01 Introduction to Computer Networks

Overview
§ Sneakernet
§ ARPAnet to the Internet
§ In the mid-1980s, networks were disorganized.
§ Solution: creates LAN standards which provided an open set of guidelines that companies used to create network
hardware and software.
§ International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model in 1984
which becomes the primary model for network communications.
§ www
§ What is a network?
o Connection between two or more computers and other devices through a cable or some type of wireless
connection. It is used to share resources and for communication.
§ Networks in the Past and at Present
o 1995 – Fixed Computing
o 2000 – Mobility/BYOD
o 2011 – Internet of Things
o 2020 – Internet of Everything
§ Impacts of Network
o Global community
o Education
o Communication
o Work
o Play

Communication Elements
§ Communication – a) begins with a message, or information, that must be sent from a source to a destination; b) governed
by rules called protocols; c) has an identified sender and receiver; d) common language and grammar; speed and timing of
delivery; e) confirmation or acknowledgement requirement
§ Rules for communication
o Message encoding - the process of converting information into another, acceptable form, for transmission.
Decoding reverses this process in order to interpret the information.
o Message Formatting and Encapsulation - When a message is sent from source to destination, it must use a specific
format or structure. Message formats depend on the type of message and the channel that is used to deliver the
message. The process of placing one message format inside another message format is called encapsulation.
De-encapsulation occurs when the process is reversed by the recipient.
o Message Size - size restrictions of frames require the source host to break a long message into individual pieces
that meet both the minimum and maximum size requirements.
o Segmentation – breaking communication into pieces
o Labelling – provides for ordering and assembling the pieces when they arrive
o Message Timing
§ Access Method - Hosts on a network need an access method to know when to begin sending messages
and how to respond when errors occur.
§ Flow Control - Source and destination hosts use flow control to negotiate correct timing for successful
communication.
§ Response Timeout - Hosts on the network also have rules that specify how long to wait for responses
and what action to take if a response timeout occurs.
o Message Delivery Options
§ Unicast - only a single destination for the message.
§ Multicast - is the delivery of the same message to a group of host destinations simultaneously.
§ Broadcast - all hosts on the network will receive the message at the same time
§ Protocols
o set of rules that govern communication and defines how the message is formatted
 Types and Models
§ Model - depicts the operation of the protocols occurring within each layer, as well as the interaction of protocols with the
layers above and below each layer.
§ Benefits
o Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a specific layer have defined information that they
act upon and a defined interface to the layers above and below.
o Fosters competition because products from different vendors can work together.
o Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers above and below.
o Provides a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities.
§ Protocol Model - is a protocol model, because it describes the functions that occur at each layer of protocols within the
TCP/IP suite
§ Reference Model - aid in clearer understanding of the functions and processes involved in each layer.
§ Types of Computer Networks
o Local Area Networks – a) operate within a limited geographic area; b) allow many users to access high-
bandwidth media; c) provide full-time connectivity to local services; d) connect physically adjacent devices; e)
some common technologies: ethernet, token ring, Fiber Distributed Data Interchange (FDDI)
o Metropolitan Area Networks – a) is a network that spans a metropolitan area such as a city or a sub urban area
or region larger than that covered by LAN but smaller than the area covered by WAN; b) interconnects several
LANs by bridging them with backbone lines.
o Wide Area Networks – a) operate over large, geographic separated areas; b) allow many users to engage in
real-time communication with other users; c) provide full-time remote resources connected to local services; d)
provide e-mail, WWW, file transfer and e-commerce services; e) some common technologies: modems
(asynchronous dialup), Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), Frame Relay,
T1 or E1 leased lines
o Personal Area Networks
o Intranets - one common configuration of a LAN. It is a private network that is contained within an enterprise. It
may consist of many interlinked local area networks and also use leased lines in the wide area network. The main
purpose of an intranet is to share company information and computing resources among employees.
o Extranet - is a private network that uses Internet technology and the public telecommunication system to securely
share part of a business's information or operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other
businesses. An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users outside the
company. An extranet requires security and privacy. These can include firewall server management, the issuance
and use of digital certificates or similar means of user authentication, encryption of messages, and the use of
virtual private networks (VPNs) that tunnel through the public network.
o Virtual Private Network (VPN) - is a private network that is constructed within a public network infrastructure such
as the global Internet. For example, a telecommuter can access the company headquarters’ network through the
Internet by building a secure tunnel between the telecommuter’s PC and a VPN router in the headquarters.
o Benefits of VPN
§ Offers secure, reliable connectivity over a shared public network infrastructure such as the Internet.
§ Provides a cost effective method of establishing a point-to-point connection between remote users and
an enterprise customer’s network.
§ Provides mobility to employees and allows employees to access the corporate network securely.
o 3 Main Types
§ Access VPN – provide remote access for a mobile worker and small office/home office to the
headquarters’ intranet or extranet over a shared infrastructure. It uses analog dial-up, ISDN, DSL, mobile
IP and cable technologies.
§ Intranet VPN – links regional and remote offices to the headquarters internal network using dedicated
connections. This allows access only to the employees.
§ Extranet VPN – links business partners to the headquarters’ network using dedicated connections. It
differs from intranet VPNs in that they allow access to users outside the enterprise.

02 Enterprise Network Constructs

Network Devices
§ End user devices - include computers, printers, scanners, and other devices that provide services directly to the user.
§ Network devices - include all devices that connect end user devices to allow them to communicate.
§ Collision - is a situation that can occur when 2 bits propagate at the same time on the same network.
§ Collision Domain - is the area within the network from where the data packets originate and collide.
§ Broadcast - is a data packet that is sent to all nodes on a network.
§ Broadcast Domain - consists of all devices connected to a network that receive the data packet broadcast by a node to all
other nodes on the same network.
§ Types of Network Devices
o Repeater – a) Exist at layer 1, the physical layer, of the OSI reference model. b) Regenerates and retimes
network signals at the bit level, allowing them to travel a longer distance on the medium. c) Has 2 ports – a
single port in and a single port out
o Hub - A multiport repeater that exists at layer 1, the physical layer, of the OSI reference model. b) Amplifies and
retimes signals. c) Do not require filtering, path determination or switching. d) half-duplex device
 o Bridge – a) Exist at layer 2, the data link layer, of the OSI reference model. b) Filters frames and forwards them
based on MAC address; c) Creates more collision domains, allowing more than 1 device to transmit simultaneously
without causing a collision. d) It maintains MAC address table known as bridge tables
§ Filtering – If the bridge determines that the data’s destination MAC address is from the same
network segment as the source, it does not forward the data to other segments of the network.
§ Flooding - If the destination MAC address is unknown to the bridge, the bridge transmits the
data out all interfaces on a bridge except the one on which it was received.
o Switch – a) Exist at layer 2, the data link layer, of the OSI reference model; b) Filters and forwards frames based
on MAC address; c) Multi-port bridge which works similarly with bridges. However, switching is performed in
hardware which makes it more faster than the switching function performed by a bridge using software; d)
Dedicated media bandwidth; e) Capable of full-duplex
o Router – a) Is a type of internetworking device that passes data packets between networks based on IP addresses;
b) It can make decisions regarding the best path for delivery of data on the network; c) Amplifies signals and
divides broadcast domain and collision domain
o Modem – (modulators/demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over analog telephone lines by converting
the digital signals into analog signals of different frequencies and transmitted to a modem at the receiving location.
The receiving modem performs the reverse transformation and provides a digital output to a device connected to
a modem, usually a computer; b) exists on both Physical and Data Link Layers
o Access Point – a) works at Data Link layer and operates as a bridge connecting a standard wired network to a
wireless device or as a router passing data transmission from one access point to another; b) consists of a
transmitter and receiver (transceiver) device used to create a wireless LAN (WLAN); c) typically are network
devices with a built-in antenna, transmitter and adapter.

03 Basic Enterprise Network Architects

Enterprise Networks
§ The enterprise network originally represents the interconnection of systems belonging to a given functional group or
organization to primarily enable the sharing of resources such as printers and file servers, communication support through
means such as email, and the evolution towards applications that enable collaboration between users. Enterprise networks
can be found today present within various industries from office environments to larger energy, finance and government-
based industries, which often comprise of enterprise networks that span multiple physical locations.
§ Small enterprise networks that implement a flat network architecture may limit the capability to scale the network in the
event of growth in the number of users. Where it is expected that a larger number of users will need to be supported, a
hierarchical approach to enterprise networks should be considered. Medium-sized networks will generally support a greater
number of users, and therefore will typically implement a hierarchical network infrastructure to allow the network to grow
and support the required user base.
§ Small and medium sized enterprise networks must take into account the performance of the network as well as providing
redundancy in the event of network failure in order to maintain service availability to all users. As the network grows, the
threat to the security of the network also increases which may also hinder services.
§ Sizes of Networks
o Small network (up to 200 devices)
o Medium-size network (200 to 1000 devices)
o Large network (1000+ devices)

Enterprise Network Basic Architecture

§ A multi layered architecture is defined to optimize traffic flow, apply policies for traffic management and controlled access
to resources, as well as maintain network availability and stable operation through effective network redundancy. The
multilayer design also enables easy expansion, and together with a modular design that provides for effective isolation and
maintenance should problems in the network occur, without impacting the entire network.

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Physical Topologies
§ Bus - Connects all the devices using a single cable. The main cable segment must end with a terminator that absorbs the
signal when it reaches the end of the line or wire.
§ Star or Extended Star - It is made up of a central connection point that is a device such as a hub, switch or router, where
all the cabling segments meet.
§ Ring - In which each node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through
each node - a ring.
§ Mesh - Connects all the devices (nodes) to each other for redundancy and fault tolerance. It is usually implemented in
WANs between routers.
§ Hybrid - A combination of two or more physical topologies.

Logical Topologies
§ Broadcast topology – means that each host addresses its data to a particular NIC, to a multicast address, or to a
broadcast address on the network medium.
§ Token passing – It controls network access by passing an electronic token sequentially to each host.

Media
§ Bandwidth – a) It is defined as the amount of information that can be transmitted in a given period of time; b) measured in
bps (digital) and hertz (analog); c) it is finite and not free; d) It is a key factor in analyzing network performance, designing
new networks, and understanding the Internet; e) its demand is increasing
§ Propagation – is the travelling of bits down the wire.
o Devices at receiving end cannot handle the speed, and data is lost; Solve with buffers on the device or a
message to slow down the transmission rate
§ Attenuation - Loss of signal strength as bits move down a wire (dB); Solved by using repeaters, hubs to amplify the signal
§ Reflection - Reflected energy moves back towards signal, distorting it as bits run into each other; caused by impedance
mismatch; solve by correct wiring
§ Noise – Unwanted addition to a signal; Results in 1s turned into 0s and 0s into 1s. Too much noise can destroy the
message; It is important to keep the signal to noise ratio as high as possible (little noise); It is not possible to avoid noise
altogether
o Thermal
o Reference ground noise
o EMI/RFI
o Crosstalk
§ Ethernet cabling has become the standard for many enterprise networks providing a transmission medium that supports a
much higher transmission capacity. It is susceptible to attenuation, causing the transmission range to be limited to 100
meters.
§ Optical fiber uses light as a means of signal transmission as opposed to electrical signals found within both Ethernet and
coaxial media types.
§ Media, Bandwidth and Length Limitations
 § Serial represents a standard initially developed over 50 years ago to support reliable transmission between devices,
during which time many evolutions of the standard have taken place. It is designed to support the transmission of data as
a serial stream of bits. Example, RS232,
§ WAN Services and Bandwidth

§ Throughput - It refers to actual measured bandwidth at a specific time of day, using specific Internet routes, and while a
specific set of data is transmitted on the network.
§ Factors that determine throughput:
o The physical media
o Hardware capability
o Network Topology
o Type of data being transferred
o Number of users accessing the network
o Network Traffic / Congestion
o Time of day

Communication Modes
§ Communication over networks relies on the application of rules that govern how data is transmitted and processed in a
manner that is understood by both the sending and receiving entities. As a result, multiple standards have been developed
over the course of time with some standards becoming widely adopted. There exists however a clear distinction between
the standards that manage physical data flow and the standards responsible for logical forwarding and delivery of traffic.

§ Simplex Mode – the communication is unidirectional. Only 1 of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other device can
only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction. Example, keyboard
and monitor.

§ Half-duplex Mode - each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the
other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication
in both direction at the same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction. Example: Walkie-
talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both the directions.
§ Full-duplex Mode - In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full duplex mode, signals
going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in other direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
a) Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and other for receiving. b) Or
the capacity is divided between signals travelling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both direction is required all the time. The capacity of the channel,
however must be divided between the two directions. Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication
between two persons by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.