of the mass cannot be measured directly. The mea-
surable variable is the instantaneous position x(t) ̂ of the mass. The instantaneous
displacement can be defined as x(t) = x(t)̂ − x(t0 ). What kind of relationship is there
between the displacement and the external force? Since acceleration is the second-
order derivative of the displacement, it can be seen from Newton’s second law that the
following differential equation can be established:

F(t) = Mx󸀠󸀠 (t). (1.1.9)

4 | 1 An introduction to differential equations

A simple modeling example will be given next to show how to write differential
equation models for a mechanical system.

Example 1.2. Consider a simple mechanical system shown in Figure 1.2. If an external
force F(t) is applied, what is the mathematical model between the displacement x(t)
and the external force F(t)?

Figure 1.2: Illustration of a mechanical system.

Solutions. It is known from Newton’s second law that the composite force is required,
where we assume that the external force is in the positive direction. It is known from
Hooke’s law that the resisting force in the spring is proportional to the displacement,
denoted as −Kx(t); the other resisting force is from the damper, which is proportional
to the speed of the mass, denoted as −R dx(t)/dt. Therefore it is not hard to establish
the following differential equation for the mechanical system from Newton’s second
law:

dx(t) d2 x(t)
F(t) − Kx(t) − R =M . (1.1.10)
dt dt 2

1.1.3 Models in social systems

In natural science engineering, differential equation models are everywhere, since

all continuous dynamic behaviors must be described by differential equations. Apart
from that, even in the fields such as social science, differential equations are often em-
ployed in describing phenomena and laws. Here several differential equation models
in social systems are illustrated.

Example 1.3 (Population model). Malthus’s population model was proposed by a

British cleric and economist Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834), while he was
analyzing the population in the Great Britain. If the population at time t can be
expressed by x(t), and the natural growth rate is a constant r, the Malthus population
model can be expressed by a differential equation:

x󸀠 (t) = rx(t), with known x(0) = x0 .

 1.1 Introduction to differential equation modeling | 5

The analytical solution to the differential equation is x(t) = x0 er(t−t0 ) , which im-
plies that the population is increasing as an exponential function. If t is large, the
population may tend to infinity. This is not feasible, since when the total population
reaches a certain size, the factors such a space and resources may restrict its growth
such that it may not increase infinitely.
A Belgian mathematician Pierre-François Verhulst constructed a function r(t),
later known as the logistic function (also known as a sigmoid function, or S-shaped
function), to replace the constant in Malthus model, and the population model
becomes the following time-varying differential equation:

x󸀠 (t) = r(t)x(t), with known x(0) = x0 .

Example 1.4. Richardson’s arms race model[10] was proposed by a British mathemati-
cian and physicist Lewis Fry Richardson (1881–1953).[59] There are three basic premises
in Richardson’s arms race model. We assume that there are two nations X and Y. If
one nation finds that the other is spending a huge amount of wealth on purchas-
ing weapons, it may spend more money on purchasing weapons as well. Of course,
the money spent may create economic and social burden. More money spent on pur-
chasing weapons may inhibit future increases in spending; furthermore, there are
grievances and ambitions relating to both cultures and national leaders that either en-
courage or discourage changes in military spending. Therefore Richardson proposed
the arms race model using differential equations:

x󸀠 (t) = ay(t) − mx(t) + g,

{ (1.1.11)
y󸀠 (t) = bx(t) − ny(t) + h.

Example 1.5 (Lotka–Volterra’s predator–prey equations). Assume that in an enclosed

region, there are two kinds of animals – foxes and rabbits. At the beginning there
are certain numbers of them. If the number of foxes increases, more rabbits will be
eaten and the number of rabbits may decrease. If the number of rabbits decreases, the
number of foxes may also decrease since more foxes will starve to death, which in turn
will increase the number of rabbits. This kind of phenomenon happens in a repeated
manner. Assuming that at time t, the numbers of rabbits and foxes are respectively
expressed as x(t) and y(t), the following differential equations can be used to describe
the dynamic changes in the quantities of the two animals:

x󸀠 (t) = αx(t) − βx(t)y(t),

{
y󸀠 (t) = δx(t)y(t) − γy(t)

where α, β, δ, and γ are positive real numbers. The model was first proposed by an
American mathematician Alfred James Lotka (1880–1949), and a similar model was
proposed later by an Italian mathematician Vito Volterra (1860–1940). This model is
commonly used in the fields such as economics.
6 | 1 An introduction to differential equations

Example 1.6 (A model in epidemiology). An epidemic model was proposed by

a British epidemiologist William Ogilvy Kermack (1898–1970) and a British mathe-
matician Anderson Gray McKendrick (1876–1943) in 1927.[39] Later the variable names
were substituted into the following form:[36]

{
{ S (t) = −βI(t)S(t),
󸀠
S(0) = S0 ,
{󸀠
{ I (t) = βI(t)S(t) − γI(t), I(0) = I0 ,
{
{ 󸀠
{R (t) = γI(t), R(0) = R0 .

Therefore the model is also called as the SIR model, where S(t), I(t) and R(t) are
respectively the numbers of susceptible (meaning, healthy persons), infective, and
removed (removed by immunity, isolation or death) persons, with S(t) + I(t) + R(t) =
N(t), and N(t) is the total population. For convenience of handling the problem, the
numbers are normalized such that S(t) + I(t) + R(t) = 1. In the model parameters, β
is the contact rate, which is the number of contacts by an infective per unit time, also
known as infection rate; γ is the removal rate, indicating that the number of removed
is proportional to the number of infected.
If the latent period is τ days, then the SIR model can be rewritten as the following
delay differential–algebraic equations:[36]

{
{ S (t) = −βI(t)S(t),
󸀠
{󸀠
{ I (t) = βI(t)S(t) − βI(t − τ)S(t − τ),
{
{
{S(t) + I(t) + R(t) = 1.
It can be seen that even though one is carrying research in social sciences, if
differential equations are mastered as a tool in research, a new viewpoint may still
be introduced and quantitative results may be obtained.

1.2 A brief history of differential equations

A British scientist Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727) studied first differential equations. The
power series method was adopted. For instance, in his work “Methodus Fluxionum et
Serierum Infinitarum” published in 1671, Newton studied the differential equation[32]

y󸀠 (x) = 1 − 3x + y(x) + x 2 + xy(x). (1.2.1)

With the power series method, y(x) is expressed as a power series whose coeffi-
cients are unknown. It can be substituted into the equation, and letting the coefficients
on both sides of the equation of equal power of x be the same, algebraic equation can
be solved, and the solution he found was
1 1 1 5 1
y(x) = x − xx + x3 − x 6 + x − x6
3 6 30 45
where xx was the notation used in Newton’s works, and it should be x 2 .
 1.2 A brief history of differential equations | 7

Of course, according to the standard in contemporary mathematics, this is far from

a perfect solution. In later chapters, computers can be used in finding the analytical
solution of the differential equation.
A German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) solved in 1693 a
differential equation from the field of geometry[32]

y(x)
y󸀠 (x) = − . (1.2.2)
√a2 − y(x)

He introduced the integral method to find the solution of the differential equation,
namely

a
√a2 − y2 a − √a2 − y2
x=∫ dy = −√a2 − y2 − a ln .
y y
y

Leibniz also proposed the solution methods for differential equations with sepa-
rable variables, which can be used to solve a large category of differential equations.
In fact, before Newton and Leibniz invented the calculus theory, an Italian physi-
cist and astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) studied some problems which com-
monly required the basis of differential equations. Since calculus was not established
at his time, he mostly used traditional geometric and algebraic tools.
A French mathematician Alexis Claude Clairaut (1713–1765) was interested in a
particular field of application problems. He was the first to study implicit differential
equations:[32]

y(x) − xy󸀠 (x) + f (y󸀠 (x)) = 0. (1.2.3)

Swiss mathematicians, the Bernoulli brothers, namely Jacob Bernoulli (also

known as James or Jacques, 1654–1705) and John Bernoulli (also Jean, 1667–1748)
studied differential problems, and proposed “analytical” methods for a class of
nonlinear differential equations, later named as Bernoulli equations.
In 1768, a Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) published his famous
three volumes of works “Institutionum calculi integralis (Introduction to integral cal-
culus), where many creative ideas are presented, including the well-known integrat-
ing factor method and total differential equation, and also the very first numerical
method, later known as Euler’s method.
Earlier research on differential equations concentrated on analytical solutions
and properties of the equations. Since there was no support of tools such as comput-
ers, the numerical solution methods did not receive adequate attention.
A German mathematician Carl David Tolmé Runge (1856–1927) introduced more
interpolation points to Euler’s method, in order to increase the accuracy, and pro-
posed in 1895 some solution algorithms, and extended the methods to the solutions
8 | 1 An introduction to differential equations

of differential equation sets. In 1900, a German mathematician Karl Heun (1859–1929)

revised Runge algorithm, by introducing more general methods based on Gaussian
integral formulas. In 1901, a German mathematician Martin Wilhelm Kutta (1867–1944)
extended the algorithms proposed by Runge and Heun, to a generalized high-order
form, and proposed the fifth order algorithm. A French scholar A Hut̆a published in
1956 the sixth-order algorithm.[13] In 1963, a New Zealand mathematician John Charles
Butcher (1933–) formulated more a general Runge–Kutta table, known as Butcher’s
tableau.[12] In a research report by NASA in 1968, Erwin Felhberg proposed the 7th
and 8th order Runge–Kutta method formulas.[24] An Austrian mathematician Ernst
Hairer (1949–) proposed the 10th order Runge–Kutta algorithm in 1978.[30] All these
algorithms are uniformly named as Runge–Kutta methods.
The Runge–Kutta methods can be classified as one-step numerical methods. Apart
from one-step methods, there are a family of linear multistep algorithms, such as
Adams algorithms, named after a British mathematician and astronomer John Couch
Adams (1819–1892). Compared with Runge–Kutta methods, Adams methods have
longer history.[5] If the first few points of the solutions are known, Adams methods can
be used to recursively find the numerical solutions of differential equations. There is
an inevitable question for multistep methods. That is, how can the information of the
first few points be found. If this question cannot be answered successfully, multistep
algorithms cannot be used effectively.
The tools and computer mathematical languages are now all equipped with pow-
erful differential equation solvers. Numerical and even analytical solutions of differ-
ential equations can be found easily with such tools. The eventual target of this book
is to instruct the readers how to solve various differential equations with MATLAB.

1.3 Outline and main topics in the book

In this volume, we concentrate on how to use MATLAB to solve various differential
equations directly.
In Chapter 1, simple differential equation modeling problems are illustrated for
some practical applications.
In Chapter 2, analytical solutions for some differential equations are studied.
Some fundamental knowledge on analytical solution methods are presented first,
followed by the use of MATLAB in solving linear differential equations with constant
coefficients. Then an introduction is made on the solutions of matrix differential
equations and some special nonlinear differential equations.
From Chapter 3 onward, numerical solution methods are presented for various
differential equations. In Chapter 3, and several subsequent chapters, initial value
problems in ordinary differential equations are studied systematically. Some conven-
tional numerical algorithms and their MATLAB implementations for first-order ex-
 1.3 Outline and main topics in the book | 9

plicit differential equations are presented first. Validations of the numerical solutions
to the differential equations are also made.
In Chapter 4, the task is to convert differential equations in different forms into
the directly solvable first-order explicit ones. Single high-order differential equations
and differential equation sets are considered. If the conversion to the standard form
is successful, the methods in Chapter 3 can be called directly for solving differential
equations.
In Chapter 5, some special forms of differential equations unsuitable for the previ-
ously discussed methods are explored, including stiff differential equations, implicit
differential equations, and differential–algebraic equations. Also, numerical solution
methods for switched differential equations and linear stochastic differential equa-
tions are discussed.
In Chapter 6, the general forms of delay differential equations are introduced, and
then simple delay differential equations, equations with variable delays, and neutral-
type delay differential equations are all studied.
In Chapter 7, properties and behaviors of differential equations are analyzed.
Properties such as stability and periodicity of differential equations are studied
systematically. Behaviors such as limit cycles, chaos, and bifurcations are studied.
The concepts such as equilibrium points and linearization are also presented.
In Chapter 8, solutions of fractional-order differential equations are provided.
Fundamental definitions and properties of fractional calculus are introduced first,
followed by the introduction of linear and nonlinear fractional-order differential
equations. In particular, high precision algorithms in numerical solution of fractional-
order differential equations are proposed.
In Chapter 9, a block diagram-based solution approach for various differential
equations is discussed, with the powerful tool Simulink. An introduction to Simulink
is presented. Then the Simulink modeling and solution methods are demonstrated
through examples of ordinary differential equations, differential–algebraic equa-
tions, switched differential equations, stochastic differential equations, and delay
differential equations. General purpose modeling and simulation methods for various
fractional-order differential equations are also discussed.
In Chapter 10, boundary value problems of ordinary differential equations are
presented. The basic ideas of shooting methods are proposed first. Then a powerful
MATLAB solver and its applications in boundary value problems are demonstrated
for various problems. Finally, optimization-based boundary value problem solvers are
proposed to tackle problems not solvable by the conventional methods.
Finally, in Chapter 11, numerical solutions to partial differential equations are
introduced. The algorithm and MATLAB implementation of diffusion equations are
discussed, and then with the use of MATLAB Partial Differential Equation Toolbox,
partial differential equations in several special forms are discussed.
The focus of this book is to show how to solve various differential equations. If
analytical solutions can be found, the solutions can be adopted, and the numerical
10 | 1 An introduction to differential equations

solutions are implied. In many cases where analytical solutions are not available,
numerical solutions should be found. The philosophy of this book is to instruct the
readers on how to utilize the powerful facilities provided in MATLAB to study differ-
ential equations in a reliable manner.

1.4 Exercises
1.1 In the circuit shown in Figure 1.1, if the resistor is replaced by a serially connected
resistor R and another capacitor C1 , write again the differential equation. If it is
replaced by R and C1 connected in parallel, how to rewrite the differential equa-
tion?
1.2 In the Malthus population model, if the world population at year t0 is 6 billion,
and it is known that the natural growth rate is 2 %, find the population after 10
years. What will be the population after 100 years?
1.3 Find the first 8 terms of the Newton’s equation in (1.2.1), with the power series
method.
1.4 If you have already acquired a certain knowledge on differential equations, solve
the Clairaut’s implicit differential equation in (1.2.3), if function f (c) = 5(c3 − c)/2
is known.
2 Analytical solutions of ordinary differential
equations
Differential equation modeling of physical phenomena was demonstrated in the pre-
vious section. If there exists a differential equation model for a certain dynamical sys-
tem, or for a physical phenomenon, the next step to carry out is to solve the differential
equation, so as to find the system response. Compared with the solutions of algebraic
equations, differential equations are much more complicated. Normally, more skills
and tactics in dedicated methods are needed when solving differential equations. The
aim of the book is to extensively use computer tools to explore solutions of various
differential equations.
In Section 2.1, major analytical methods are explored for the first-order differential
equations. The low-level methods are introduced when addressing various types of
first-order differential equations. The analytical solutions for some differential equa-
tions can be found in this way. In Section 2.2, analytical solutions of the second-order
linear differential equations are explored, and various skills are needed to apply the
low-level methods. Some commonly used special functions are introduced. In Sec-
tion 2.3, Laplace transform-based methods are discussed for finding analytical solu-
tions of differential equations. With Laplace transform tools, the linear differential
equations with constant coefficients can be mapped into algebraic equations, and di-
rect solution methods are explored when finding solutions of linear differential equa-
tions with nonzero initial values. In Section 2.4, Symbolic Math Toolbox is introduced
to find solutions directly of some ordinary differential equations. With such a tool,
complicated ordinary and time-varying differential equations can be solved directly. In
Section 2.5, solution methods are explored for linear differential equations, state space
equations, and Sylvester matrix equations. In Section 2.6, attempts are made to solve
directly certain particular nonlinear differential equations. It is worth mentioning that
only a few nonlinear differential equations have analytical solutions. For most nonlin-
ear differential equations, analytical solutions do not exist. Numerical solutions will
be discussed in later chapters.
Manual formulation methods are discussed in the first few sections in this chapter,
which may be useful background knowledge for the readers to understand the low-
level solution process of differential equations. If the readers are only interested in
how to solve differential equations with computers, the materials here can be skipped,
and one can start reading the materials from Section 2.4.

2.1 Analytical solutions of first-order differential equations

In this book, solution methods for the first-order differential equations are presented
first. Several special cases are discussed, including simple equations, as well as homo-

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110675252-002
12 | 2 Analytical solutions of ordinary differential equations

geneous and inhomogeneous nonlinear differential equations. Solutions of nonlinear

differential equations with separable variables are finally discussed.

2.1.1 Differential equation solvable by simple integrals

There are various formats for the first-order differential equations. Therefore the solu-
tions of the differential equations become extremely complicated, since a tremendous
amount of skills and tactics should be mastered before one is able to solve differential
equations. For some differential equations, even if one is an expert who has mastered
a significant number of methods and tactics, he/she may still not able to find the
analytical solutions. In this section, some simple first-order differential equations are
discussed, and solution patterns are explored.

Definition 2.1. The simplest form of a class of differential equations is

dy(x)
= f (x). (2.1.1)
dx

It can also be simply denoted as y󸀠 (x) = f (x). The analytical solution of this differ-
ential equation is, in fact, the indefinite integral of f (x), namely

y(x) = ∫ f (x)dx + C. (2.1.2)

The solution to such a differential equation is, in fact, the first-order indefinite
integral of the given function. If the indefinite integral has an analytical expression,
then there is an analytical solution for the differential equation. Otherwise, there is no
analytical solution for the differential equation.

Example 2.1. Solve the following first-order differential equation:

d cos x sin x(2x + 4)

y(x) = 2 − 2 .
dx x + 4x + 3 (x + 4x + 3)2

Solutions. Comparing the mathematical form given here with that in the definition,
it is immediately found that the right-hand side is f (x). Therefore, direct integration
can be performed to find the primitive function which is the analytical solution of the
differential equation with the following statements:

>> syms x
f(x)=cos(x)/(x^2+4*x+3)-sin(x)*(2*x+4)/(x^2+4*x+3)^2;
Y=simplify(int(f)) % evaluate integral and simplify the result

and the analytical solution can be found as sin x/(x 2 + 4x + 3). In fact, the actual solu-
tion is not the only primitive function of the indefinite integral, an arbitrary constant
 2.1 Analytical solutions of first-order differential equations | 13

C should be added to the result. Several different values of C are selected, and the
family of differential equation solutions are shown in Figure 2.1. It can be seen that
the solutions of the differential equation are simple translations of a certain solution.

>> fplot([Y,Y+1,Y+2,Y+3],[0,10])

Figure 2.1: Solutions of the differential equation.

2.1.2 Homogeneous differential equations

The aforementioned differential equations directly solvable by integration are not gen-
uine differential equations. Normally, a differential equation may also contain the
function y(x) itself. Such differential equations cannot be solved directly by merely
using direct indefinite integral evaluation methods. In this section, simple first-order
homogeneous linear differential equations are introduced, as well as their general
solution methods.

Definition 2.2. The mathematical form of the first-order homogeneous linear differ-
ential equation is
dy(x)
+ f (x)y(x) = 0. (2.1.3)
dx
With simple conversion, it is not hard to find the analytical solution of the differ-
ential equation through the following procedure:
dy(x)
= −f (x)dx. (2.1.4)
y(x)
It can then be found that

ln y(x) = − ∫ f (x)dx. (2.1.5)

14 | 2 Analytical solutions of ordinary differential equations

Finally, the analytical solution of the differential equation is

y(x) = Ce− ∫ f (x)dx . (2.1.6)

For the first-order differential equations, there exists an undetermined coefficient

C. If the exact value of the function y(x) at a certain time is given, an algebraic equa-
tion solution technique is used to determine uniquely the value of C. For high-order
differential equations, there may exist more undetermined coefficients. If some values
of the function y(x) and its first few derivatives are known, analytical solutions of such
equations may be uniquely determined.

Example 2.2. Solve the differential equation y󸀠 (x) = −xy(x).

Solutions. For this type of differential equation, with separable variables, the equa-
tion can be converted into the form of y󸀠 (x)/y = −x. Computing integrals of the left-
and right-hand side of the equation

>> syms x y(x); L=int(diff(y)/y), R=int(-x)

the solution of the differential equation can be found as

−x2 2
ln y(x) = + C1 ⇒ y(x) = Ce−x /2 .
2

2.1.3 Inhomogeneous linear differential equations

If a term x is added to the right-hand side function g(x), the original homogeneous
differential equation is converted into an inhomogeneous one. In this section, an idea
is explored when finding analytical solutions of the first-order inhomogeneous linear
differential equation.

Definition 2.3. The mathematical form of a first-order inhomogeneous linear differ-

ential equation is
dy(x)
+ f (x)y(x) = g(x). (2.1.7)
dx
It may be complicated with manual formulation methods. Some special tactics
should be introduced. For instance, one can try to find an auxiliary function ϕ(x) such
that
dy(x) d
ϕ(x) [ + f (x)y(x)] = (ϕ(x)y(x)). (2.1.8)
dx dx
Therefore the original differential equation can be converted into
d
[ϕ(x)y(x)] = ϕ(x)g(x). (2.1.9)
dx
Another random document with
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 Ippolít Fédorovich Bogdanóvich. (1743-1803.)
Ippolít Bogdanóvich, the son of a minor official, entered the
mathematical school connected with the Senate; at fourteen
years of age he began to study at the University and to write
verses under the guidance of Kheráskov. He then served as
secretary of legation in Saxony, and later was connected with
the Government Archives. His reputation rests only on his
Psyche, which is a paraphrase in verse of La Fontaine’s Les
amours de Psyché et de Cupidon, itself an imitation of an
episode in Apuleius’s Golden Ass. It is a mock-heroic in the
style of Máykov’s Eliséy (see p. 263), and was immensely
popular at the end of the eighteenth century, and even
Dmítriev, Púshkin and Byelínski found pleasure in reading it.
There are traces in his poems of an intimate acquaintance
with the Russian popular literature, from which are introduced
many characters. The poem found so many admirers
because it was an expression of the reverse side of the
philosophy, of the eighteenth century, with its frivolity and
superficiality.

PSYCHE

FROM BOOK I

The goddess donned her ancient gala dress, and seated in the
shell, as they paint in pictures, glided over the waters on two large
dolphins.
Cupid, bestowing his imperious look, bestirred all Neptune’s court.
The frisky waves, perceiving Venus, swam after her, replete with
merriment. The watery tribe of Tritons issues to her from the abysses
of the waters: one dives all about her and pacifies the wanton waves;
another, whirling in the depths, gathers pearls at the bottom and
drags forth all the secrets of the sea to place before her feet. One,
struggling with the monsters, forbids them to disport nearby; another,
briskly leaping into the coachman’s seat, scolds loudly those he
meets and orders them to stand aside; he proudly holds the lines,
and steers his path away from rocks, and crushes impudent
monsters. One, with trident, precedes her on a whale and drives all
far out of the way; he casts about him his angry looks and, that all
may know his will, loudly blows a coral horn; another, having come to
the goddess from distant regions, bears before her a bit from a
crystal mountain instead of a mirror. This sight refreshes her
pleasure and the joy upon her brow.
“Oh, if this sight,” proclaims he, “for ever remained in this crystal!”
But the Triton’s wish is vain: that vision will disappear like a dream,
and nothing will remain but the stone, and in the heart a fatal flame
which will consume him. Another has joined the retinue of the
goddess, and protects her from the sun and cools the sultry beam by
sending upwards a stream of water. Meanwhile sirens, sweet
singers, sing verses in her honour, and mingle fiction with truth in
their attempt to extol her: some dance before her; others,
anticipating her wishes, are present to serve her, and with fans waft
coolness to the goddess; others, borne on the crests, breathe
heavily in travelling post from fields, beloved by Flora, and bring her
flowery wreaths. Thetis herself has sent them for small and great
services, and wishes only that her husband stay at home. The
weather being most favourable, the storms dare not annoy her, and
only the Zephyrs are free to fondle Venus.

FROM BOOK II

Psyche awoke from her sleep not sooner than midday past, nay,
one hour after midday. All serving-maids came to dress the princess,
and brought with them forty garments and all that with them went.
For that day Psyche designated the simplest of all gowns, for she
hastened as soon as possible to inspect the marvels of the palace. I
shall follow in the princess’s track and shall present the mansion to
you, and describe all in detail that could amuse her.
At first Psyche visited the rooms, nor left a corner in them where
she did not pass a while; thence to the conservatory and to the
balcony; thence on the veranda, and down, and out, to inspect the
house from all sides. A bevy of girls were slow in following her; only
the Zephyrs were fast enough, and they guarded her, lest running
she should fall. Two or three times she inspected the house from
within and from without. Meanwhile the Zephyrs and Cupids pointed
out the architecture to her and all the marvels of nature, which
Psyche was anxious to inspect. She wished to see all, but knew not
where to begin, for her eyes were distracted now by one thing, now
by another. Psyche would fain have looked at everything, but running
around so much, she soon became fatigued.
While resting herself, she looked at the statues of famous masters:
those were likenesses of inimitable beauties, whose names, in prose
and verse, in various tales, both short and long, reign immortally
among all the nations and through all the ages: Calisto, Daphne,
Armene, Niobe, Helen, the Graces, Angelica, Phryne, and a
multitude of other goddesses and mortal women appeared before
her eyes in lifelike form, in all their beauty arrayed along the wall. But
in the middle, and right in front of them, Psyche’s image stood on an
elevated pedestal and surpassed them all in beauty. Looking at it,
she herself fell to wondering, and, beside herself with wonderment,
stopped: then you might have perceived another statue in her, such
as the world had never seen.
Psyche would have stayed there a long time, looking at her image
that held sway over her, if her servants who were with her had not
pointed out in other places, for the pleasure of her eyes, other
likenesses of her beauty and glory: up to her waist, her feet, her
lifelike form, of gold, of silver, of bronze, of steel, her heads, and
busts, and medals; and elsewhere mosaic, or marble, or agate
represented in these forms a new splendour. In other places Apelles,
or the god of artists who with his hand had moved Apelles’s brush,
had pictured Psyche in all her beauty, such as no man could have
imagined before.
But does she wish to see herself in pictures? Here, Zephyrs bring
her Pomona’s horn and, strewing flowers before her, disport with her
in vales; in another, she with mighty buckler in her hands, dressed as
Pallas, threatens from her steed, with her fair looks more than with
her spear, and vanquishes the hearts through a pleasant plague.
There stands Saturn before her: toothless, baldheaded and grey,
with new wrinkles on his old face, he tries to appear young: he curls
his sparse tufts of hair, and, to see Psyche, puts on his glasses.
There, again, she is seen like a queen, with Cupids all around her, in
an aërial chariot: to celebrate fair Psyche’s honour and beauty, the
Cupids in their flight shoot hearts; they fly in a large company, all
carrying quivers over their shoulders, and, taking pride in her
beautiful eyes, raise their crossbows and proclaim war to the whole
world. There, again, fierce Mars, the destroyer of the law of peace,
perceiving Psyche, becomes gentle of manner: he no longer stains
the fields with blood, and finally, forgetting his rules of war, lies
humbled at her feet and glows with love to her. There, again, she is
pictured among the Pleasures that precede her everywhere and by
the invention of varied games call forth a pleasant smile upon her
face. In another place the Graces surround the princess and adorn
her with various flowers, while Zephyr, gently wafting about her,
paints her picture to adorn the world with; but, jealous of licentious
glances, he curbs the minds of the lovers of licentiousness, or,
perchance, shunning rebellious critics, hides in the painting the
greater part of her beauties, though, as is well known, before Psyche
those beauties of themselves appear in the pictures.
In order that various objects, meeting her eyes, should not weary
her, her portraits alone were placed upon the wall, in simple and in
festive gowns, or in masquerade attire. Psyche, you are beautiful in
any attire: whether you be dressed as a queen, or whether you be
seated by the tent as a shepherdess. In all garments you are the
wonder of the world, in all you appear as a goddess, and but you
alone are more beautiful than your portrait.
Gavriíl Románovich Derzhávin. (1743-1816.)
Derzhávin was born near Kazán, deriving his descent from
a Tartar Murza, and passed his childhood in the east, in the
Government of Orenbúrg. His early education was very
scanty. In his fourteenth year his mother hastened with him to
Moscow to enter him for future service as the son of a
nobleman; but, her means being exhausted, she returned with
him to Kazán, where she placed him in the newly opened
Gymnasium. Even here the lack of good teachers precluded
his getting any thorough instruction; his only positive gain was
a smattering of German, which was to help him later in
acquainting himself with the productions of the German Muse.
In 1762 he entered the regiment of the Transfiguration
(Preobrazhénski) as a common soldier. Whatever time he
could call his own in the crowded and dingy barracks in which
he passed eight years of his life he devoted to reading and to
imitations of Russian and German verse. In 1772 he was
made a commissioned officer, and was employed to quell the
Pugachév rebellion.
It was only in 1779 that Derzhávin began to write in a more
independent strain; one of the best odes of this new period is
his Monody on the Death of Prince Meshchérski. But the one
that gave him his greatest reputation was his Felítsa, with
which began a new epoch in Russian poetry. Lomonósov,
Sumarókov, Tredyakóvski, and a number of minor poets had
flooded Russian literature with lifeless odes in the French
pseudo-classic style, written for all possible occasions, and
generally to order. Just as a reaction was setting in against
them in the minds of the best people, Derzhávin proved by his
Felítsa that an ode could possess other characteristics than
those sanctioned by the French school. In 1782 he occupied
a position in the Senate under the Procurator-General
Vyázemski. He had an exalted opinion of Catherine, whom he
had not yet met, and he spoke with full sincerity of her in his
ode. The name Felítsa was suggested to him by the princess
in her moral fable (see p. 276 et seq.). The chief interest in
the ode for contemporary society lay in the bold attacks that
Derzhávin made on the foibles of the dignitaries. Its literary
value consists in the fact that it was the first attempt at a
purely colloquial tone of playful banter, in a kind of poetic
composition formerly characterised by a stilted language,
replete with Church-Slavic words and biblical allusions.
Numerous are the references made by the poets of the day to
the Singer of Felítsa (see p. 358 et seq.); they all felt that
Derzhávin had inaugurated a new era, that the period which
had begun with Lomonósov’s Capture of Khotín was virtually
over.
Catherine made Derzhávin Governor of Olónetsk, and later
of Tambóv; but neither in these high offices, nor later, when
Paul appointed him Chief of the Chancery of the Imperial
Council, and Alexander I. made him Minister of Justice, was
he successful. His excitable temperament, combined with a
stern love of truth which brooked no compromise, made him
everywhere impossible. Of the many productions which he
wrote after Felítsa, none gained such wide popularity as his
Ode to God. Though parts of it bear strong resemblance to
similar odes by Klopstock, Haller, Brockes, and to passages
in Young’s Night Thoughts, yet the whole is so far superior to
any of them that it soon was translated into all European
languages, and also into Japanese; there are not less than
fifteen versions of it in French. Derzhávin lived to hear
Púshkin recite one of his poems and to proclaim him his
spiritual successor. The following translations of Derzhávin’s
poems in English are known to me:
God, On the Death of Meshcherski, The Waterfall, The Lord
and the Judge, On the Death of Count Orlov, Song (The Little
Bee), in Sir John Bowring’s Specimens of the Russian Poets,
Part I.; To a Neighbour, The Shipwreck, Fragment, ib., Part II.;
To God, The Storm, in William D. Lewis’s The Bakchesarian
Fountain, Philadelphia, 1849; The Stream of Time, in J.
Pollen’s Rhymes from the Russian; Drowning, by N. H. Dole;
Ode to the Deity, by J. K. Stallybrass, in The Leisure Hour,
London, 1870, May 2; Ode to God, by N. H. Dole, in The
Chautauquan, vol. x; On the Death of Meshcherski, in C. E.
Turner’s Studies in Russian Literature, and the same in
Fraser’s Magazine, 1877.

ODE TO THE DEITY

O Thou infinite in being;

Living ’midst the change of all;
Thou eternal through time’s fleeing;
Formless—Three-in-one withal!
Spirit filling all creation,
Who hast neither source nor station;
Whom none reach, howe’er they plod;
Who with Thine existence fillest,
Claspest, mouldest as Thou willest,
Keepest all; whom we call—God!

Though the lofty mind could measure

Deepest seas, and count the sand,
Of the starry rays the treasure,
Thou no number hast, no strand!
Highest souls by Thee created,
To Thy service consecrated,
Ne’er could trace Thy counsels high;
Soon as thought to Thee aspireth,
In Thy greatness it expireth,
Moment in eternity.
Thou didst call the ancient chaos
From eternity’s vast sea:
On Thyself, ere time did ray us,
Thou didst found eternity.
By Thyself Thyself sustaining,
From Thyself unaided shining,
Thou art Light—light flows from Thee;
By Thy words all things creating,
Thy creation permeating,
Thou wast, art and aye shalt be.

All existence Thou containest

In Thee, quick’nest with Thy breath;
End to the beginning chainest;
And Thou givest life through death.
Life as sparks spring from the fire,
Suns are born from Thee, great sire:
As, in cold clear wintry day,
Spangles of the frost shine, sparkling,
Turning, wavering, glittering, darkling,
Shine the stars beneath Thy ray.

All the million lights, that wander

Silent through immensity,
Thy behests fulfil, and squander
Living rays throughout the sky.
But those lamps of living fire,
Crystals soaring ever higher,
Golden waves in rich array,
Wondrous orbs of burning ether,
Or bright worlds that cling together,
Are to Thee as night to day.
Like a drop in sea before Thee
Is the firmament on high:
What’s the universe of glory,
And before Thee what am I?
In yon vast aërial ocean
Could I count those worlds in motion,
Adding millions to them—aught
I could fancy or decipher,
By Thy side is but a cipher;
And before Thee I am—naught!

Naught! And yet in me Thou rayest,

By Thy gift and through Thy Son:
In me Thou Thyself portrayest,
As in one small drop the sun.
Naught! Yet life I feel throughout me,
And, content with naught about me,
Upward fly with eager heart.
That Thou art, my soul supposes,
Tries, and with this reas’ning closes:
“Sure I am, hence Thou too art.”

Yes, Thou art—all nature tells me;

Whispers back my heart the thought;
Reason now to this impels me:
Since Thou art, I am not naught!
Part of Thine entire creation,
Set in nature’s middle station
By Thine order I abide;
Where Thou endest forms terrestrial
And beginnest souls celestial,
Chains of beings by me tied.
 I’m the link of worlds existing,
Last high grade of matter I,
Centre of all life subsisting,
First touch of divinity.
Death to dust my body sunders:
In my mind I wield the thunders.
I’m a king, a slave to Thee:
I’m a worm, a god! Whence hither
Came I, wonderful? Oh, whither?
By myself I could not be.

Thine am I, Thou great Creator,

Outcome of Thy wisdom sole;
Fount of life, blest conservator;
Of my soul the king and soul!
Needful to Thy just decreeing
Was it that my deathless being
Pass to Thee through death’s abyss:
That my soul, in body vested,
Wend, by death refined and tested,
Father, to Thy deathlessness.

Traceless One, unfathomable!

Now I cannot see Thy face:
My imagining’s too feeble
E’en Thy shadow here to trace;
But, if we must sing Thy glory,
Feeble mortals, to adore Thee
In a worthy attitude,
We must rise to Thee to wreathe Thee,
Lost in distance far beneath Thee,
And—shed tears of gratitude.

—Translated by J. K. Stallybrass, in The Leisure Hour, London,

1870, May 2.
 MONODY ON PRINCE MESHCHÉRSKI[147]

O iron tongue of Time, with thy sharp metallic tone,

Thy terrible voice affrights me:
Each beat of the clock summons me,
Calls me and hurries me to the grave.
Scarcely have I opened my eyes upon the world,
Ere Death grinds his teeth,
And with his scythe, that gleams like lightning,
Cuts off my days, which are but grass.

Not one of the horned beasts of the field,

Not a single blade of grass escapes,
Monarch and beggar alike are food for the worm.
The noxious elements feed the grave,
And Time effaces all human glory;
As the swift waters rush towards the sea,
So our days and years flow into Eternity,
And empires are swallowed up by greedy Death.

We crawl along the edge of the treacherous abyss,

Into which we quickly fall headlong:
With our first breath of life we inhale death,
And are only born that we may die.
Stars are shivered by him,
And suns are momentarily quenched,
Each world trembles at his menace,
And Death unpityingly levels all.
The mortal scarcely thinks that he can die,
And idly dreams himself immortal,
When Death comes to him as a thief,
And in an instant robs him of his life.
Alas! where fondly we fear the least,
There will Death the sooner come;
Nor does the lightning-bolt with swifter blast
Topple down the towering pinnacle.

Child of luxury, child of freshness and delight,

Meshchérski, where hast thou hidden thyself?
Thou hast left the realms of light,
And withdrawn to the shores of the dead;
Thy dust is here, but thy soul is no more with us.
Where is it? It is there. Where is there? We know not.
We can only weep and sob forth,
Woe to us that we were ever born into the world!

They who are radiant with health,

Love and joy and peace,
Feel their blood run cold
And their souls to be fretted with woe.
Where but now was spread a banquet, there stands a coffin:
Where but now rose mad cries of revelry,
There resounds the bitter wailing of mourners;
And over all keeps Death his watch,—

Watches us one and all,—the mighty Tsar

Within whose hands are lodged the destinies of a world;
Watches the sumptuous Dives,
Who makes of gold and silver his idol-gods;
Watches the fair beauty rejoicing in her charms;
Watches the sage, proud of his intellect;
Watches the strong man, confident in his strength;
And, even as he watches, sharpens the blade of his scythe.
O Death, thou essence of fear and trembling!
O Man, thou strange mixture of grandeur and of nothingness!
To-day a god, and to-morrow a patch of earth:
To-day buoyed up with cheating hope,
And to-morrow, where art thou, Man?
Scarce an hour of triumph allowed thee
Ere thou hast taken thy flight to the realms of Chaos,
And thy whole course of life, a dream, is run.

Like a dream, like some sweet vision,

Already my youth has vanished quite.
Beauty no longer enjoys her potent sway,
Gladness no more, as once, entrances me,
My mind is no longer free and fanciful,
And all my happiness is changed.
I am troubled with a longing for fame;
I listen; the voice of fame now calls me.

But even so will manhood pass away,

And together with fame all my aspirations.
The love of wealth will tarnish all,
And each passion in its turn
Will sway the soul and pass.
Avaunt, happiness, that boasts to be within our grasp!
All happiness is but evanescent and a lie:
I stand at the gate of Eternity.

To-day or to-morrow we must die,

Perfílev, and all is ended.
Why, then, lament or be afflicted
That thy friend did not live for ever?
Life is but a momentary loan from Heaven:
Spend it then in resignation and in peace,
And with a pure soul
Learn to kiss the chastening rod.
—From C. E. Turner’s Studies in Russian Literature, and the same in
Fraser’s Magazine, 1877.

FELÍTSA[148]

Godlike queen of the Kirgíz-Kaysák horde,[149] whose

incomparable wisdom discovered the true path for the young
Tsarévich Khlor, by which to climb the high mountain where grows
the rose without prickles, where virtue dwells that captivates my soul
and my mind! Oh, teach me how to find it!
Instruct me, Felítsa, how to live voluptuously, yet justly; how to
tame the storm of passions, and be happy in the world. Your voice
enthuses me, your son guides me, but I am weak to follow them.
Disturbed by worldly cares, I control myself to-day, to-morrow am a
slave of my caprices.
You do not emulate your Murzas,[150] and frequently go on foot;
the simplest food is served at your table. You disdain your rest, and
read and write by the tallow dip, and from your pen flows bliss to all
the mortals.[151] Nor do you play cards, like me, from morning until
morning.[152]
You do not care overmuch for masquerades, and do not set your
foot into a club. You keep old customs and habits, and make no Don
Quixote of yourself. You do not saddle the steed of Parnassus,[153]
do not attend the séances, to see spirits,[154] do not go to the
East[155] from your throne; but, walking on the path of humility, your
gracious soul passes an even tenor of useful days.
But I sleep until noon, smoke tobacco and drink coffee. I change
the work-days into holidays, and live in a whirl of chimerical
thoughts: I now take booty from the Persians, now direct my arrows
to the Turks; now, imagining myself to be the Sultan, I make the
world tremble with my looks; or, suddenly attracted by a sumptuous
garment, I hasten to the tailor for a new caftan.[156]
 Or I am at a sumptuous feast, where they celebrate in my honour,
where the table sparkles with its silver and gold, where there are a
thousand different courses,—here the famous Westphalian bacon,
there slices of Astrakhán fish, there stand the pilau and the cakes,—I
drink champagne after my waffles and forget everything in the world
’midst wine, sweetmeats and perfumes.
Or, ’midst a beautiful grove, in an arbour, where the fountain
plashes, by the sound of a sweet-voiced harp, where the zephyr
scarcely breathes, where everything inclines to luxury, and entices
the mind to joy, and the blood becomes now languid, now flows
warm, inclining upon a velvet divan, I rouse the tender feelings of a
young maiden, and inspire her heart with love.
Or, in a magnificent tandem, in a gilded English carriage, I drive
with a dog, a fool, or friend, or fair maiden to the Swings, or stop at
the taverns to drink mead; or, when I get tired of that, for I am
inclined to change, fly, with my cap posed jauntily, on a mettled
steed.
Or I delight my soul with music and singers, the organ and flute, or
boxing and the dance.[157] Or, dropping all care of business, go on
the chase, and take pleasure in the barking of the hounds[158]; or, on
the banks of the Nevá, enjoy at night the sound of horns and the
rowing of agile oarsmen.[159]
Or, staying at home, pass my time playing “Old Maid” with my wife;
or we climb together into the dove-cot, or, at times, play Blindman’s
Buff with her, or sváyka,[160] or have her examine my head; or I love
to pore over books, to enlighten my mind and heart, that is, I read
Pulicane and Bovo,[161] or yawn and fall asleep over the Bible.
Such are my debauches, Felítsa! But the whole world resembles
me, no matter if one passes for a sage: every man is a living lie. We
travel not by the paths of light, we run after the whims of pleasure.
’Twixt the Indolent and the Choleric,[162] ’twixt vanity and vice, one
seldom finds the straight road to virtue.
 Suppose we have found it! How are we weak mortals not to
blunder, where even Reason stumbles and follows after passions,
where learned ignoramuses bedim our heads as the mist bedims the
wanderers? Temptation and flattery dwell everywhere, and luxury
oppresses all the pashas. Where, then, dwells virtue? Where grows
the rose without prickles?
It becomes you alone, O Empress, to create light from darkness,
dividing chaos harmoniously in spheres, to firmly unite them by a
common bond; you alone can bring forth concord out of discord, and
happiness out of violent passions: thus the sailor, crossing the sea,
catches the gale in his sails and safely guides his ship.
You alone hurt not, nor injure anyone; though you may connive at
stupidity, you tolerate no mean act; you treat peccadillos with
condescension. You do not choke people, as the wolf chokes the
sheep, but you know their worth: they are subject to the will of kings,
but more to righteous God who lives in their laws.
You judge soundly of merits, and mete out honour to the
deserving: you deem him not a prophet who merely makes rhymes.
And as for that entertainment of the mind,—the honour and glory of
good caliphs, the lyric strain to which you condescend,—poetry is
pleasing to you, acceptable, soothing, useful,—like a refreshing
lemonade in summer.
Rumour tells of you that you are not in the least haughty, that you
are pleasant in business and in jest, agreeable in friendship and firm;
that you are indifferent to misfortune, and so magnanimous in glory
that you refused to be called “Wise.”[163] Again, they justly say that
one may always tell you the truth.
This, too, is an unheard-of thing and worthy of you alone: you
permit the people boldly to know and think all,[164] openly or in
secret; nor do you forbid them to say of you what is true or false; and
you are always prone to forgive those crocodiles, the Zoiluses of all
your benefactions.
Rivers of joyful tears stream from the depth of my heart. Oh, how
happy the people must be there with their fate, where a meek,
peaceful angel, clad in porphyry splendour, wields the heaven-sent
sceptre! There one may whisper conversations and, without fearing
punishment, at dinners not drink the health of kings.
There one may erase Felítsa’s name in the line, or carelessly drop
her portrait on the ground. There they do not celebrate preposterous
weddings, and steam people in ice baths, and pull the mustaches of
dignitaries; princes do not cackle like sitting hens, nor favourites
laugh loud at them and smear their faces with soot.
You know, O Felítsa, the rights of men and kings. While you
enlighten the manners, you do not turn men into fools. In your
moments of rest you write fables for instruction and teach the
alphabet to Khlor: “Do no wrong, and you will cause the bitterest
satirist to become a hated prevaricator.”
You are ashamed to be called great, lest you be feared and hated:
it becomes only a wild she-bear to tear animals and suck their blood.
Need one have recourse to the lancet, unless in extreme fever, when
one can get along without it? And is it glorious to be a tyrant, a great
Tamerlane in cruelty, where one is great in goodness, like God?
Felítsa’s glory is the glory of a god who has calmed strife, who has
covered, dressed and fed the orphaned and the poor; whose radiant
eye emits its light to fools, cowards, ungrateful people and the just,
and enlightens alike all mortals, soothes, cures the sick,—does good
for good’s sake;
Who has given the liberty to travel to other lands, has permitted
his people to seek gold and silver; who makes the waters free, and
does not prohibit cutting down the woods; who orders to weave, and
spin, and sew; who, freeing the mind and the hands, orders to love
commerce and the sciences, and to find happiness at home;
Whose law and hand distribute favours and justice. Announce,
wise Felítsa, where is the villain separated from the honest man?
Where does old age not go a-begging, and merit find its bread?
Where does revenge not drive anyone? Where dwells conscience
with truth? Where shine virtues?—if not at your throne?
 But where does your throne shine in the world? Where do you
flourish, celestial branch? In Bagdad, Smyrna, Cashmir? Listen:
wherever you may live and my praises reach you, think not that I
wish a hat or caftan for them. To feel the charm of goodness is for
the soul a wealth such as even Crœsus did not possess.
I pray the great prophet that I may touch the dust of your feet, that
I may enjoy the sweet stream of your words and your look. I entreat
the heavenly powers that they extend their sapphire wings and
invisibly guard you from all diseases, evils and ennui, that the
renown of your deeds may shine in posterity like stars in the
heavens.

FROM “THE WATERFALL”

Lo! like a glorious pile of diamonds bright,

Built on the steadfast cliffs, the waterfall
Pours forth its gems of pearl and silver light:
They sink, they rise, and sparkling cover all
With infinite refulgence; while its song,
Sublime as thunder, rolls the woods along,—

Rolls through the woods,—they send its accents back,

Whose last vibration in the desert dies:
Its radiance glances o’er the watery track,
Till the soft wave, as wrapt in slumber, lies
Beneath the forest shade; then sweetly flows
A milky stream, all silent, as it goes.

Its foam is scattered on the margent bound,

Skirting the darksome grove. But list! the hum
Of industry, the rattling hammer’s sound,
Files whizzing, creaking sluices, echoed come
On the fast-travelling breeze! Oh no, no voice
Is heard around but thy majestic noise!
 When the mad storm-wind tears the oak asunder,
In thee its shivered fragments find their tomb;
When rocks are riven by the bolt of thunder,
As sands they sink into thy mighty womb:
The ice that would imprison thy proud tide
Like bits of broken glass is scattered wide.

The fierce wolf prowls around thee—there it stands

Listening,—not fearful, for he nothing fears:
His red eyes burn like fury-kindled brands,
Like bristles o’er him his coarse fur he rears;
Howling, thy dreadful roar he oft repeats,
And, more ferocious, hastes to bloodier feats.

The wild stag hears thy falling waters’ sound,

And tremblingly flies forward,—o’er her back
She bends her stately horns, the noiseless ground
Her hurried feet impress not, and her track
Is lost among the tumult of the breeze,
And the leaves falling from the rustling trees.

The wild horse thee approaches in his turn:

He changes not his proudly rapid stride;
His mane stands up erect, his nostrils burn,
He snorts, he pricks his ears, and starts aside;
Then rushing madly forward to thy steep,
He dashes down into thy torrents deep.

—From Sir John Bowring’s Specimens of the Russian Poets, Part I.

THE STORM

As my bark in the restless ocean

Mounts its rough and foaming hills,
Whilst its waves in dark commotion
 Pass me, hope my bosom fills.

Who, when warring clouds are gleaming,

Quenches the destructive spark?
Say what hand, what safety’s beaming,
Guides through rocks my little bark?

Thou, Creator, all o’erseeing,

In this scene preserv’st me dread!
Thou, without whose word decreeing
Not a hair falls from my head!

Thou in life hast doubly blest me,

All my soul to Thee’s revealed,—
Thou amongst the great hast placed me,—
Be ’midst them my guide and shield!

—From W. D. Lewis’s The Bakchesarian Fountain.

THE STREAM OF TIME[165]

The stream of time, with onward sweep,

Bears off men’s works, all human things,
And plunges o’er Oblivion’s steep
Peoples and kingdoms with their kings.
If for a space amidst the swirl
The lyre of trumpet some sustain,
They’re swept at last in ceaseless whirl,
And none escape Fate’s common main.

—From John Pollen’s Rhymes from the Russian.

FOOTNOTES: