Information Processes & Technology – Information Systems – 2

Information Systems and Databases

Information Systems are systems that provide information to users.

The Seven Processes

Collecting
! What information do we want to collect?
! Where will the data come from?
! What methods will we use to collect the data?
! Getting the data for the information system

Organizing
! Determines the format in which the data will be represented
! The RULES for format of each data element

Analyzing
! Interpreting the data
! Checking for data consistency
! Check for validity of data
! Check for redundancy of data

Storing and Retrieving

! How is the data saved for later use?
! The Hardware and Software used for storage and retrieval of the data
! How will the data be protected?

Processing
! The data is manipulated
! May involve Sorting; Graphing; some other method that changes the data into
meaningful information

Transmitting and Receiving

! How the data is sent from one part of the system to another
! Is the data sent inside or outside the boundaries of the system?
! In what format and how?
! Hardware and Software used

Displaying
! Decide of the form the information will take
! Chose an appropriate method to present it
! Identify the target audience and display the information appropriately
! Design appropriate aesthetically pleasing layouts
! Consider the rules for presentation – font, colour, size, etc…

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Uses for Information Systems

An Information System is a system that provides information to users.
Information Systems are used to collect, organize, analyze, store and retrieve, process,
transmit and receive, and display data in an effective and efficient manner.
Information systems can have a computer or non-computer environment. Two main types are
Multimedia Information Systems and Databases.

Processing Transactions
! A Transaction Processing System (TPS) collects, stores, modifies and retrieves the daily
transactions of an organization.
! Batch processing collects the transaction data and processes it later.
! Real-time processing is processed immediately.

Providing Users with Information

! Provides information about the performance of an organization to managers

Help Decision Making

! A Decision Support System (DDS) assists people to make decision by providing
information, models and analysis tools.
! Expert systems

Managing Information
! Provides an effective and efficient way to complete tasks in an organization.

Examples of Database Information Systems

! School Databases
! RTA – Roads and Traffic Authority
! Video Stores

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Organization Methods
Non-Computer Methods
! Telephone book May be sorted:
! Dictionary ! Alphabetically
! Recipe book ! Numerically
! Chronologically
! By Category

Computer-based Methods
! Databases – Flat-file, Relational
! Hypermedia

Advantages of Computer-based over Non-Computer

! Data can be easily edited without having ! Data can be accessed by several people at
to re-enter data the same time
! Large storage space is available. Non- ! Backup storage can be kept easily,
computer uses large storage area lowering risk of loss of data
! Data can be searched and retrieved ! Access to confidential data can be
quickly restricted
! Data can be presented in many formats ! Sorting of data is flexible over a range of
! Manipulation of data is possible fields

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Databases
A database is a large collection of “things that are known”, or a large store of information. As
an information system, a database allows the effective manipulation of the information it
contains. The means by which the information can be manipulated is know as a Database
Management System (DBMS).

Data Structure of a Database

File A file is a block of data. A file in a database is divided into a set of related
records. A collection of related records.
Record A record is a collection of facts about one specific entry in a database. A
record is divided into one or more related fields.
Field A field is a specific piece of data. A field is also known as a data item or
category and is made up of characters.
Character A character is the smallest unit of data that people can handle and includes
letters, numbers and symbols.

Flat-file Databases
! Simple to create and organize
! Inexpensive
! Data for the whole database is contained in a single file
! Managed by programs called file managers
! Consists of fields, records and files
! High level of data redundancy
! Access is often sequential, slower access

Relational Databases
! Relational databases provide a method of storing data based on multiple databases linked
together by common keys. The keys provide the facility to build up huge databases
without necessary duplicating information (data redundancy) – the data is shared.
! Draws information from one or more additional files as well as the current file
! Needs a Primary Key / Link (Unique key field)

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Relationships are built between the tables of the relational database to provide a flexible way
of manipulating and combining data.

Schema An organized plan of the entire database, showing where the data is
found and the logical relationships
Entity The specific ‘thing’ about which data is collected and stored.
Attribute The defined property of an entity (fields).
Relationships The way in which entities are related to each other.
One to One Each record in the first entity is related to exactly one in the second entity
One to Many Each record in the first entity relates to many records in the second entity.
Many to Many Each record in the first entity relates to many records in the second entity, and each
record in the second entity is related to many records in the first entity.
Primary Key The field in a table or database which uniquely identifies each record
Secondary Key Other keys in the table which can be used for sorting or searching the
table
Foreign Key A key which is used in a table to create a relationship. It is the
primary key from another table

Table Information about an entity is displayed in a table, made of tuples

(rows), attributes (columns).

Data Modelling
Data Dictionary
A data dictionary is a description of the fields and data stored within the database. From the
dictionary it is possible to determine the name used to reference the data, the type of data
stored, the length of the field, the application program and an example of data being stored in
the database. Data Dictionaries can also be used to calculate the storage required for each
record. This forms part of the documentation for the database.

Schematic Diagrams
Schematic diagrams are graphical tools that are used to describe the database and help in the
development of a relational database. They identify and show relationships between entities.

Normalisation
Normalisation is the process of studying the conceptual schema for a database and organizing
it into a group of tables in the most efficient way, that is, the production of a relational
schema which minimizes data redundancy.

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Hypertext and Hypermedia

Hypertext is a system where documents can be cross-linked in such a way that you can
navigate from one document to the next by clicking on hyperlinks
Hypermedia is the storage of information using a set of documents that may contain text,
numbers images, audio and video.

Nodes
A node is a location in a database at which data is stored. They are not restricted to text and
may contain:
! Sound
! Graphics
! Video
! Animation
! Other media
! A node in the WWW has it’s own unique URL

Links
Links between nodes in a hyper document have no structure. They are associated with
anchors and bookmarks, which are smaller parts of the nodes. Typical anchors are:
! Text
! Buttons
! Pictures

URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

A URL is the address of the file or resource on the web.
Made up of the Protocol, Domain, File Path

Metadata
Metadata is data about data. With increasing amounts of data being created and stored, it is
becoming more important to document the data. A data dictionary documents the data
contained within a database, so forms the metadata for the database.

Storyboards
A frame plan for the website. It can include the navigation paths, the images to be used and
the information to be presented. They can be:
Linear; Hierarchical; Non-linear (network); Composite (Hybrid)

Webpage creation software, or HTML Generators, all text, graphics and sounds to be
hyperlinks.
Eg. Frontpage, Dreamweaver
These pages can then be viewed using a web browser
Eg. IE, Netscape

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Storage and Retrieval

DBMS – DataBase Management System
! A DBMS is a software application that allows the entry, manipulation and storage of data
in a database format.
! Reduces data redundancy
! Backup and recovery capabilities
Allows:
! entry of data into fields
! sorting by one or more fields
! storage of files
! retrieval of records

Independence of Data
! The physical organization of the data is achieved when the operation system determines
the way in which the data is physically organized on the storage medium.
! The logical organization of the data is how the program defines the data.

Access of Data
Sequential Access
Flat-file databases are generally accessed sequentially. That is each record is searched in
sequence, one after the other until the required record is found.

Direct Access
Databases with primary keys (in relational databases) can be accessed directly using the
primary key. Random access files are also known as direct, hash, or relative file. An
algorithm can be used to determine the address at which records are to be stored.

Distributed Databases
A distributed database is one which has been partitioned and then located at different sites. It
is managed by a DBMS and is periodically synchronized to ensure that they all have
consistent data.

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Storage
Online Storage
! An image or document is considered online when it can be accessed instantly and
automatically without human intervention
! Online storage consists primarily of hard disks
! Much of the information stored online is reference data
! Requires disk management systems for back-up of the data

Offline Storage
! Refers to data that is stored offline
! Requires human intervention whenever files are requested
! Generally refers to removable disks or tapes that can be shelved for long-term
storage or disaster recovery
! Offers partial solution to information overload – stores data is not actively used, or
data that is so sensitive it requires duplicate back-up in a remote location
! Extremely safe form of storage

Type Advantage Disadvantage

Online ! Highest performance ! High cost

! Almost instant access

Offline ! Low cost ! Mid – Low performance

! Requires some human
intervention so it is slow

Calculating Storage Size

Total Field size of each Fields x Number of records = Number of bytes.

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Storage Media
Sequential Media
Magnetic tape is a very long, thin strip of plastic, coated with a thin layer of magnetic
material. Data is stored on the tapes in frames, each frame consisting of one byte. Magnetic
tapes are mainly associated with large computers and offer an erasable, reusable and durable
way of storing data. This form of storage is called sequential because all of the bits of data
are organized one after another in a strict sequence.

Random Access Media

On a floppy and most hard computer disks, the recorded data are organized to take advantage
of the two dimensional aspect of the flat, wide surface to give even faster access than is
possible with the tape. Instead of being arranged in a single straight line, disk-based data are
spread across several concentric circles.

Hard Disks
Hard disks have a hard platter that holds the magnetic medium, as opposed to the plastic film
found in tapes and floppies. The magnetic medium can be easily erased and rewritten. Data is
stored onto the disk in the form of files.

Compact Discs
A CD-ROM is a fairly simple piece of plastic, about 1.2mm thick. Most of a CD consists of
an injection-moulded piece of clear polycarbonate plastic. This plastic is impressed with
microscopic pits arranged as a single, continuous extremely long spiral track of data. The
start is at the centre.
A CD-R has a writing laser as well as the reading laser. The writing laser is a much more
powerful laser. Writable CDs have an extra, non-reflective layer that the laser can modify.

Encryption/ Decryption
! It is the translation of data into a secret code
! It is the most effective way to achieve data security
! Public and Private Keys
! Unencrypted data – plain text
! Encrypted data – cipher text
! Asymmetric encryption requires a key for encryption and a different key for decryption. It
involves a public key that is used to encrypt data and is widely available and a private key
that decrypts the message and is kept secret.
! Symmetric encryption requires the same key for both encryption and decryption.

Backup
If for any reason the data on a computer is lost, the impact is usually in direct proportion to
the effectiveness of the back-up system.
A back-up is another copy of the data that could be used to rebuild the system if the system is
damaged or lost.
Grandfather – father – son is a backup procedure that refers to three generations of master
files. The most recent is the son, then the father, and then the grandfather.

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Tools for Database Storage and Retrieval

Sorting
Sorting is carried out on a field alphabetically, numerically or chronologically in either
ascending or descending order.

Searching
Search specifications using query languages enable database managers to conduct queries or
searches for data that meets certain criteria.

SQL – Structured Query Language

Selecting data from a relational database is done through a query using SQL Commands.
A Query takes the form:

SELECT: fields <Field Name> relation “value”

FROM: tables
WHERE: search criteria Relation Operations:
AND/ OR: additional search criteria = Equals
Ordered BY: field ≠ Not Equals
> Greater Than
Example ≥ Greater Than or Equals to
SELECT: Last Name, Position < Less Than
FROM: Students, Organizations ≤ Less Than or Equals to
WHERE: lastname = “JONES” = Not Greater Than
AND: position = “Commonwealth Bank” = Not Less Than

Joining SQL’s
AND
OR

Searching for Hypermedia

A search engine is a database of indexed websites that can be searched using keywords.
A search engine works by sending out a search robot or spider to fetch as many documents as
possible. Another program, called an indexer, then reads these documents and creates an
index based on the words contained in each document.

A report is the formatted and organized presentation of data.

A form is used to enter, view and edit data.

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Issues
Privacy & Security
Database systems usually have security measures in place to prevent both unauthorized
access to the system and corruption of the data stored. This introduces the concern about
security.
! Data may get into the wrong hands. May become damaged or deleted accidentally or
intentionally.
! Incorrect data may be entered
! Validation of data
! Format of data
! Accuracy of data and reliability of sources. Data is protected by copyright
regardless of where it is obtained. Data should be acknowledged or permission
sought from the owner before the information can be used in publication.
! Ownership and control of data is an ethical issue
! Restrictions on the level of access – Password protection.
! Closed circuits. Monitoring by camera and logs.
! Data encryption
! Dial back modems to registered phone numbers
! Backup of data
! Firewalls and Virus Protection

Data warehousing is a collection of data designed to support management decision-making.

Development of data warehouse includes development of systems to extract data from
operating systems plus installation of a warehouse database system that provides managers
flexible access to the data.
Data mining involves the use of software that looks for hidden patterns in warehoused data.

Issues with DBMS – Database Management System

! Privacy vs Freedom of Information
The rights of individuals to privacy and control of information concerning personal details
need to be considered. However the existence of a store of information concerning
individuals can, in some cases, be beneficial to society in general.
! Unwanted names on mailing list
! The sale of mailing lists
! Loss of control of information
! Information on individuals needs to be accurate
! Surveillance information held on computers controlled by government agencies
! Tracing missing persons
! Assistance in the apprehension of tax evaders
! Assistance on the apprehension of social security benefit cheats
! Ability to determine bad creditors
! Availability of research data
! Emergency access to medical records
! Monitoring of visits to doctors.

! Public vs. Private Databases

All people eventually end up on a “private” database. Eg. Doctors, Video store, etc…. There
are companies that find these databases and buy and sell them to whoever will pay. There are
laws companies which prevent some of this.

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