Introduction

Introduction
P. Sam Johnson
August 7, 2019
P. Sam Johnson Introduction August 7, 2019 1/288

About the Course and Instructor
Course Code : MA110
Course Title : Engineering Mathematics - 1
L-T-P : 3-0-0
Credits : 3
Course Instructor : Dr. P. Sam Johnson
Email : nitksam@gmail.com
Website : sam.nitk.ac.in
Department : Mathematical and Computational Sciences

Evaluation Plan
25 % Weightage of Quizzes and Classroom Activities
25 % Weightage of Mid-sem
50 % Weightage of End-sem

Objective of the course
To expose the students to the calculus of two or more variables
limits, continuity, partial differentiation and differentiability

concepts of surface, area, volume through multiple integrals
line integrals and eventually Stokes’ and divergence theorems.
Skill development of the student expected from the course

Understanding the concept of limits, differentiability and integration for
functions of two or more variables ; capability to analyze and solve
problems in integral calculus and vector calculus effectively.

Contents
Functions of Several Variables : Definition, Region in a Plane, Level Curves, Level
Surfaces, Limits, Continuity, Partial Derivatives, Differentiability, Gradients, Directional
Derivatives, Normals to Level Curves and Tangents, Extreme Values and Saddle Points,
Lagrange Multipliers. (Sections 14.1-14.3, 14.5-14.8 ; [1]).
Integral Calculus : Double Integrals, Areas, Double Integrals in Polar Form, Triple
Integrals in Rectangular Coordinates, Triple integrals in Cylindrical and Spherical
coordinates, Substitutions in Multiple Integrals. (Sections 15.1-15.4, 15.6-15.7; [1]).
Vector Calculus : Line Integrals (exclude mass and moment calculations), Vector Fields,
Work, Circulation and Flux, Path Independence, Potential Functions, and Conservative
Fields, Greens Theorem in the Plane, Surface Area and Surface Integrals, (exclude mass
and moments of thin shells), Parametrized Surfaces, Stokes theorem (without proof), The
Divergence theorem (without proof), (exclude Gauss’s Law of Electromagnetic Theory
and the Continuity Equation of Hydrodynamics). (Sections 16.1-16.8; [1]).

Reference Books
1. M.D. Weir, J. Hass and F.R. Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th

Edition, Pearson Publishers.
2. R. Courant and F.John, Introduction to Calculus and Analysis,
Volume II, Springer-Verlag
3. N. Piskunov, Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I & II (Translated
by George Yankovsky).
4. E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Wiley Publishers.

Limits and Continuity
The concept of a limit is fundamental to finding the velocity of a moving

object and the tangent to a curve. We first discuss limits of functions of
single variable. We use limits to describe the way a function varies.
Some functions vary continuously; small changes in x produce only
small changes in f (x).
Other functions can have values that jump, vary erratically, or tend to
increase or decrease without bound.
The notion of limit gives a precise way to distinguish between these
behaviors. Also limits play a major role in calculus and the study of
change.

Average Rates of Change and Secant Lines
We discuss the average rate of change of a function y = f (x) with respect

to x over the interval [x1 , x2 ].
Given an arbitrary function y = f (x), we calculate the average rate of
change of y with respect to x over the interval [x1 , x2 ] by dividing the
change in the value of y , ∆y = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ), by the length
∆x = x2 − x1 = h of the interval over which the change occurs.
Definition 1.
The average rate of change of y = f (x) with respect to x over the
interval [x1 , x2 ] is
∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) f (x1 + h) − f (x1 )
= = , h 6= 0.
∆x x2 − x1 h

Geometrically, the rate of change of f over [x1 , x2 ] is the slope of the line
through the point P(x1 , f (x1 )) and Q(x2 , f (x2 )).
The slope (gradient) of a line is a number that describes both the
direction and the steepness of the line. Slope is calculated by finding the
ratio of the “vertical change” to the “horizontal change” between (any)
two distinct points on a line.
A secant to the graph y = f (x).

Its slope is ∆y /∆x, the average rate
of change of f over the interval
[x1 , x2 ].

Let’s consider what happens as the point Q approaches the point P along
the curve, so the length h of the interval over which the change occurs
approaches zero.
A secant to the graph y = f (x).

Its slope is ∆y /∆x, the average rate
of change of f over the interval
[x1 , x2 ].
In geometry, a line joining two points of a curve is a secant to the curve.

Thus, the average rate of change of f from x1 to x2 is identical with
the slope of secant PQ.

Application
Experimental biologists often want to know the rates at which populations

grow under controlled laboratory conditions.
Example 2 (The Average Growth Rate of a Laboratory
Population).
The following figure shows how a population of fruit flies grew in a 50-day
experiment. The number of flies was counted at regular intervals, the
counted values plotted with respect to time, and the points joined by a
smooth curve. Find the average growth rate from day 23 to day 45.

Solution
There were 150 flies on day 23 and 340 flies on day 45. Thus the number
of flies increased by 340 − 150 = 190 in 45 − 23 = 22 days.
The average rate of change of the population from day 23 to day 45 is
∆p 190
∆t = 22 ≈ 8.6 flies/day.
This average is the slope of the secant through the points P and Q
on the graph.

Growth Rate
The average rate of change from day 23 to day 45 calculated in Example 2

does not tell us how fast the population was changing on day 23
itself.
For that we need to examine time intervals closer to the day in question.
Example 3 (The Growth Rate on Day 23).

How fast was the number of flies in the population of Example 2 growing
on day 23 ?

Solution
To answer this question, we examine the average rates of change over

increasingly short time intervals starting at day 23.
In geometric terms, we find these rates by calculating the slopes of secants
from P to Q, for a sequence of points Q approaching P along the curve.

Solution (contd...)
We can observe the following from the table and the graph.
1. As the t-coordinate of Q decreases from 45 to 30, the secant slopes
rise from 8.6 to 16.4. Hence we would expect the slopes to rise
slightly higher as t continued on toward 23.
2. Geometrically, the secants rotate about P and seem to approach the
red line in the figure, a line that goes through P in the same direction
that the curve goes through P. We will see that this line is called the
tangent to the curve at P.
Solution (contd...)
Since the line appears to pass through the points (14, 0) and (35, 350), it
has slope
350 − 0
= 16.6 flies/day (approximately).
35 − 14
Thus, on day 23, the population was increasing at a rate of about
16.7 flies/day.

Exercises
Exercises 4.
Find the average rate of change of the function over the given interval or
intervals.
1. f (x) = x 3 + 1
(a) [2, 3] (b) [−1, 1]
2. h(t) = cot t
(a) [π/4, 3π/4] (b) [π/6, π/2]

√
3. R(θ) = 4θ + 1 ; [0, 2]
4. P(θ) = θ3 − 4θ2 + 5θ ; [1, 2]

Solutions
28−9 2−0
1. (a) 3−2 = 19 (b) 1+1 =1
√ √
−1−1 −4 0− 3 −3 3
2. (a) π/2 = π (b) π/3 = π
3−1
3. 2 =1
4. 2 − 2 = 0.

Slope of the line
Geometrically, the rate of change of f over [x1 , x2 ] is the slope of the line
through the point P(x1 , f (x1 )) and Q(x2 , f (x2 )).
The slope (gradient) of a line is a number that describes both the
direction and the steepness of the line. Slope is calculated by finding the
ratio of the “vertical change” to the “horizontal change” between (any)
two distinct points on a line.
The slope of a straight line tells us the rate at which it rises or falls.
If there is a tangent line to the curve at P (a line that just touches the
curve like the tangent to a circle), it would be reasonable to identify the
slope of the tangent as the slope of the curve at P.

Tangency for circles
A line L is tangent to a circle at a point P if L passes through P

perpendicular to the radius at P.
Such a line just touches the circle.

Tangency for general curves
The following steps tell us an approach that takes into account the
behavior of the secants through P and nearby points Q as Q moves
toward P along the curve.
1. Start with what we can calculate, namely the slope of the secant PQ.
2. Investigate the limiting value of the secant slope as Q approaches P
along the curve.
3. If the limit exists, take it to be the slope of the curve at P and define
the tangent to the curve at P to be the line through P with this slope.

Tangency for general curves
The following figure illustrates the geometric idea for the tangent to a
curve.
The tangent to the curve at P is the line through P whose slope is the
limit of the secant slopes as Q moves towards P along the curve from
either side (denoted by Q → P).

Example
Example 5.
Find the slope of the parabola
y = x2
at the point P(2, 4). Write an equation for the tangent to the parabola at
this point?

Solution
We begin with a secant line through P(2, 4) and Q(2 + h, (2 + h)2 ) nearby.
∆y (2 + h)2 − 22
Secant slope = = = h + 4.
∆x h
If h > 0, then Q lies above and to the right of P.
If h < 0, then Q lies to the left of P.
In either case, as Q approaches P along the curve, h approaches zero and
the secant slope h + 4 approaches 4. We take 4 to be the parabola’s slope
at P.

Solution (contd...)
Tangent Line :
The tangent to the parabola at P is the line through P with slope 4:
y − 4 = 4(x − 2)
hence y = 4x − 4.

Exercises
Exercise 6.
Use the method in Example 5 to find
(a) the slope of the curve at the given point P, and
(b) an equation of the tangent line at P.
1. y = x 2 − 3, P(2, 1)
2. y = x2 − 4x, P(1, −3)
3. y = x 3 − 3x 2 + 4, P(2, 0).

Solution
1. (a) Slope is 4
(b) y = 4x − 7
2. (a) Slope is −2
(b) y = −2x − 1
3. (a) Slope is 0
(b) y = 0

Limiting of Function Values
Let f (x) be defined on an open interval about x0 , except possibly at x0

itself.
If f (x) gets arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) for all x
sufficiently close to x0 , we say that f approaches the limit L as x
approaches x0 , we write
lim f (x) = L,
x→x0
which is read “the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 is L00 .

Essentially, the definition says that the values of f (x) are close to the
number L whenever x is close to x0 (on either side of x0 ).

“Informal” Definition of Limit
This definition is “informal” because phrases like arbitrarily close and

sufficiently close are imprecise ; their meaning depends on the context.
To a machinist manufacturing a piston, close may mean within a few
thousandths of an inch.
To an astronomer studying distant galaxies, close may mean within a few
thousand light-years.
To a mathematician, “close” may mean something in ε (epsilon) and δ
(delta) which, in general, students don’t like to use them.

Behavior of a Function Near a Point
Example 7.
How does the function
x2 − 1
f (x) =
x −1
behave near x = 1 ?

Solution
The given formula defines f for all real number x except x = 1 (we cannot
divide by zero).
For any x 6= 1, we can simplify the formula by factoring the numerator and
canceling common factors :
f (x) = x + 1 for x 6= 1.

Solution (contd...)
The graph of f is thus the line y = x + 1 with the point (1, 2) removed.
The removal point is shown as a “hole” in the figure. Even though f (1) is
not defined, it is clear that we can make the value of f (x) as close as we
want to 2 by choosing x close enough to f .
The graph of f is identical with the line y = x + 1 except at x = 1, where

f is not defined.

Solution (contd...)
We say that f (x) approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1, and write

x2 − 1
lim f (x) = 2, or lim = 2.
x→1 x→1 x − 1

The limit value does not depend on how the function is
defined at x0
f has limit 2 as x → 1 even g has limit 2 as x → 1 even h has limit 2 as x → 1 which

though f is not defined at though 2 6= g (1). equals the value of h at
x = 1. x = 1.
The limits of f (x), g (x), and h(x) all equal 2 as x approaches 1. However,
only h(x) has the same function value as its limit at x = 1.

Some functions have limits at every point.
If f is the identity function f (x) = x, then for any value of x0 ,
lim f (x) = lim x = x0 .

x→x0 x→x0

Some functions have limits at every point.
If f is the constant function f (x) = k (function with the constant value

k), then for any value of x0 ,
lim f (x) = lim k = k.

x→x0 x→x0

Functions may fail to have a limit at a point in its domain.
The function U defined by

(
0 if x < 0
U(x) =
1 if x ≥ 0
is the unit step function which has

no limit as x → 0 because its
values jump at x = 0.
For negative values of x arbitrarily close to zero, U(x) = 0.
For positive values of x arbitrarily close to zero, U(x) = 1.
There is no single value L approached by U(x) as x → 0.

The function g defined by

(
1/x if x 6= 0
g (x) =
0 if x = 0
grows too large to have a limit.
g (x) has no limit as x → 0 because the values of g grow arbitrarily

large in absolute value as x → 0 and do not stay close to any real
number.

The function f defined by

(
0 if x ≤ 0
f (x) = 1
sin x if x > 0
oscillates too much to have a

limit.
f (x) has no limit as x → 0 because the function’s values oscillate

between +1 and −1 in every open interval containing 0.
The values do not stay close to any one number as x → 0.

Using Calculators and Computers to Estimate Limits
Using a calculator or computer, one may guess a limit numerically as x

gets closer and closer to x0 . That procedure would be successful for the
limits of functions having equality of “limit” and “function value at
the point”.
However, calculators and computers can give false values and
misleading impressions for functions that are undefined at a point or fail
to have a limit there.
The differential calculus will help us to know when a calculator or
computer is providing strange or ambiguous information about a function’s
behavior near some point.
For now, we simply need to be attentive to the fact that pitfalls may occur
when using computing devices to guess the value of a limit.

Guessing a limit
Example 8.
Guess the value of
√
x 2 + 100 − 10
lim .
x→0 x2

Solution

What is the answer?
The table lists values of the function for several values near x = 0.
As x approaches 0 through the values ±1, ±0.5, ±0.10, and ±0.01, the
function seems to approach the number 0.05.
As we take ever smaller values of x, ±0.0005, ±0.0001, ±0.00001, and
±0.000001, the function appears to approach the value 0.
So what is the answer? Is it 0.05 or 0, or some other value?
The calculator/computer values are ambiguous, but the theorems on limits
will confirm the correct limit value to be 0.05.
We shall now recall few theorems on limits.

Theorems on Limits
Using a calculator or computer, one may guess a limit numerically as x

gets closer and closer to x0 . That procedure would be successful for the
limits of functions having equality of “limit” and “function value at
the point”.
However, calculators and computers can give false values and
misleading impressions for functions that are undefined at a point or fail
to have a limit there. We discussed an example (in the last lecture) to
conclude that the calculator/computer values are ambiguous.
In the lecture, we shall see some theorems for calculating limits. They tell
how to calculate limits of functions that are arithmetic combinations of
functions whose limits we already know.

Limit Laws : Sum and Difference Rules
Theorem 9 (Sum and Difference Rules).

Let L, M and c be real numbers and
lim f (x) = L and lim g (x) = M.

x→c x→c
1. The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits.
n o
lim f (x) + g (x) = L + M.
x→c
2. The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of

their limits.
n o
lim f (x) − g (x) = L − M.
x→c

Limit Laws : Product and Constant Multiple Rules
Theorem 10 (Product and Constant Multiple Rules).

Let L, M, c and k be real numbers and
lim f (x) = L and lim g (x) = M.

x→c x→c
1. The limit of the product of two functions is the product of their

limits.
n o
lim f (x)g (x) = LM.
x→c
2. The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times

the limit of the function.
n o
lim k f (x) = k L.
x→c

Limit Law : Quotient Rule
Theorem 11 (Quotient Rule).

Let L, M and c be real numbers and
lim f (x) = L and lim g (x) = M 6= 0.

x→c x→c
The limit of a quotient of two functions is the quotient of their

limits, provided the limit of the denominator is not zero.
f (x) L
lim = , M 6= 0.
x→c g (x) M

Limit Law : Power Rule
Theorem 12 (Power Rule).

Let L and c be real numbers and
lim f (x) = L.
x→c
If n is a positive integer, then

n
lim f (x) = Ln .
x→c

Limit Law : Root Rule
Theorem 13 (Root Rule).

lim f (x) = L.
x→c
If n is a positive integer, then

p
n
√
n
lim f (x) = L.
x→c
If n is even, we assume that limx→c f (x) = L > 0.

Limit Law
Combining the above two theorems, we have the following.

Theorem 14.
lim f (x) = L.
x→c
If r and s are integers with no common factor and s 6= 0, then

r /s
lim f (x) = Lr /s
x→c
provided that Lr /s is a real number. (If s is even, we assume that L > 0.)
The limit of a rational power of a function is that power of the limit

of the function, provided the latter is a real number.

Limit Law : Power Rule
Example 15.
Use the theorems on limits to find the following limits.
1. limx→c (x 3 + 4x 2 − 3)
x 4 +x 2 −1
2. limx→c x 2 +5
√
3. limx→−2 4x 2 − 3

Solution
1. Apply the rules in the following order.
(a) Sum and Difference Rules
(b) Power and Multiple Rules
Hence the limit is c 3 + 4c 2 − 3.
(a) Quotient Rule
(b) Sum and Difference Rules
(c) Power or Product Rule
c 4 +c 2 −1
Hence the limit is c 2 +5
.
(a) Root Rule with n = 2
(b) Difference Rules
(c) Product and Multiple Rules
√
Hence the limit is 13.

Limits of polynomials can be found by substitution.
To evaluate the limit of a polynomial function as x approaches c, merely

substitute c for x in the formula for the function.
Theorem 16.
If P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a0 , then
lim P(x) = P(c) = an c n + an−1 c n−1 + · · · + a0 .

x→c

Limits of rational functions can be found by substitution
provided the limit of the denominator is not zero.
To evaluate the limit of a rational function as x approaches a point c at

which the denominator is not zero, substitute c for x in the formula for
the function.
Theorem 17.
If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(c) 6= 0, then
P(x) P(c)
lim = .
x→c Q(x) Q(c)

Eliminating zero denominators algebraically
P(x)
If the numerator P(x) and denominator Q(x) of a rational function Q(x)
of x are both zero at x = c, they have (x − c) as a common factor.
Canceling common factors in the numerator and denominator, the
expression may be reduced to the one whose denominator is no longer zero
at c.
If this happens, we can find the limit by substitution in the simplified
fraction.
Example 18.
Evaluate
x2 + x − 2
lim .
x→1 x2 − x

Solution
Canceling the (x − 1)’s gives a simple fraction with the same values as the
original for x 6= 1:
x2 + x − 2 x +2
2
= , if x 6= 1.
x −x x
Using the simple fraction, we find the limit of these values as x → 1 by
substitution:
x2 + x − 2 x +2 1+2
lim = = = 3.
x→1 x2 − x x 1

Solution (contd..)
2
The graph of f (x) = x x+x−2
2 −x is the same as the graph of g (x) = x+2
x
except at x = 1, where f is undefined.
The functions have the same limit at x → 1.

Creating and canceling a common factor
Example 19.
Evaluate
√
x 2 + 100 − 10
lim .
x→0 x2

Solution

Solution (contd...)
The table lists values of the function for several values near x = 0.
As x approaches 0 through the values ±1, ±0.5, ±0.10, and ±0.01, the
function seems to approach the number 0.05.
As we take ever smaller values of x, ±0.0005, ±0.0001, ±0.00001, and
±0.000001, the function appears to approach the value 0.
So what is the answer? Is it 0.05 or 0, or some other value?

Solution (contd...)
The calculator/computer values are ambiguous, but we can create a

common factor by multiplying both
√ numerator and denominator by the
conjugate radical expression x 2 + 100 + 10 (obtained by changing the
sign after the square root). We get
√ √ √
x 2 + 100 − 10 x 2 + 100 − 10 x 2 + 100 + 10
= .√
x2 x2 x 2 + 100 + 10
1
= √ .
2
x + 100 + 10
Therefore
√
x 2 + 100 − 10 1
lim 2
= = 0.05.
x→0 x 20
This calculation provides the correct answer, in contrast to the ambiguous
computer results discussed in the beginning of the solution.

Creating and canceling a common factor
Example 20.
Evaluate
√
4− 16 + x
lim .
x→0 x

Solution
We cannot substitute x = 0 and the numerator and denominator have no

obvious common factors.
However, we can create a common factor√ by multiplying both numerator
and denominator by the expression 4 + 16 + x.
√ √ √
4 − 16 + x 4 − 16 + x 4 + 16 + x
= . √
x x 4 + 16 + x
−1
= √ .
4 + 16 + x
Therefore,
√
4− 16 + x −1
lim = √lim .
x→0 x x→0 4 + 16 + x
−1
= .
8

Sandwich Theorem
Sandwich Theorem refers to a function f whose values are sandwiched

between the values of two other functions g and h that have the same
limit L at a point c.
Being trapped between the values of two functions that approach L,
the values of f must also approach L.

Sandwich Theorem
Theorem 21.
Suppose that g (x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x) for all x in some open interval
containing c, except possibly at x = c itself. Suppose that
lim g (x) = lim h(x) = L.

x→c x→c
Then limx→c f (x) = L.

The Sandwich Theorem is also called the Squeeze Theorem or the
Pinching Theorem.
The graph of f is sandwiched

between the graphs of g and h.

Sandwich Theorem
We do not need the inequality to hold true for all values of x, except
possibly at x = c itself. We only need it to hold true on some open interval
containing c, except possibly at x = c itself (we call it, a punctured
neighborhood of c) so that we may apply the Sandwich Theorem.
The symbol, “≤” means that “less than”, or “equal to.” If we have
g (x) < f (x) < h(x)
or
g (x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x),
then as long as we have
lim g (x) = lim h(x) = L

x→c x→c
we may apply the Sandwich Theorem.

Example
Example 22.
Given that
x2 x2
1− ≤ u(x) ≤ 1 + for all x 6= 0,
4 2
find limx→0 u(x), no matter how complicated u is.

Solution
Since
x2 x2
lim 1 − =1 and lim 1 + = 1,
x→0 4 x→0 2
the Sandwich Theorem implies that limx→0 u(x) = 1.

Sandwich Theorem
Example 23.
The Sandwich Theorem helps us establish several important limit rules :
1. limθ→0 sin θ = 0
2. limθ→0 cos θ = 1
3. For any function f , limx→c |f (x)| = 0 implies that limx→c f (x) = 0.

Solution
(a) −|θ| ≤ sin θ ≤ |θ|, for all θ 6= 0. (b) 0 ≤ |θ| ≤ 1 − cos θ, for all θ 6= 0.
(c) Since −|f (x)| ≤ f (x) ≤ |f (x)| and −|f (x)| and |f (x)| have limit 0 as
x → c, it follows that
lim f (x) = 0.
x→0

An important property
Theorem 24.
If
f (x) ≤ g (x)
for all x in some open interval containing c, except possibly at x = c itself,

and the limits of f and g both exist as x approaches c, then
lim f (x) ≤ lim g (x).

x→c x→c

An important property
The assertion resulting from replacing the less than or equal to (≤)
inequality by the strict less than (<) inequality in the above Theorem is
false.
The following figure shows that for θ 6= 0,
−|θ| < sin θ < |θ|,
but in the limit as θ → 0, equality holds.

Exercises
Exercises 25.
For the function f (t) graphed here, find the following limits or explain why
they do not exist.
(a) limt→−2 f (t) (c) limt→0 f (t)

(b) limt→−1 f (t) (d) limt→0.5 f (t).

Solutions
(a) 0
(b) −1
(c) Does not exist.
As t approaches 0, from the left, f (t) approaches −1.
As t approaches 0, from the right, f (t) approaches 1.
(d) 1.

Exercises
Exercises 26.
Which of the following statements about the function y = f (x) graphed
here are true, and which are false?
1. limx→2 f (x) does not exist.
2. limx→2 f (x) = 2.
3. limx→1 f (x) does not exist.
4. limx→x0 f (x) exists at every point x0 in (−1, 1).
5. limx→x0 f (x) exists at every point x0 in (1, 3).

Solutions
1. False
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. True

Exercises
Exercises 27.
Explain why the following limits do not exist.
x
1. limx→0 |x|
1
2. limx→1 x−1

Solutions
x x
1. limx→0 |x| does not exist because |x| = 1 if x > 0 and
x
|x| = −1 if x < 0.
x
As x approaches 1, from the left, |x| approaches −1.
x
As x approaches 1, from the right, |x| approaches 1.
1
2. As x approaches 1, from the left, the values of x−1 become
increasingly large and negative.
1
As x approaches 1, from the right, the values of x−1 become
increasingly large and positive.

Exercises
Exercise 28.
Suppose that a function f (x) is defined for all x in [−1, 1]. Can anything
be said about the existence of
lim f (x) ?
x→0
Give reasons for your answer.

Solution
Nothing can be said.

In order for
lim f (x)
x→0
to exist, f (x) must close to a single value for x near 0 regardless of the
value f (0) itself.

Exercises
Exercise 29.
If f (1) = 5, must limx→1 f (x) exist? If it does, then must
lim f (x) = 5 ?
x→1
Can we conclude anything about
lim f (x) ?
x→1
Explain.

Solution
Nothing can be said because the existence of a limit depends on the value
of f (x) when x is near 1, not on f (1) itself.
If limx→1 f (x) exists, its value may be some number other than f (1) = 5.
We can conclude nothing about f (1) from
lim f (x) = 5.
x→1

Exercises
Exercises 30.
Find the following :
1. limx→−7 (2x + 5) 7. limx→1 √ x−1

x+3−2
3
2. limh→0 √3h+1+1 4−x
8. limx→4 √
3. limz→0 (2z − 8)1/3 5− x 2 +9
4. lims→2/3 3s(2s − 1) 9. limx→0 sin2 x

1
−1 √
5. limx→1 x
x−1 10. limx→−π x + 4 cos(x + π)
1
+ 1
6. limx→0 x−1 x x+1 11. limx→0 (x 2 − 1)(2 − cos x)

Solutions
1. −9 7. 4
2. 3/2 8. 5/4
3. −2
9. 0
4. 2/3 √
5. −1 10. 4 − π
6. −2 11. −1

Exercises
Exercise 31.
If
p p
5 − 2x 2 ≤ f (x) ≤ 5 − x 2
for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, find
lim f (x).
x→0

Solution
√ √ √ √
limx→0 5 − 2x 2 = 5 and limx→0 5 − x2 = 5.
By Sandwich Theorem,
√
lim f (x) = 5.
x→0

Exercises
Exercise 32.
It can be shown that the inequalities
x2 x sin x
1− < <1
6 2 − 2 cos x
hold for all values of x close to zero. What, if anything, does this tell you
about
x sin x
lim ?
x→0 2 − 2 cos x

Solution
Given that the inequalities

x2 x sin x
1− < <1
6 2 − 2 cos x
hold for all values of x close to zero.
We can find an open interval containing 0, except possibly at x = 0 itself
in which the above inequalities hold true.
2

Also, limx→0 1 − x6 = 1 and limx→0 1 = 1.
x sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 2 − 2 cos x

Exercises
Exercise 33.
If
f (x) − 5
lim = 1,
x→4 x −2
find
lim f (x).
x→4

Solution
f (x) − 5
1 = lim
x→4 x − 2
limx→4 f (x) − limx→4 5
=
limx→4 x − limx→4 2
Hence
lim f (x) = 7.
x→4

Exercises
Exercise 34.
If
f (x)
lim = 1,
x→0 x2
find
1. limx→0 f (x)
f (x)
2. limx→0 x .

Solution
f (x)
1. limx→0 f (x) = limx→0 x2
limx→0 x 2 = 1.0 = 0
f (x)
2. limx→0 x = limx→0 f x(x)
2 limx→0 x = 1.0 = 0

Exercises
Exercise 35.
1. Graph
g (x) = x sin(1/x)
to estimate
lim g (x),
x→0
zooming in on the origin as necessary.

2. Confirm your estimate in part (a) with a proof.

Solution
1. limx→0 x sin(1/x) = 0
2. −1 ≤ sin x1 ≤ 1 for x 6= 0.
Since x > 0 =⇒ −x ≤ x sin x1 ≤ x, by Sandwich Theorem,
lim x sin(1/x) = 0.
x→0
Since x < 0 =⇒ −x ≥ x sin x1 ≥ x, by Sandwich Theorem,
lim x sin(1/x) = 0.
x→0
Exercises
Exercise 36.
1. Graph
h(x) = x 2 cos(1/x 3 )
to estimate
lim h(x),
x→0
zooming in on the origin as necessary.

2. Confirm your estimate in part (a) with a proof.

Solution
1. limx→0 x 2 cos(1/x 3 ) = 0
2. Since −1 ≤ cos x13 ≤ 1 for x 6= 0, −x 2 ≤ x 2 cos(1/x 3 ) ≤ x 2 .

lim x 2 cos(1/x 3 ) = 0.
x→0

Definition of a limit
We now recall the following “informal definition” of a limit.

If f (x) gets arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) for all x
sufficiently close to x0 , we say that f approaches the limit L as x
approaches x0 , we write
lim f (x) = L.
x→x0
This definition is “informal” because phrases like arbitrarily close and

sufficiently close are imprecise ; their meaning depends on the context.

Limit of a function
Definition 37.
Let f (x) be defined on an open interval about x0 , except possibly at x0
itself. We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 is the number
L, and write
lim f (x) = L
x→x0
if, for every number ε > 0, there exists a corresponding number δ > 0 such
that for all x,
0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.
The formal definition of limit does not tell how to find the limit of a
function, but its enables us to verify that a suspected limit is
correct.

Limit of a function

For a given ε (challenge), we find δ (response)
Challenge : For a given ε, we

should make
|f (x) − L| < ε.
Response : We should find δ, such

that whenever x satisfying
0 < |x − x0 | < δ,
f (x) has to satisfy
|f (x) − L| < ε.

Example : Testing Definition
The following example shows how the definition can be used to verify limit
statement for specific functions.




If ε is not given to be any specific number, then what is δ?

We may find algebraically a δ for a given f , L, x0 and ε > 0.

How to find algebraically a δ for a given f , L, x0 and ε > 0
The process of finding a δ > 0 such that for all x
0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε
can be accomplished in two steps.

1. Step : 1 Solve the inequality |f (x) − L| < ε to find an open interval
(a, b) containing x0 on which the inequality holds for all x 6= x0 .
2. Step : 2 Find a value of δ > 0 that places the open interval
(x0 − δ, x0 + δ) centered at x0 inside the interval (a, b). The
inequality |f (x) − L| < ε will hold for all x 6= x0 in this δ-interval.

Different Notations : Neighborhoods
For a fixed real number L and a positive real number ε, we call the set
n o
y : |y − L| < ε
an ε-neighborhood of L, denoted by N(L, ε).

Whereas the set
n o
y : 0 < |y − L| < ε
is called a deleted (punctured) ε-neighborhood of L, denoted by

Nd (L, ε). Note that Nd (L, ε) = N(L, ε) \ {L}.
Let A be a subset of R (the set of all real numbers). A point x0 is said to
be an accumulation point of a set A if any neighborhood of x0 contains
an element of A distinct from x0 .

Rephrasing the ε − δ definition of a limit in terms of
neighborhoods.
Definition 38.
Let f : D → R, where D ⊆ R, and suppose that x0 ∈ R is an
accumulation point of D. Then
lim f (x) = L
x→x0
if and only if for every neighborhood V of L, there is a punctured

neighborhood U of x0 such that
x ∈D ∩U implies that f (x) ∈ V .
There is an equivalent “sequential characterization” of the limit, which

will be discussed later.

Example
Example 39.
Show that
lim (5x − 3) = 2.
x→1

Solution
Let ε > 0 be given.

For x 6= 1, we have f (x) = 5x − 3, and we need to solve the inequality
|(5x − 3) − 2| < ε. (1)
The inequality (1) becomes
|x − 1| < ε/5.
Thus, we can δ to be ε/5, or, any positive number less that ε/5. Here, we
take δ = ε/5.
If 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then |(5x − 3) − 2| = |5x − 5| = 5|x − 1| < 5(ε/5) = ε.

Example : Limit of the identity function
Example 40.
Prove that
lim x = x0 .
x→x0

Solution
Let ε > 0 be given. We must find δ > 0 such that for all x
0 < |x − x0 | < δ implies |x − x0 | < ε.
The implication will hold if δ equals ε or any positive number smaller than
ε.
This proves that
lim x = x0 .
x→x0

Example : Limit of the constant function
Example 41.
Prove that
lim k = k (any constant).

x→x0

Solution
Let ε > 0 be given. We must find δ > 0 such that for all x
0 < |x − x0 | < δ implies |k − k| < ε.
Since k − k = 0, we can use any positive number for δ and implication will
hold.
This proves that
lim k = k.
x→x0

Example
Example 42.
For the limit
√
lim x −1=2
x→5
find a δ > 0 that works for ε = 1.
That is, find a δ > 0 such that for all x

√
0 < |x − 5| < δ =⇒ | x − 1 − 2| < 1.

Solution
√
Step 1 We first solve the inequality | x − 1 − 2| < 1 to find an interval
containing 5 on which the inequality holds for all x 6= 5.
√
| x − 1 − 2| < 1
√
−1 < x − 1 − 2 < 1
2 < x < 10.
The inequality holds for all x in the open interval (2, 10), so it holds for all
x 6= 5 in this interval as well.

Solution (contd...)
Step 2
Find a value of δ > 0 to place the centered interval 5 − δ < x < 5 + δ
(centered at x0 = 5) inside the interval (2, 10). The distance from 5 to the
nearer endpoint of (2, 10) is 3.
If we take δ = 3, or any positive number less than 3, then for all x
√
0 < |x − 5| < 3 implies | x − 1 − 2| < 1.

Example
Example 43.
If
(
x2 if x 6= 2
f (x) =
1 if x = 2,
prove that
lim f (x) = 4.
x→2

Solution

Step 1 We first solve the inequality |x 2 − 4| < ε to find an interval
containing 2 on which the inequality holds for all x 6= 2.
|x 2 − 4| < ε
4 − ε < x2 < 4 + ε
As ε is a positive number, we now discuss the case when ε < 4.

Case : ε < 4
|x 2 − 4| < ε
√ √
4 − ε < |x| < 4 + ε
√ √
4 − ε < x < 4 + ε.
√ √
The inequality holds for all x 6= 2 in the open interval ( 4 − ε, 4 + ε).

Solution (contd...)
Step 2
We now find a δ > 0 that places the centered interval (2 − δ, 2 + δ) inside
the interval
√ √
( 4 − ε, 4 + ε).
Take
√ δ to√be the distance from x0 = 2 to the nearer endpoint of
( 4 − ε, 4 + ε).
n √ √ o
In other words, take δ = min 2 − 4 − ε, 4 + ε − 2 , or, any positive
number smaller than this minimum. For all x,
0 < |x − 2| < δ implies |f (x) − 4| < ε.
This completes the proof for ε < 4.

Solution (contd...)
Case : ε ≥ 4
|x 2 − 4| < ε
4 − ε < x2 < 4 + ε
0 < x2 < 4 + ε
√
0 < x < 4 + ε.
Take
√ δ to be the distance from x0 = 2 to the nearer endpoint of
(0, 4 + ε).
n √ o
In other words, take δ = min 2, 4 + ε − 2 , or, any positive number
smaller than this minimum. For all x,
0 < |x − 2| < δ implies |f (x) − 4| < ε.
This completes the proof.

Using the definition to prove theorems
We do not usually rely on the formal definition of limit to verify specific

limits. Rather we appeal to general theorems about limits.
The definition is used to prove these theorems.
Example 44 (Proving the rule for the limit of a sum).

Given that limx→c f (x) = L and limx→c g (x) = M, prove that
n o
lim f (x) + g (x) = L + M.
x→c

Solution

We want to find a positive number δ such that for all x,
0 < |x − c| < δ implies |f (x) + g (x) − (L + M)| < ε.
We have
|f (x) + g (x) − (L + M)| ≤ |f (x) − L| + |g (x) − M|.
From the previous inequality, to get
|f (x) + g (x) − (L + M)| < ε
it is observed that we can apply the definition of limit for ε/2 to the limits
L, M for the functions f (x), g (x) respectively.

Solution (contd...)
Since limx→c f (x) = L, there exists a positive number δ1 such that for all
x,
0 < |x − c| < δ1 implies |f (x) − L| < ε/2.
Similarly, since limx→c g (x) = M, there exists a positive number δ2 such

that for all x,
0 < |x − c| < δ2 implies |g (x) − M| < ε/2.

Solution (contd...)
n o
Let δ = min δ1 , δ2 , or any positive number smaller than the minimum.
If 0 < |x − c| < δ, then
|x − c| < δ1 , so |f (x) − L| < ε/2,
and
|x − c| < δ2 , so |g (x) − M| < ε/2.
Therefore
|f (x) + g (x) − (L + M)| ≤ ε/2 + ε/2 = ε.
This shows that

n o
lim f (x) + g (x) = L + M.
x→c

Showing L is not a limit.
What is a number L not the limit of f (x) as x → x0 ?

We can prove that limx→x0 f (x) 6= L by providing an ε > 0 such that no
possible δ > 0 satisfies the condition
for all x, 0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.

Showing L is not a limit.
We accomplish this for our candidate ε by showing that for each each
δ > 0 there exists a value of x such that
0 < |x − x0 | < δ and |f (x) − L| ≥ ε.

Exercises
Exercise 45.
Sketch the interval (a, b) on the x-axis with the point x0 inside. Then find
a value of δ > 0 such that for all x, 0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ a < x < b.
1. a = 1, b = 7, x0 = 5
2. a = −7/2, b = −1/2, x0 = −3
3. a = 2.7591, b = 3.2391, x0 = 3

Solution
1. |x − 5| < δ =⇒ −δ + 5 < x < δ + 5.

Since a = 1, −δ + 5 = 1 gives δ = 4. Since b = 7, δ + 5 = 7 gives
δ = 2. The value of δ which assures |x − 5| < δ =⇒ 1 < x < 7 is
the min{4, 2} = 2.
2. The value of δ which assures |x − (−3)| < δ =⇒ − 27 < x < − 12 is

the min{ 52 , 21 } = 12 .
3. The value of δ which assures |x − 3| < δ =⇒ 2.7591 < x < 3.2391

is the min{0.2391, 2.7591} = 0.2391.

Exercises
Exercise 46.
Use the graph to find a δ > 0 such that for all x
0 < |x − 1| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − 1| < ε.

Solution
From the graph, the value of δ which assures
|x − 1| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − 1| < ε
is the
n9 7o 7
min , = .
16 16 16

Exercises
Exercise 47.
0 < |x − 1| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − 3| < ε.

Solution
|x − 1| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − 3| < ε
is the
n 2 − √3 √5 − 2 o √5 − 2
min , = .
2 2 2

Exercises
Exercise 48.
0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.

Solution
|x − 1/2| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − 2| < ε
is the
n 1 1 1 1 o 1 1
min − , − = − .
1.99 2 2 2.01 2 2.01

Exercises
Exercise 49.
Each of the following exercises gives a function f (x) and numbers L, x0 ,
and ε > 0. In each case, find an open interval about x0 on which the
inequality |f (x) − L| < ε holds. Then give a value for δ > 0 such that for
all x satisfying 0 < |x − x0 | < δ the inequality |f (x) − L| < ε holds.
1. f (x) = x + 1, L = 5, x0 = 4, ε = 0.01
√
2. f (x) = x − 7, L = 4, x0 = 23, ε = 1
3. f (x) = 1/x, L = −1, x0 = −1, ε = 0.1
4. f (x) = mx + b, m > 0, L = (m/2) + b, x0 = 1/2, ε=c >0

Solution
1. δ = 0.01
2. δ = 7
1
3. δ = 11
c
4. δ = m

Exercises
Exercise 50.
Each of the following exercises gives a function f (x), a point x0 , and a
positive number ε. Find L = limx→x0 f (x). Then find a number δ > 0 such
that for all x
0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.
1. f (x) = 3 − 2x, x0 = 3, ε = 0.02

x 2 +6x+5
2. f (x) = x+5 , x0 = −5, ε = 0.05
3. f (x) = 4/x, x0 = 2, ε = 0.4

Solution
1. δ = 0.01
2. δ = 0.05
1
3. δ = 3

Exercises
Exercise 51.
Prove the limit statements in the following statement.
1. limx→4 (9 − x) = 5
2. limx→−2 f (x) = 4 if
(
x2 6 −2
ifx =
f (x) =
1 ifx = −2
3. limx→0 f (x) = 0 if
(
2x ifx < 0
f (x) =
x/2 ifx ≥ 0

Solution
1. δ = min{4ε − ε2 , 4ε + ε2 } = 4ε − ε2
√ √
2. δ = min{ 4 + ε − 2, 2 − 4 − ε}
ε
3. δ = 2

Exercises
Exercise 52.
Prove the following limit statement.
1
lim x 2 sin = 0.
x→0 x

Solution
By the figure,
1
−x 2 ≤ x 2 sin ≤ x2
x
for all x except possibly at x = 0.
Since
lim (−x 2 ) = 0 = lim x 2 ,

x→0 x→0
then by the Sandwich Theorem,

1
lim x 2 sin = 0.
x→0 x

Exercises
Exercise 53.
Prove that
lim f (x) = L ⇐⇒ lim f (h + c) = L.

x→c h→0

Solution
Write x = h + c.
Then
0 < |x − c| < δ =⇒ 0 < |h − 0| < δ.
The following are equivalent :

1. limx→c f (x) = L
2. for any ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that |f (x) − L| < ε whenever
0 < |x − c| < δ.
3. for any ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that |f (h + c) − L| < ε
whenever 0 < |h − 0| < δ.
4. limh→0 f (h + c) = L.

One-sided limits
We now extend the limit concept to one-sided limits, which are limits as
x approaches the number c
from the left-hand side (where x < c)
or
the right-hand side (x > c) only.

One-sided limits
To have a limit L as x approaches c, a function f must be defined on

both sides of c and its values f (x) must approach L as x approaches c
from either side. Because of this, ordinary limits are called two-sided.
If f fails to have a two-sided limit as c, it may still have a one-sided limit,
that is, a limit if the approach is only from one side.
If the approach is from the right, the limit is a right-hand limit.
From the left, it is a left-hand limit.

One-sided limits
The function f (x) = x/|x| has limit 1 as x approaches 0 from the right,
and limit −1 as x approaches 0 from the left.
Since these one-sided limit values are not the same, there is no single
number that f (x) approaches 0. So f (x) does not have a (two-sided) limit
at 0.

Right-hand limit
If f (x) is defined on an interval (c, b), where c < b, and approaches

arbitrarily close to L as x approaches c from within that interval, then f
has right-hand limit L at c.
We write
lim f (x) = L.
x→c +
The symbol “x → c + ” means that

we consider only values of x greater
than c.

Left-hand limit
If f (x) is defined on an interval (a, c), where a < c, and approaches

arbitrarily close to M as x approaches c from within that interval, then f
has left-hand limit M at c.
We write
lim f (x) = M.
x→c −
The symbol “x → c − ” means that

we consider only values of x less
than c.

Example
Example 54.
√
The domain of f (x) = 4 − x 2 in [−2, 2]. We have
p p
lim+ 4 − x 2 = 0 and lim 4 − x 2 = 0.
x→2 x→2−
The function does not have a

left-hand limit at x = −2 or a
right-hand limit at x = 2. It does
not have ordinary two-sided limits
at either −2 or 2.

Properties of one-sided limits
One-sided limits have all the properties dicussed in the last lecture.
The right-hand limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their
right-hand limits, and so on.
The theorems for limits of polynomials and rational functions hold with
one-sided limits, as does the Sandwich Theorem.

One-sided limits are related to limits
One-sided limits are related to limits in the following way.

Theorem 55.
A function f (x) has a limit as x approaches c if and only if it has left-hand
and right hand limits there and these one-sided limits are equal :
lim f (x) = L ⇐⇒ lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L.

x→c x→c − x→c +

Exercises
Exercise 56.
If
x 4 ≤ f (x) ≤ x 2
for x in [−1, 1] and
x 2 ≤ f (x) ≤ x 4
for x < −1 and x > 1, at what points c do you automatically know
lim f (x) ?
x→c
What can you say about the value of the limit at these points?

Solution
limx→c f (x) exists at those points c where
lim x 4 = lim x 2 .
x→c x→c
Thus, c 4 = c 2 =⇒ c = 0, 1, or −1. Moreover,
lim f (x) = 0
x→0
and
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 1.

x→−1 x→1

Precise definition of one-sided limits
We say that f (x) has right-hand limit L at x0 , and write
lim f (x) = L
x→x0+
if for every number ε > 0 there exists a corresponding number δ > 0 such
that for all x
x0 < x < x0 + δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.

Precise definition of one-sided limits
We say that f (x) has left-hand limit L at x0 , and write
lim f (x) = L
x→x0−
if for every number ε > 0 there exists a corresponding number δ > 0 such
that for all x
x0 − δ < x < x0 =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε.

Using ε − δ definition, proving limit
Example 57.
Using ε − δ definition, prove that
√
lim+ x = 0.
x→0

Proof
Start with : Let ε > 0 be given.

We want to find a δ > 0 such that for all x
√
0 < x < δ =⇒ | x − 0| < ε.
Squaring both sides of the this last inequality gives
x < ε2 if 0 < x < δ.
If we choose δ = ε2 , we have
√
0 < x < δ < ε2 =⇒ x < ε.
This shows that

√
lim+ x = 0.
x→0

Example
The functions examined so far have had some kind of limit at each point
of interest.
In general, that need not be the case
Example 58.
Show that y = sin(1/x) has no limit as x approaches zero from either side.

Solution
As x approaches zero, its reciprocal, 1/x, grows without bound and the
values of sin(1/x) cycle repeatedly from −1 to 1.
There is no single number L that the function’s values stay increasingly
close to as x approaches zero.
This is true even if we restrict x to positive values or to negative values.
The function has neither a right-hand limit nor a left-hand limit at x = 0.

Limits involving sin θ/θ
A central fact about (sin θ/θ) is that in radian measure its limit as θ →
is 1.
We can see this in the following figure and confirm it algebraically using
the Sandwich Theorem.

Limits involving sin θ/θ
Theorem 59.
sin θ
If θ is in radians, then θ = 1.
The plan is to show that right-hand and left-hand limits are both 1.
Then we will know that the two-sided limit is 1 as well.
Proof is omitted.

Example
Example 60.
Show that
cos h−1
(a) limh→0 h =0 and
(b) sin 2x
limx→0 5x = 25 .

Solution
(a) We have the half-angle formula
cos h = 1 − 2 sin2 (h/2).
cos h − 1 −2 sin2 (h/2)

lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= −(1)(0) taking θ = h/2
(b) We need a 2x in the denominator, not a 5x. We produce it by

multiplying numerator and denominator by 2/5.
sin 2x (2/5). sin 2x
lim = lim
x→0 5x x→0 (2/5).5x
2
= (1) taking θ = 2x
5

Example
Example 61.
Find
tan t sec 2t
lim .
t→0 3t

Solution
From the definition of tan t and sec 2t, we have

tan t sec 2t sin t 1 1
lim = lim . .
t→0 3t t→0 t cos t cos 2t
1 1
= = (1)(1)(1) = .
3 3

Exercises
Exercise 62.
Which of the following statements about the function y = f (x) graphed
here are true, and which are false?
page 71 graph exer 1
(a) limx→1+ f (x) = 1 (g) limx→0 f (x) = 1

(b) limx→0− f (x) = 0 (h) limx→1 f (x) = 1
(c) limx→0− f (x) = 1 (i) limx→1 f (x) = 0
(d) limx→0− f (x) = limx→0+ f (x) (j) limx→2− f (x) = 2
(e) limx→0 f (x) exists. (k) limx→1− f (x) does not exist.
(f) limx→0 f (x) = 0 (l) limx→2+ f (x) = 0

Solution
(a) True (g) False

(b) True (h) False
(c) False (i) False
(d) True (j) False
(e) True (k) True
(f) True (l) False

Exercises
Exercise 63.
Let
(
3−x if x < 2
f (x) = x
2 +1 if x > 2.
(a) Find limx→2+ f (x) and limx→2− f (x).

(b) Does limx→2 f (x) exist ? If so, what is it ? If not, why not ?
(c) Find limx→4− f (x) and limx→4+ f (x) .
(d) Does
P. Sam lim
Johnson f (x) exist ? If so, what is it ? If not, why not
Introduction August?7, 2019 170/288
Solution
2
(a) limx→2+ f (x) = 2 + 1 = 2 and limx→2− f (x) = 3 − 2 = 1.
(b) No. limx→2 f (x) does not exist because limx→2+ f (x) 6= limx→2− f (x).
4 4
(c) limx→4− f (x) = 2 + 1 = 3 and limx→4+ f (x) = 2 + 1 = 3.
(d) Yes. limx→4 f (x) = 3 because 4 = limx→4− f (x) = limx→4− f (x).

Exercises
Exercise 64.
Let
(
0 if x ≤0
f (x) =
sin x1 if x > 0.
(a) Does limx→0+ f (x) exist ? If so, what is it ? If not, why not ?
(b) Does limx→0− f (x) exist ? If so, what is it ? If not, why not ?
(c) Does limx→0 f (x) exist ? If so, what is it ? If not, why not ?
Solution
(a) No. limx→0+ f (x) does no exist since sin( x1 ) does not approach any
single value as x approaches 0.
(b) limx→0− f (x) = 0
(c) limx→0 f (x) does not exist because limx→0+ f (x) does not exist.

Exercises
Exercise 65.
√
Let g (x) = x sin(1/x).
(a) Does limx→0+ g (x) exist ? If so, what is it ? If not, why not ?
(b) Does limx→0− g (x) exist ? If so, what is it ? If not, why not ?
(c) Does limx→0 g (x) exist ? If so, what is it ? If not, why not ?

Solution
(a) Yes. limx→0+ g (x) = 0 by the Sandwich Theorem since

√ √
− x ≤ g (x) ≤ x when x > 0.
√
(b) No. limx→0− g (x) does not exist since x is not defined for x < 0.
(c) No. limx→0 g (x) does not exist since limx→0− g (x) does not exist.

Exercises
Exercise 66.
(a) Graph
(
1 − x2 if x=6 1
f (x) =
2 if x = 1.
(b) Find limx→1+ f (x) and limx→1− f (x).

(c) Does limx→1 f (x) exist ? If so, what is it ? If not, why not ?

Solution
(a)
(b) limx→1+ f (x) = 0 = limx→1− f (x).
(c) Yes. limx→1 f (x) = 0 since the right-hand and left-hand limits exist
and equal 0.

Exercises
Exercise 67.
Graph the function given below. Then answer these questions.
(a) What are the domain and range of f ?
(b) At what points c, if any, does lim x → cf (x) exist ?
(c) At what points does only the left-hand limit exist ?
(d) At what points does only the right-hand limit exist ?

x
 if − 1 ≤ x < 0, or 0 < x ≤ 1
f (x) = 1 if x = 0

0 if x < −1, or x > 1


Solution
(a) domain : −∞ < x < ∞ and rang : −1 ≤ y ≤ 1

(b) lim x → cf (x) exists for c belonging to (∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
(c) none
(d) none

Exercises
Exercises 68.
Find the limits in the following exercises.
q
1. limx→1+ x−1 x+2

1 x+6 3−x
2. limx→1− x+1 x 7
q
3. limx→+ x−1 x+2
4. (a) limx→2+ (x + 3) |x+2|

x+2
(b) limx→2− (x + 3) |x+2|
x+2

Solution
1. 0
2. 1
3. (a) 1
(b) −1

Exercises
Exercise 69.
The function whose value at any number x is the greatest integer less than
or equal to x is called the greatest integer function or the integer floor
function. It is denoted bxc.
The graph of the greatest integer

function y = bxc lies on or bellow
the line y = x, so it provides an
integer floor for x.
Use the graph of the greatest
integer function y = |x|, find the
limits in the following exercises.
bθc
1. (a) limθ→3+ θ
bθc
(b) limθ→3− θ

Solution
bθc
1. (a) limθ→3+ θ =1
bθc
(b) limθ→3− θ = 23

Exercises
Exercise 70.
sin θ
Using limθ→0 θ = 1, find the limits in the following exercises.
√
1. limθ→0 sin√2θ2θ
2. limh→0− sinh3h
3. limx→0 xcos
csc 2x
5x
4. limθ→0 1−cos
sin 2θ
θ
5. limh→0 sin(sin
sin h
h)
6. limθ→0 cos θ
sin 3y cot 5y
7. limy →0 y cot 4y
tan θ
8. limθ→0 θ2 cot 3θ

Solution
√
sin
√ 2θ = 1
1. limθ→0 2θ
2. limh→0− sinh3h = 13
3. csc 2x 1
limx→0 xcos 5x 2
4. limθ→0 1−cos θ
sin 2θ = 0
5. limh→0 sin(sin
sin h
h)
=1
6. limθ→0 cos θ = 0
sin 3y cot 5y 12
7. limy →0 y cot 4y = 5
tan θ
8. limθ→0 θ2 cot 3θ = 3

Exercises
Exercise 71.
Once you know
lim f (x)
x→a+
and
lim f (x)
x→a−
at an interior point of the domain of f , do you then know limx→a f (x) ?


Solution
Yes.
If
lim f (x) = L = lim f (x),

x→a+ x→a−
then limx→a f (x) = L.

If
lim f (x) 6= lim f (x),

x→a+ x→a−
then limx→a f (x) does not exist.

Exercises
Exercise 72.
If you know that
lim f (x)
x→c
exists, can you find its value by calculating limx→c + f (x) ?


Solution
Since
lim f (x) = L ⇐⇒ lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L,

x→c x→c − x→c +
then limx→c f (x) can be found by calculating limx→c + f (x).

Exercises
Exercise 73.
Suppose that f is an even function of x. Does knowing that
lim f (x) = 7
x→2−
tell you anything about either limx→2− f (x) or limx→2+ f (x) ?


Solution
If f is an even function of x, then f (−x) = f (x). Given
lim f (x) = 7,
x→2−
then limx→2− f (x) = 7.

However, nothing can be said about
lim f (x)
x→2−
because we don’t know limx→2+ f (x).

Exercises
Exercise 74.
Given√ε > 0, find an interval I = (4 − δ, 4), δ > 0, such that if x lies in I ,
then 4 − x < ε. What limit is being verified and what is its value?

Solution
I = (4 − δ, 4) =⇒ 4 − δ < x < 4.
√
Also, 4 − x < ε =⇒ 4 − x < ε2 =⇒ x < 5 + ε2 .
√
Choose δ = ε2 =⇒ limx→4− 4 − x = 0.

Exercises
Exercise 75.
Use the definitions of right-hand and left-hand limits to prove the
following limit statement.
x −2
lim+ = 1.
x→2 |x − 2|

Solution
Since x → 2+ , we have x > 2 and |x − 2| = x − 2.

x−2
Then |x−2| − 1 < ε =⇒ 0 < ε which is always true so long as x > 2.
Hence we can choose any δ > 0, and thus
x−2
2 < x < 2 + δ =⇒ |x−2| − 1 < ε.
x−2
Thus limx→2+ |x−2| = 1.

Exercises
Exercise 76.
(a) limx→400+ bxc and
(b) limx→400− bxc ; then use limite of definitions to verify your findings.
(c) Bases on your conclusions in parts (a) and (b), can you say anything
about limx→400 bxc ? Give reasons for your answer.

Solution
(a) limx→400+ bxc = 400. Just observe that if 400 < x < 401, then
bxc = 400. Thus if we choose δ = 1, we have for any number ε > 0
such that 400 < x < 400 + δ =⇒ |bxc − 400| = |400 − 400| = 0 < ε.
(b) limx→400− bxc = 399. Just observe that if 399 < x < 400, then
bxc = 399. Thus if we choose δ = 1, we have for any number ε > 0
such that 400 − δ < x < 400 =⇒ |bxc − 399| = |399 − 399| = 0 < ε.
(c) Since limx→400+ bxc =
6 limx→400− bxc, we conclude limx→400 bxc does
not exist.

Overview
When we plot function values generated in a laboratory or collected in the

field, we often connect the plotted points with an unbroken curve to show
what the function’s values are likely to have been at the times we did not
measure.

Overview
When we connect the plotted points with an unbroken curve, we are

assuming that we are working with a continuous function, so its outputs
vary continuously with the inputs and do not jump from one value to
another without taking on the values in between.
The limit of a continuous function as x approaches c can be found simply
by calculating the value of the function at c.
An function y = f (x) whose graph can be sketched over its domain in one
continuous motion without lifting the pencil is an example of a continuous
function.
In this lecture we investigate more precisely what it means for a function
to be continuous. We also study the properties of continuous functions.

Continuity at a Point
We start with an example.
Example 77 (Investigating Continuity).

Find the points at which the function f in the following figure is
continuous and the points at which f is discontinuous.
The function is continuous on [0, 4]

except at x = 1, x = 2, and x = 4.

Solution
Points at which f is continuous :

At x = 0, limx→0+ f (x) = f (0).
At x = 3, limx→3 f (x) = f (3).
At 0 < c < 4, c 6= 1, 2, limx→c f (x) = f (c).
Points at which f is discontinuous :
At x = 1, limx→1 f (x) does not exist.
At x = 2, limx→2 f (x) = 1, but 1 6= f (2).
At x = 4, limx→4− f (x) = 1, but 1 6= f (4).
At c < 0, c ≥ 4, these points are not in the domain of f .

Continuity at a point in a function’s domain
Continuity at a point in a function’s domain, we need to define continuity

at an interior point (which involves a two-sided limit) and continuity at an
endpoint (which involves a one-sided limit).

Continuity at a point in a function’s domain
Definition 78.
Interior Point
A function y = f (x) is continuous at an interior point c of its domain if
lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c
Endpoint
A function y = f (x) is continuous at a left point a or is continuous at
a right endpoint b of its domain if
lim f (x) = f (a) or lim f (x) = f (b), respectively.

x→a+ x→b −

Point of discontinuity
If a function f is not continuous at a point c, we say that f is

discontinuous at c and c is a point of discontinuity of f .
Note c need not be in the domain of f .

Continuous from the right / left
A function f is right-continuous (continuous from the right) at a point

x = c in its domain if
lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c +
It is left-continuous (continuous from the left) at c if
lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c −
Thus, a function is continuous at a left endpoint a of its domain if it is

right-continuous at a ; continuous at a right endpoint b of its domain if it
is left-continuous at b.

A function is continuous at an interior point c of its domain if and only if

it is both right-continuous and left-continuous at c.

The epsilon-delta definition of continuity at x = x0
Definition 79.
Let f (x) be defined on an open interval about x0 , including at x0 itself.
We say that the function f is continuous at x = x0 if, for every number
ε > 0, there exists a corresponding number δ > 0 such that for all x,
|x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 )| < ε.

The unit step function U defined by

(
0 if x < 0
U(x) =
1 if x ≥ 0
is right-continuous at c = 0, but not left-continuous.

The greatest integer function
y = bxc
is continuous at every noninteger point.

It is right-continuous, but not left-continuous, at every integer point.

Continuity Test
We summarize continuity at a point in the form of a test.

A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following
three conditions.
1. f (c) exists (c lies in the domain of f )
2. limx→c f (x) exists (f has a limit as x → c)
3. limx→c f (x) = f (c) (the limit equals the function value)
For one-sided continuity and continuity at an endpoint, the limits of the
test should be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.

Removable discontinuity
If a function f is said to have a removable discontinuity at a point c in

its domain provided that both f (c) and limx→c f (x) = L < ∞ exist while
f (x) 6= L.
Removable discontinuity is so named because one can “remove” this point
of discontinuity by redefining f (c) as
f (c) = L = lim f (x).

x→c
Each function has a limit as x → 0,

and we can remove the discontinuity
by setting f (0) equal to this limit.

Jump discontinuity
The function f has a jump discontinuity at c if the one-sided limits exist

but have different values.
In the following example, limx→0 f (x) does not exist, and there is no way
to improve the situation by changing f at 0.

Infinite discontinuity
The function f (x) = 1/x 2 has an infinite discontinuity.

Oscillating discontinuity
The function f (x) = sin(2π/x) has an oscillating discontinuity. It

oscillates too much to a have a limit as x → 0.

Continuous Functions
A function is continuous on an interval if and only if it is continuous at

every point of the interval.
For example, the semicircle function is continuous on the interval [−2, 2].

A continuous function is one that is continuous at every point of its

domain.
A continuous function need not be continuous on every interval. For
example, y = 1/x is not continuous on [−1, 1], but it is continuous over
its domain (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

Properties of Continuous Functions
Theorem 80.
If the functions f and g are continuous at x = c, then the following
combinations are continuous at x = c.
1. Sums : f + g
2. Differences : f − g
3. Products : f .g
4. Constant multiples : k.f , for any number k
5. Quotients : f /g provided g (c) 6= 0
6. Powers : f r /s , provided it is defined on an open interval containing
c, where r and s are integers.

Proof
The above theorem are easily proved from the limit rules.
For instance, to prove the sum property we have
n o n o
lim f + g (x) = lim f (x) + g (x)
x→c x→c
= lim f (x) + lim g (x)
x→c x→c
= f (c) + g (c)
= (f + g )(c).
This shows that f + g is continuous.

Proof (using the epsilon-delta definition)

We want to find a positive number δ such that for all x,
|x − c| < δ implies |f (x) + g (x) − (f (c) + g (c))| < ε.
We have
|f (x) + g (x) − (f (c) + g (c))| ≤ |f (x) − f (c)| + |g (x) − g (c)|.
From the previous inequality, to get
|f (x) + g (x) − (f (c) + g (c))| < ε
it is observed that we can apply the definition of limit for ε/2 to the limits
f (c), g (c) for the functions f (x), g (x) respectively.

Solution (contd...)
Since limx→c f (x) = f (c), there exists a positive number δ1 such that for
all x,
|x − c| < δ1 implies |f (x) − f (c)| < ε/2.
Similarly, since limx→c g (x) = g (c), there exists a positive number δ2 such
that for all x,
|x − c| < δ2 implies |g (x) − g (c)| < ε/2.

Solution (contd...)
n o
Let δ = min δ1 , δ2 , or any positive number smaller than the minimum.
If |x − c| < δ, then
|x − c| < δ1 , so |f (x) − f (c)| < ε/2,
and
|x − c| < δ2 , so |g (x) − g (c)| < ε/2.
Therefore
|f (x) + g (x) − (f (c) + g (c))| ≤ ε/2 + ε/2 = ε.
This shows that

n o
lim f (x) + g (x) = f (c) + g (c) = (f + g )(c).
x→c

Polynomial and Rational Functions Are Continuous
1. Every polynomial
P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a0
because
lim P(x) = P(c).

x→c
2. If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, then the rational function

P(x)/Q(x) is continuous wherever it is defined (Q(c) 6= 0) by the
quotient rule.

We proved that
lim sin θ = 0 and lim cos θ = 1

θ→0 θ→0
using Sandwich Theorem.

The functions y = sin x and y = cos x are continuous at x = 0. In fact,
both functions are continuous everywhere.
From the properties of continuous functions, all six trigonometric
functions (sin x, cos x, tan x, sec x, csc x, cot x) are then continuous
wherever they are defined.
For example, y = tan x is continuous on
· · · ∪ (−π/2, π/2) ∪ (π/2, 3π/2) ∪ · · · .

Composites
Composites of continuous functions are continuous.

The idea is that if f (x) is continuous at x = c and g (x) is continuous at
x = f (c), then g ◦ f is continuous at x = c.

Composites
Theorem 81 (Composite of Continuous Functions).

If f is continuous at c and g is continuous at f (c), then the composite
g ◦ f is continuous at c.
Intuitively, the above theorem is reasonable because if x is close to c, then

f (x) is close to f (c), and since g is continuous at f (c), it follows that
g (f (x)) is close to g (f (c)).

Composites
The continuity of composities holds for any finite number of

functions. The only requirement is that each function be continuous
where it is applied.
Example 82.
√
1. The function y =√ x 2 − 2x − 5 is continuous on [0, ∞). Note that
the function y = x 2 − 2x − 5 is the composite of the polynomial
√
f (x) = x 2 − 2x − 5 with the square root function g (t) = t.
x 2/3
2. The function y = 1+x 4
is everywhere continuous.
x−2
√
3. The function y = x 2 −2
is continuous for all x 6= ± 2.
x sin x
4. The function y = x 2 +2
is everywhere continuous.

Continuous Extension to a Point
The function y = sinx x is continuous at every point except x = 0. But we

recall that sinx x has a finite limit 1 as x → 0.
It is therefore possible to extend the function’s domain to include the point
x = 0 in such a way that the extended function is continuous at x = 0.
We define
(
sin x
x if x 6= 0
F (x) =
1 if x = 0

The function F (x) is continuous at x = 0 because

sin x
lim = F (0).
x→0 x

More generally, a function (such as a rational function) may have a limit

even at a point where it is not defined. If f (c) is not defined, but
limx→c f (x) = L exists, we can define a new function F (x) by the rule
(
f (x) if x is in the domain of f
F (x) =
L if x = c.
The function F is continuous at x = c. It is called the continuous

extension of f to x = c.

Example 83.
Show that
x2 + x − 2
f (x) =
x2 − 1
has a continuous extension to x = −1 and find that extension.

Solution
Observe that f (x) is not defined at x = 1. If x 6= 1, we have

x2 + x − 2 x +2
f (x) = 2
= .
x −1 x +1
Note that F (x) = f (x) for all x 6= 1. Also F (x) is defined at x = 1 to be
3/2 because
x2 + x − 2 3
lim 2
= lim f (x) = .
x→1 x −1 x→1 2
Thus F is the continuous extension of f to x = 1.

Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions
Functions that are continuous on intervals have properties that make them
particularly useful in mathematics and its applications.
One of these is the Intermediate Value Property.
A function is said to have the Intermediate Value Property if whenever
it takes on two values, it also takes on all the values in between.

Theorem 84.
A function y = f (x) that is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] takes on
every value between f (a) and f (b).
In other words, if y0 is any value between f (a) and f (b), then y0 = f (c)
for some c in [a, b].

Geometrically, the Intermediate Value Theorem says that any horizontal

line y = y0 crossing the y -axis between the numbers f (a) and f (b) will
cross the curve y = f (x) at least once over the interval [a, b].
The proof of the Intermediate Value Theorem depends on the
completeness property of the real number system and hence the proof is
omitted.

The continuity of f on the interval is essential to the Intermediate Value

Theorem for continuous functions. If f is discontinuous at even one point
of the interval, the theorem’s conclusion may fail, as it does for the
following function.
The function
(
2x − 2 if 1 ≤ x < 2
f (x) =
3 if 2 ≤ x ≤ 4
does not take on all values between

f (1) = 0 and f (4) = 3 ; it misses all
the values between 2 and 3.

Consequence of Intermediate Value Theorem
A Consequence for Graphing : Connectivity

Intermediate Value Theorem for continuous functions is the reason the
graph of a function continuous on an interval cannot have any breaks over
the interval.
It will be connected, a single, unbroken curve, like the graph of sin x.
It will not have jumps like the graph of the greatest integer function or
separate branches like the graph of 1/x.

Consequence of Intermediate Value Theorem
A Consequence for Root Finding

We call a solution of the equation f (x) = 0 a root of the equation or zero
of the function f .
The Intermediate Value Theorem tells us that if f is continuous, then any
interval on which f changes sign contains a zero of the function.

Exercise
Exercise 85.
In the following exercises, say whether the function graphed is continuous
on [−1, 3]. If not, where does it fail to be continuous and why ?
(a) (b)

Solution
(a) No. Discontinuous at x = 2, because the function is not defined at

x = 2.
(b) No. Discontinuous at x = 1, because
1.5 = lim k(x) 6= lim+ k(x) = 0.

x→1− x→1

Exercise
Exercise 86.
Let f (x) be defined by


x2 − 1 if −1≤x <0

2x if 0<x <1



f (x) = 1 if x =1

−2x + 4 if 1<x <2





0 if 2 < x < 3.


Exercise
Exercise 87.
(a) Does f (−1) exist ?
(b) Does limx→−1+ f (x) exist ?
(c) Does limx→1+ f (x) = f (−1) ?
(d) Is f continuous at x = −1 ?
(e) Does f (1) exist ?
(f) Does limx→1 f (x) exist ?
(g) Does limx→1 f (x) = f (1) ?
(h) Is f continuous at x = 1 ?

Solution
(a) Yes.
(b) Yes, limx→1+ f (x) = 0.
(c) Yes.
(d) Yes.
(e) Yes. f (1) = 1.
(f) Yes. limx→1 f (x) = 2.
(g) No.
(h) No.

Exercise
Exercise 88.
(contd...)
1. (a) Is f defined at x = 27 ? (Look at the definition of f .)
(b) Is f continuous at x = 2 ?
2. At what value of x is f continuous ?
3. What value should be assigned to f (2) to make the extended function
continuous at x = 2 ?
4. To what new value should f (1) be changed to remove the
discontinuity ?

Solution
1. (a) No.
(b) No.
2. [−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1) ∪ (2, 3).
3. f (2) = 0, since limx→2− f (x) = 0 = limx→2+ f (x).
4. f (1) should be changed to
2 = lim f (x).
x→1

Exercise
Exercise 89.
At which points do the functions fail to be continuous ? At which points,
if any, are the discontinuities removable ? Not removable ? Give reasons
for your answers.

Solution
Nonremovable discontinuity at x = 1 because limx→1 f (x) fails to exist.

Removable discontinuity at x = 2 by assigning f (2) = 2.

Exercise
Exercise 90.
At what points are the functions continuous ?
1
1. y = x−2 − 3x
x+3
2. y = x 2 −3x−10
cos x
3. y = x
4. y = tan πx2
√
5. y = 2x + 3
6. y = (2 − x)1/5
7.
 3
x −8
 x 2 −4
 if x 6= 2, x 6= −2
f (x) = 3 if x = 2

4 if x = −2.


Solution
1. Discontinuous only at x = 2.
2. Discontinuous only at x = 5 or x = −2.
3. Discontinuous only at x = 0.
4. Discontinuous only at x = 2n − 1, n ∈ Z.
5. Continuous on [− 23 , ∞).
6. Continuous everywhere
7. Discontinuous only at x = −2.

Exercise
Exercise 91.
Are the functions continuous at the point being approached ?

1. limt→0 sin π2 cos(tan t)
2. limy →1 sec(y sec2 y − tan2 y − 1)

3. limt→0 cos √19−3π sec 2t

Solution
1. Continuous at t = 0.
2. Continuous at y = 1.
3. Continuous at t = 0.

Exercise
Exercise 92.
1. Define h(2) in a way that extends h(t) = (t 2 + 3t − 10)/(t − 2) to be
continuous at t = 2.
2. Define f (1) in a way that extends f (s) = (s 3 − 1)/(s 2 − 1) to be
continuous at s = 1.

Solution
1. h(2) = 7.
2. f (1) = 23 .

Exercise
Exercise 93.
For what value of b is
(
x if x < −2
g (x) =
bx 2 if x ≥ −2
continuous at every x ?

Solution
b = − 12

Exercise
Exercise 94.
For what value of a is
(
a2 x − 2a if x ≥ 2
f (x) =
12 if x < 2

Solution
a = 3 or a = −2

Exercise
Exercise 95.
For what values of a and b is

ax + 2b
 if x ≤ 0
g (x) = x 2 + 3a − b if 0 < x ≤ 2

3x − 5 if x > 2


Solution
a = − 23 and b = − 32 .

Exercise
Exercise 96.
Graph the function f to see whether it appears to have a continuous
extension to the origin. If it does, use Trace and Zoom to find a good
candidate for the extended function’s value at x = 0. If the function does
not appear to have a continuous extension, can it be extended to be
continuous at the origin from the right or from the left ? If so, what do
you think the extended function’s value(s) should be ?
sin x
1. f (x) = |x|
2. f (x) = (1 + 2x)1/x

Solution
1. The function cannot be extended to be continuous at x = 0.

2. The function can be extended : f (0) ≈ 7.39.

Exercise
Exercise 97.
A continuous function y = f (x) is known to be negative at x = 0 and
positive at x = 1. Why does the equation f (x) = 0 have at least one
solution between x = 0 and x = 1 ? Illustrate with a sketch.

Solution
The equation f (x) = 0 has at least one solution between x = 0 and x = 1,

by Intermediate Value Theorem.

Exercise
Exercise 98.
Explain why the equation cos x = x has at least one solution.

Solution
By Intermediate Value Theorem, cos x − x = 0 for some x between −π/2

and π/2.

Exercise
Exercise 99 (Roots of a cube).

Show that the equation x 3 − 15x + 1 = 0 has three solutions in the
interval [−4, 4].

Solution
By Intermediate Value Theorem, f has 3 solutions in (−4, −1), (−1, 1)

and (1, 4).

Exercise
Exercise 100 (A function value).

Show that the function F (x) = (x − a)2 (x − b)2 + x takes on the value
(a + b)/2 for some value of x.

Solution
Since F (a) = a < a+b2 < b = F (b), by Intermediate Value Theorem, there
exists c ∈ (a, b) such that
a+b
F (c) = .
2

Exercise
Exercise 101 (Solving an equation).

If f (x) = x 3 − 8x + 10, show that there are values c for which f (c) equals
(a) π ;
√
(b) − 3 ;
(c) 5, 000, 000.

Solution
(a) Since f (1) = 3 < π < 10 = f (0), by Intermediate Value Theorem,

there exists c ∈ (0, 1) such that f (c) = π.
√
(b) Since f (−4) = −22 < − 3 < 10 = f (0), by Intermediate
√ Value
Theorem, there exists c ∈ (−4, 0) such that f (c) = − 3.
(c) Since f (0) = 10 < 5, 000, 000 < 999, 999, 010 = f (1000), by
Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists c ∈ (0, 1000) such that
f (c) = 5, 000, 000.

Exercise
Exercise 102.
Explain why the following five statemennts ask for the same information.
(a) Find the roots of f (x) = x 3 − 3x − 1.
(b) Find the x-coordinates of the points where the curve y = x 3 crosses
the line y = 3x + 1.
(c) Find all the values of x for which x 3 − 3x = 1.
(d) Find the x-coordinates of the points where the cubic curve
y = x 3 − 3x crosses the line y = 1.
(e) Solve the equation x 3 − 3x − 1 = 0.

Solution
All five statements ask for the same information because of the
Intermediate Value Theorem of continuous functions.

Exercise
Exercise 103 (Removable discontinuity).

Give an example of a function f (x) that is continuous for all values of x
except x = 2, where it has a removable discontinuity. Explain how you
know that f is discontinuous at x = 2, and how know the discontinuity is
removable.

Solution
sin(x−2)
x−2 is discontinuous at x = 2, because it is not defined at x = 2.
However, the discontinuity can be removed because f has the limit 1 as
x → 2.

Exercise
Exercise 104 (Nonremovable discontinuity).

Give an example of a function g (x) that is continuous for all values of x
except x = −1, where it has a removable discontinuity. Explain how you
know that g is discontinuous there and why the discontinuity is not
removable.

Solution
1
g (x) = x+1 has a discontinuity at x = −1 because limxto−1 g (x) does not
exist. Note that
lim g (x) = −∞ and lim g (x) = +∞.

xto−1− xto−1+

Exercise
Exercise 105 (A function discontinuous at every point).

(a) Use the fact that every nonempty interval of real numbers contains
both rational and irrational numbers to show that the function
(
1 if x is rational
f (x) =
0 if x is irrational
is discontinuous at every point.

(b) Is f right-continuous or left-continuous at any point ?

Solution
Suppose x0 is rational. Then f (x0 ) = 1. Choose ε = 12 . For any δ > 0,

there exists an irrational number x in
(x0 − δ, x0 + δ) =⇒ f (x) = 0.
1
Then 0 < |x − x0 | < δ but |f (x) − f (x0 )| = 1 > 2 = ε.
So limx→x0 f (x) does not exist. Hence f is discontinuous at every rational
number.
Suppose x0 is irrational. Then f (x0 ) = 0. Choose ε = 12 . For any δ > 0,
there exists a rational number x in
(x0 − δ, x0 + δ) =⇒ f (x) = 1.
1
Then 0 < |x − x0 | < δ but |f (x) − f (x0 )| = 1 > 2 = ε.

Solution (contd...)
So limx→x0 f (x) does not exist. Hence f is discontinuous at every

irrational number.
f is neither right-continuous nor left-continuous at any point x0 because in
every interval (x0 − δ, x0 ) or (x0 , x0 + δ), there are both rational and
irrational real numbers.
Thus limx→x − f (x) and limx→x + f (x) do not exist.
0 0

Exercise
Exercise 106.
If functions f (x) and g (x) are continuous for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, could f (x)/g (x)
possibly by discontinuous at a point [0, 1] ? Give reasons for your answer.

Solution
Both f (x) = x and g (x) = x − 2 are continuous on [0, 5]. However,

f (x)/g (x) is not defined at x = 2, hence it is not continuous at x = 2.

Exercise
Exercise 107.
If the product function h(x) = f (x).g (x) is continuous at x = 0, could
must f (x) and g (x) be continuous at x = 0 ? Give reasons for your
answer.

Solution
No.
If f (x) = 0 and g (x) = bxc, then h(x) = 0 is continuous at 0, but g (x) is
not continuous at 0.

Exercise
Exercise 108 (Discontinuous composite of continuous

functions).
Give an example of functions f and g , both continuous at x = 0, for which
the composite f ◦ g is discontinuous at x = 0. Does this contradict the
following theorem ? Give reasons for your answer.
Theorem 109 (Composite of Continuous Functions).

If f is continuous at c and g is continuous at f (c), then the composite
g ◦ f is continuous at c.

Solution
1
Let f (x) = x−1 and g (x) = x + 1. Both functions are continuous at x = 0.
1
The composition f ◦ g = f (g (x)) = x is discontinuous at x = 0.
The theorem on composite of continuous functions requires that f (x) be
continuous at g (0), which is not the case here, since g (0) = 1, and f is
undefined at 1.

Exercise
Exercise 110 (Never-zero continuous functions).

Is it true that a continuous function that is never zero on an interval never
changes sign on that interval ? Give reasons for your answer.

Solution
Yes.
If there is a sign change on an interval, by Intermediate Value Theorem, f
has zero on its interval.

References
1. M.D. Weir, J. Hass and F.R. Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th

Edition, Pearson Publishers.
2. N. Piskunov, Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I & II (Translated
by George Yankovsky).
3. S.C. Malik and Savitha Arora, Mathematical Analysis, New Age
Publishers.
4. R. G. Bartle, D. R. Sherbert, Introduction to Real Analysis, Wiley
Publishers.

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Introduction

P. Sam Johnson Introduction August 7, 2019 1/288

Course Title : Engineering Mathematics - 1

Course Instructor : Dr. P. Sam Johnson

Department : Mathematical and Computational Sciences

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25 % Weightage of Quizzes and Classroom Activities

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To expose the students to the calculus of two or more variables

limits, continuity, partial differentiation and differentiability

Skill development of the student expected from the course

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1. M.D. Weir, J. Hass and F.R. Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th

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The concept of a limit is fundamental to finding the velocity of a moving

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We discuss the average rate of change of a function y = f (x) with respect

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A secant to the graph y = f (x).

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A secant to the graph y = f (x).

In geometry, a line joining two points of a curve is a secant to the curve.

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Experimental biologists often want to know the rates at which populations

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The average rate of change from day 23 to day 45 calculated in Example 2

Example 3 (The Growth Rate on Day 23).

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To answer this question, we examine the average rates of change over

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(a) [2, 3] (b) [−1, 1]

(a) [π/4, 3π/4] (b) [π/6, π/2]

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A line L is tangent to a circle at a point P if L passes through P

Such a line just touches the circle.

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Let f (x) be defined on an open interval about x0 , except possibly at x0

which is read “the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 is L00 .

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This definition is “informal” because phrases like arbitrarily close and

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The graph of f is identical with the line y = x + 1 except at x = 1, where

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We say that f (x) approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1, and write

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f has limit 2 as x → 1 even g has limit 2 as x → 1 even h has limit 2 as x → 1 which

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If f is the identity function f (x) = x, then for any value of x0 ,

lim f (x) = lim x = x0 .

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