Design of Trajectory Optimization

Approach for Space Maneuver Vehicle

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Springer Aerospace Technology

Runqi Chai
Al Savvaris
Antonios Tsourdos
Senchun Chai

Design of Trajectory
Optimization
Approach for Space
Maneuver Vehicle
Skip Entry Problems
Springer Aerospace Technology
The Springer Aerospace Technology series is devoted to the technology of aircraft
and spacecraft including design, construction, control and the science. The books
present the fundamentals and applications in all fields related to aerospace
engineering. The topics include aircraft, missiles, space vehicles, aircraft engines,
propulsion units and related subjects.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8613

Runqi Chai Al Savvaris
• •

Antonios Tsourdos Senchun Chai

•

Design of Trajectory
Optimization Approach
for Space Maneuver Vehicle
Skip Entry Problems

123
Runqi Chai Al Savvaris
Cranfield University Cranfield University
Cranfield, Bedford, UK Cranfield, Bedford, UK

Antonios Tsourdos Senchun Chai

Cranfield University School of Automation
Cranfield, Bedford, UK Beijing Institute of Technology
Beijing, China

ISSN 1869-1730 ISSN 1869-1749 (electronic)

Springer Aerospace Technology
ISBN 978-981-13-9844-5 ISBN 978-981-13-9845-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9845-2
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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Singapore
Preface

Space vehicle trajectory planning has become increasingly important due to its
extensive applications in industry and military fields. A well-designed trajectory is
usually a key for stable flight and for improved guidance and control of the vehicle.
Hence, the aim of this research is usually to work on trajectory optimization, and
then improve on one of the existing trajectory optimization methods in order to
circumvent the limitations brought by the classic techniques.
This book presents the design of optimal trajectory for space maneuver vehicles
using optimal control-based techniques. It starts from a broad introduction and
overview to three main approaches to trajectory optimization. It then focuses on the
design of a novel hybrid optimization strategy, which incorporates an initial guess
generator with an improved gradient-based inner optimizer. Further, it highlights the
development of multi-objective spacecraft trajectory optimization problems, with a
particular focus on multi-objective transcription methods, and multi-objective evo-
lutionary algorithms. Finally, the spacecraft flight scenario with noise-perturbed
dynamics and probabilistic constraints is studied. New chance-constrained optimal
control frameworks are designed and validated. The comprehensive and systematic
treatment of practical issues in spacecraft trajectory optimization is one of the major
features of the book, which is particularly suited for readers who are interested to
learn practical solutions in spacecraft trajectory optimization. The book can also
benefit researchers, engineers, and graduate students in fields of GNC systems,
engineering optimization, applied optimal control theory, etc.
The authors have carefully reviewed the content of this book before the printing
stage. However, it does not mean that this book is completely free from any
possible errors. Consequently, the authors would be grateful to readers who will call
out attention on mistakes as they might discover.

Cranfield, UK Runqi Chai

Cranfield, UK Al Savvaris
Cranfield, UK Antonios Tsourdos
Beijing, China Senchun Chai
May 2019

v
Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their sincere appreciations to Prof. Yuanqing Xia,
Prof. Guoping Liu, and Prof. Peng Shi for their constructive comments and helpful
suggestions with regards to the theoretical part of this book.
The first author would like to thank other colleagues from center of
cyber-physics systems, Cranfield University, for providing valuable comments.
Without their support, the writing of the book would not have been a success.
Also, we would like to thank all the staff in the autonomous systems research
group, Cranfield University, for everything they have done to make things easier for
us throughout the preparation of this work.
Finally, the authors would like to thank Cranfield University, School of
Aerospace, Transport, and Manufacturing, and Beijing Institute of Technology,
School of Automation, for giving us the support to make the work a reality.

vii
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Mission Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Skip Reentry Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Regional Reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Book Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Chapter Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Overview of Trajectory Optimization Techniques . . . . . . . . . ...... 7
2.1 Spacecraft Trajectory Optimization Problems and Optimal
Control Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Optimization Techniques and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 Gradient-Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.2 Evolutionary-Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.3 Convexification-Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.4 Dynamic Programming-Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Multi-objective Trajectory Optimization Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Multi-objective Evolutionary Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.2 Multi-objective Transcription Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Modeling of the Trajectory Optimization Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1 Mathematical Formulation of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.1 Continuous Dynamical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.2 Variable/Path Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.3 Mission Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1.4 Overall Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.1.5 Numerical Solution Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

ix
x Contents

3.2 SMV Trajectory Optimization Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.2.1 Dynamic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.2 SMV Initial and Terminal Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.3 Box Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.4 Trajectory Event Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.5 Interior-Point Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.6 Skip Entry Path Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.7 Objective Functions for the Skip Entry Problem . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.8 Overall Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Discretization of the SMV Skip Entry Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3.1 Pseudospectral Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3.2 Mesh Refinement Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4 Initial Simulation Results and Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4.1 Parameters Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4.2 Optimal Skip Hopping Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4.3 Analysis of Different Skip Hopping Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4.4 Sensitivity with Respect to Path Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4.5 Finding Solution for n [ 4 Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4.6 Optimal Results for a Multiple Regional Reconnaissance
Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51
4 Performance Analysis of Different Optimization Strategies . . . . . . . . 55
4.1 General NLP Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2 Applying Gradient-Based Optimization Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.1 Sequential Quadratic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.2 Interior Point Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3 Heuristic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3.1 Constraint-Handling Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3.2 Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3.3 Differential Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3.4 Particle Swarm Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.5 Artificial Bee Colony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.4 Numerical Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.4.1 Problem Modification and Parameter Specification . . . . . . . 63
4.4.2 Combine Global Methods with Discretization Scheme . . . . 64
4.4.3 Optimal Solutions Obtained via Different Optimization
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.5 Analysis of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.5.1 Characteristic Arcs of the Trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.5.2 Performance of Different Optimization Methods . . . . . . . . 68
Contents xi

4.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5 Hybrid Optimization Methods with Enhanced Convergence
Ability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.1 Initial Guess Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.1.1 Violation Learning Differential Evolution Algorithm . . . . . 74
5.2 Inner Optimization Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2.1 An Improved Gradient-Based Optimization Strategy . . . . . 77
5.2.2 Mesh Refinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2.3 Overall Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.3 Solution Optimality Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.3.1 First-Order Necessary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.3.2 Terminal Transversality Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3.3 Hamiltonian Function Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.3.4 Properties of the Control Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.3.5 Bellman’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4 Simulation Results for a Time-Optimal Entry Scenario . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4.1 Optimal Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4.2 Verification of Optimality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.4.3 Comparison with Existing Evolutionary Solvers . . . . . . . . 90
5.4.4 Dispersion Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.4.5 Comparison Against Other Optimal Control Solvers . . . . . 94
5.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6 Multi-objective Trajectory Optimization Problem . . . . . . . . . . . .... 99
6.1 Mathematical Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 99
6.1.1 General Formulation of Multi-objective Optimization
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.1.2 Multi-objective Optimal Control Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2 An Improved Multi-objective Evolutionary Algorithms . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2.1 Extended NSGA-II Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2.2 Superiority of Feasible Solution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2.3 Penalty Function Based Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.2.4 Multi-objective Constraint-Handling Technique . . . . . . . . . 105
6.2.5 Computational Complexity Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.3 Multi-objective Transcription Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.3.1 Fuzzy Physical Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.3.2 Interactive Fuzzy Physical Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.3.3 Fuzzy Goal Programming Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.4 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.4.1 Multi-objective SMV Trajectory Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.4.2 Pareto Front Results Obtained Using MOEAs . . . . . . . . . . 115
xii Contents

6.4.3 Analysis of Relationships Between Different

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.4.4 Performance of the IFPP Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.4.5 Performance of the FGP Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.4.6 Comparison with MOEAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.5 Potential Applications of Different Multi-objective Solutions . . . . . 127
6.5.1 Design of Spacecraft/Satellite Formation Control
Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.5.2 Design of Integrated Spacecraft Guidance and Control
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.5.3 Database-Based Online Guidance Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7 Real-Time Optimal Guidance and Control Strategies for Space
Maneuver Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.1 Related Development of Guidance Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.2 MPC-Based Optimal Guidance Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.2.1 Overall Guidance Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.2.2 Nonlinear Model Predictive Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.2.3 Linear Model Predictive Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.3 Simulation Study for the MPC-Based Guidance Schemes . . . . . . . 141
7.3.1 Reference Trajectory Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.3.2 Optimal Tracking Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.3.3 Comparative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.4 An Integrated Guidance and Control Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.5 6-DOF SMV Entry Trajectory Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.5.1 Rotational Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.5.2 State/Control-Related Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.5.3 Objective and Optimization Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.6 Bi-level Trajectory and Attitude Control Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.6.1 Offline Trajectory Ensemble Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.6.2 DNN-Driven Control Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.6.3 Overall Algorithm Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.7 Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.7.1 Mission/Vehicle-Dependent Parameter Setup . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.7.2 Trajectory Ensemble Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.7.3 DNN-Based Control Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.7.4 Comparative Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Contents xiii

8 Stochastic Trajectory Optimization Problems with Chance

Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.1 Mathematical Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.1.1 Chance-Constrained Spacecraft Trajectory
Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.1.2 Chance-Constrained Spacecraft Trajectory
Optimization: Stochastic Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.2 Chance-Constrained Stochastic Trajectory Optimization
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
8.2.1 Initial Transformation of Chance Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.2.2 Discretized CCSOCP Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.2.3 Chance-Constraint-Handling Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.2.4 Deterministic CCSOCP Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
8.3 Chance-Constrained Stochastic Spacecraft Entry Trajectory
Planning: System Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.3.1 Stochastic Dynamics and Objective Function . . . . . . . . . . . 180
8.3.2 Hard Constraints and Chance Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
8.4 Simulation Studies and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.4.1 Parameter Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.4.2 Performance of the Chance-Constraint-Handling
Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.4.3 Sensitivity with Respect to Control Parameter c . . . . . . . . 186
8.4.4 Sensitivity with Respect to Sample Size N . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.4.5 Optimal Trajectories for the Stochastic Entry Problem . . . . 188
8.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Appendix A: Modeling of the Trajectory Optimization Problems . . . . . . 193
Appendix B: Performance Analysis of Different Optimization
Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Appendix C: Multi-objective Trajectory Optimization Problem . . . . . . . 201
Acronyms

 Acceptable probability of occurrence

a Angle of attack
r Bank angle
b Boundary function
u Control variable
q0 Density of the atmosphere at sea level
CD Drag coefficient
D Drag force
c Flight path angle
l Gravitational parameter
w Heading angle
Isp Impulse
/ Latitude
CL Lift coefficient
h Longitude
m Mass
U Mayer cost
E Number of equality constraints
I Number of inequality constraints
M Number of objective functions
J Objective function
g Path function
L Process cost
r Radial distance
Re Radius of the Earth
X Self-rotation rate of the Earth
x State variable
T Thrust force
t Time
n Uncertain parameter

xv
xvi Acronyms

V Velocity
w Weighted parameter
ABC Artificial bee colony
AC Ant colony
ADEMGT Adaptive differential evolution and modified game theory
ASM Adaptive surrogate model
CC Chance constraint
CCO Chance-constrained optimization
COV Calculus of variation
DDP Differential dynamic programming
DE Differential evolution
DP Dynamic programming
EMO Evolutionary multi-objective optimization
FGP Fuzzy goal programming
FONC First-order necessary condition
FPP Fuzzy physical programming
FSGP Fuzzy satisfactory goal programming
GA Genetic algorithm
GP Goal programming
gPC Generalized polynomial chaos
HBVP Hamiltonian boundary-value problem
IFPP Interactive fuzzy physical programming
IP Interior point
IPSQP Interior-point sequential quadratic programming
LEO Low earth orbit
LP Linear programming
MCMC Markov chain Monto Carlo
MOABC Multi-objective artificial bee colony
MOEA/D Multi-objective evolutionary algorithm based on decomposition
MOPSO Multi-objective particle swarm optimization
MOT Multi-objective transcription
MOTO Multi-objective trajectory optimization
NLP Nonlinear programming
NPGA Niched pareto genetic algorithm
NSGA-II Nondominated sorting genetic algorithm-II
PDF Probability density function
PP Physical programming
PPPIO Predator–prey pigeon-inspired optimization
PSO Particle swarm optimization
RO Robust optimization
SA Simulate annealing
SDDP Stochastic differential dynamic programming
SDE Stochastic differential equation
SDP Semidefinite programming
SMV Space maneuver vehicle
Acronyms xvii

SOCP Second-order cone programming

SOP Single-objective problem
SPPSO Strength pareto particle swarm optimization
SQF Stochastic quadrature formula
SQP Sequential quadratic programming
TS Tabu search
VLDE Violation learning differential evolution
WS Weighted sum
Chapter 1
Introduction

Abstract For most atmospheric or exo-atmospheric spacecraft flight scenarios, a

well-designed trajectory is usually a key for stable flight and for improved guidance
and control of the space vehicle. Among these flight missions, trajectory optimization
for reentry vehicles is usually recognized as a challenging problem and it has been
widely researched for a couple of decades. One of the current objectives is the
development of space maneuver vehicles for a dynamic mission profile. This chapter
briefly outlines the background and current development of the reentry trajectory
design problem. Typical spacecraft skip entry mission scenarios are also introduced.
Following that, the overall aims and objectives of the book will be summarized.
Finally, the structure of the entire book, together with some highlights of each chapter,
will be given.

1.1 Background

In the last couple of decades, numerous achievements and massive efforts have been
witnessed in order to move human beings into space. Nowadays, aerospace science
and technology has brought various changes in not only the military field but also
scientific and engineering applications. Among them, the development of space-
craft technology has attracted significant attention [1, 2]. So far, several generations
of spacecraft have been designed, manufactured, launched, and successfully imple-
mented in different mission profiles such as communications [3], interplanetary travel
[4], regional reconnaissance [5], environmental monitoring [6], and so on. Among
them, the space maneuver vehicles (SMVs) will play an increasingly important role
in the future exploration of space, since their on-orbit maneuverability can greatly
increase the operational flexibility and are more difficult as a target to be tracked and
intercepted. However, because of the long development cycle, high operating cost,
and limited resources, it is usually desired by aerospace engineers that the space
vehicle can fulfill the mission with some performance metrics to be optimized, or in
other words, in an optimal or near-optimal way. To achieve this goal, a proper treat-
ment of the flight trajectory for the space vehicle is often required, and this stimulates
the development of trajectory optimization techniques.
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1
R. Chai et al., Design of Trajectory Optimization Approach for Space
Maneuver Vehicle Skip Entry Problems, Springer Aerospace Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9845-2_1
2 1 Introduction

Trajectory design for space vehicles has been investigated widely by some
researchers. This type of problem is usually treated as an optimal control problem.
The core aim of this kind of problem is to determine a feasible path or trajectory, for a
given vehicle, to achieve a prespecified target and optimize a predefined performance
index. During the trajectory planning phase, a number of constraints should be taken
into account in order to achieve the mission-dependent requirements and protect the
structural integrity.
Due to the high nonlinear characteristics and strict path constraints of the problem,
it is difficult to calculate the optimal solution using analytical methods. Therefore,
numerical methods are widely applied to calculate the optimal trajectories. Although
extensive research work has been carried out on the design of spacecraft trajectories
and many numerical optimization techniques were developed, it is still challenging
to find a general approach which can be applied to produce optimal solutions for
different mission profiles and fulfill different mission requirements.

1.2 Mission Scenarios

In this section, a brief description of some ongoing projects in the field of aerospace
engineering, especially in the field of spacecraft reentry, is provided.

1.2.1 Skip Reentry Mission

The mission scenario investigated in the skip reentry problem focuses on the at-
mospheric flight, targeting the entry into the atmosphere down to a predetermined
position set at the start of the mission. Studies can be found in the literature regarding
the skip reentry of deep-space spacecraft with high speed over first cosmic velocity.
A graphical mission illustration can be found in Fig. 1.1.
General skip reentry can be divided into five phases: initial roll, down control,
up control, Kepler, and final entry. The main difficulty of an atmospheric entry is to
deal with the rapid change in the aerodynamic environment. The almost immediate
switch from space flight dynamics to atmospheric flight control is a challenge to
perform and analyze.

1.2.2 Regional Reconnaissance

The mission scenario of the regional reconnaissance project investigated in is sim-

ilar to the general skip entry mission. It focuses on the atmospheric skip hopping,
targeting the entry into the atmosphere down to different predetermined target points
for observation and gathering of information of inaccessible areas. Once these target
1.2 Mission Scenarios 3

Fig. 1.1 SMV reentry mission profile

points are reached, the spacecraft starts the ascent phase, exiting the atmosphere
and returning back to low Earth orbit (LEO). During the mission, the SMV can
fly in either the unpowered exo-atmospheric flight, powered exo-atmospheric flight,
unpowered atmospheric flight, or powered atmospheric flight. The overall mission
profile is designed and illustrated in Fig. 1.2.
It is worth noting that as shown in Fig. 1.2, the dashed line phases may repeat
several times (e.g., n − 1 times). This is because, in this project, it is expected for the
vehicle to have a multiple-hop trajectory in order to overfly different target regions
and complete the reconnaissance mission. Therefore, based on the mission definition
stated above, the typical skip entry problem can also be treated as a subproblem of
the regional reconnaissance mission.

1.3 Book Aims and Objectives

The primary aim of this book is to present the latest progress that has been achieved
in the development of spacecraft trajectory optimization techniques. Specifically, the
main focus will be on the recently proposed optimization methods that have been
utilized in constrained trajectory optimization problems, multi-objective trajectory
4 1 Introduction

Powered or
unpowered Exo-
atmospheric phases

Target
posiƟon i

Unpowered
Target Final Powered
atmospheric
IniƟal point posiƟon 1 Exo-atmospheric
First entry phases
(around phase
point
120km) Re Earth

hat 80km

Final
H 120km Dashed Phase posiƟon
performed n-1 Times

Edge of
atmosphere

Fig. 1.2 SMV orbital hopping mission profile

optimization problems, and stochastic trajectory optimization problems. One individ-

ual objective of this book is to summarize the main advantages and disadvantages of
applying different optimization methods in spacecraft trajectory optimization prob-
lems based on the results reported in the newly published works. Apart from that,
we also put efforts on the improvement of these numerical methods in order to cir-
cumvent the limitations brought by the classic techniques.
Consequently, all the objectives of this book can be summarized as follows:
1. Systematically introduce different optimization approaches to spacecraft trajec-
tory optimization problems.
2. Propose an enhanced trajectory optimization method in order to circumvent the
limitations brought by the classic techniques.
3. Improve the robustness and stability of the designed trajectory optimization
approach.
4. Reduce the computational complexity of the proposed algorithm.
5. Present new multi-objective approaches to search the optimal trade-off solution
with preference requirements.
1.3 Book Aims and Objectives 5

6. Provide in-depth analysis of stochastic trajectory optimization problems with the

consideration of chance constraints.

1.4 Chapter Layout

The rest of this book is organized as follows. Chapter 2 reviews the state-of-the-
art development in spacecraft trajectory optimization problems and optimal control
methods. A particular focus will be given to the design of numerical trajectory opti-
mization algorithms and their applications. Senior undergraduate students and post-
graduate students who are doing research or are interested in trajectory optimization
methods will get a better understanding of the latest development on this topic.
Following that in Chap. 3, the modeling of the SMV trajectory optimization prob-
lem will be presented. A nonlinear constrained optimal control formulation is con-
structed and used to search the optimal trajectory of the SMV. Two sets of flight
dynamics are established in order to represent the movement of the spacecraft dur-
ing the exo-atmospheric and atmospheric flight phases. In addition, a couple of
interior-point constraints are introduced to connect the trajectory between different
flight phases.
Chapter 4 analyses the performance of different optimization strategies for cal-
culating the optimal trajectories. Two types of optimization strategies, namely the
gradient-based method and the derivative-free method, are applied to solve the SMV
trajectory design problem. The advantages and disadvantages of using these well-
developed algorithms are discussed and concluded in detail.
Chapter 5 introduces a new hybrid optimal control solver to solve the constrained
SMV trajectory optimization problem. A derivative-free algorithm-based initial
guess generator is designed and applied to decrease the sensitivity problem. In addi-
tion, an improved gradient solver is proposed as the inner optimizer. This two-nested
structure can offer the user more flexibility to control the optimization process.
In Chap. 6, the SMV trajectory optimization problem is reformulated and extended
to a multi-objective continuous-time optimal control model. Multi-objective opti-
mization evolutionary techniques are designed and applied to calculate the Pareto-
optimal solution. Furthermore, in order to take into account the designer’s preference
requirements, different multi-objective transformation techniques are also proposed
to produce compromised solutions.
The work presented in Chap. 7 focuses on the development of real-time optimal
guidance strategies for the space maneuver vehicles. Two types of optimal guidance
strategies, namely the receding horizon control-based methods and the deep neural
network-driven algorithm, are proposed to produce the optimal control command in
real time. Detailed simulation studies were carried out to verify the effectiveness and
real-time applicability of the proposed strategies.
Chapter 8 investigates a computational framework based on optimal control for
addressing the problem of stochastic trajectory optimization with the consideration
of probabilistic constraints. A discretization technique is employed to parametrize
6 1 Introduction

the uncertain variable and create the trajectory ensemble. Besides, a smooth and
differentiable chance constraint handling method is proposed to approximate the
probabilistic constraint. Simulation results are obtained to present the optimal flight
trajectories. Based on the numerical simulation, some key features of the obtained
results are also analyzed.

References

1. Betts, J.T.: Survey of numerical methods for trajectory optimization. J. Guid. Control. Dyn.
21(2), 193–207 (1998). https://doi.org/10.2514/2.4231
2. Conway, B.A.: A survey of methods available for the numerical optimization of continuous
dynamic systems. J. Optim. Theory Appl. 152(2), 271–306 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10957-011-9918-z
3. Lavaei, J., Momeni, A., Aghdam, A.G.: A model predictive decentralized control scheme with
reduced communication requirement for spacecraft formation. IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Tech-
nol. 16(2), 268–278 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1109/TCST.2007.903389
4. Alonso Zotes, F., Santos Penas, M.: Particle swarm optimisation of interplanetary trajectories
from earth to jupiter and saturn. Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell. 25(1), 189–199 (2012). https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.engappai.2011.09.005
5. Chai, R., Savvaris, A., Tsourdos, A., Chai, S., Xia, Y.: Optimal fuel consumption finite-thrust
orbital hopping of aeroassisted spacecraft. Aerosp. Sci. Technol. 75, 172–182 (2018). https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2017.12.026
6. Bogorad, A., Bowman, C., Dennis, A., Beck, J., Lang, D., Herschitz, R., Buehler, M., Blaes, B.,
Martin, D.: Integrated environmental monitoring system for spacecraft. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci.
42(6), 2051–2057 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1109/23.489252
Chapter 2
Overview of Trajectory Optimization
Techniques

Abstract This chapter aims to broadly review the state-of-the-art development in

spacecraft trajectory optimization problems and optimal control methods. Specifi-
cally, the main focus will be on the recently proposed optimization methods that have
been utilized in constrained trajectory optimization problems and multi-objective tra-
jectory optimization problems. An overview regarding the development of optimal
control methods is first introduced. Following that, various optimization methods that
can be effective for solving spacecraft trajectory planning problems are reviewed,
including the gradient-based methods, the convexification-based methods, the evo-
lutionary/metaheuristic methods, and the dynamic programming-based methods. In
addition, a special focus will be given on the recent applications of the optimized
trajectory. Finally, the multi-objective spacecraft trajectory optimization problem,
together with different classes of multi-objective optimization algorithms, is briefly
outlined at the end of the chapter.

2.1 Spacecraft Trajectory Optimization Problems

and Optimal Control Methods

Over the past couple of decades, trajectory optimization problems in terms of reentry
vehicle have attracted significant attention [1–3]. It has been shown in many published
works that the trajectory design component plays a key role with regard to stable flight
and improved control of the space vehicle [4, 5]. A comprehensive overview of the
motivation for the use of trajectory optimization in different space missions, together
with various related trajectory optimization approaches, was made by Conway in
2011 [6]. In this review article and the references therein, several important practical
examples were highlighted such as the orbital transfer problems [7, 8], the spacecraft
rendezvous and docking [9, 10], and the planetary entry [11–13]. These problems
were summarized in a general form and treated as optimal control problems [14]. It
is worth noting that according to Betts [15], an interchanged designation between the
term “optimal control problems” and “trajectory optimization problems” can always
be found in the literature. A complete description and analysis of the differences
between these two statements can be referred to [16, 17].
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 7
R. Chai et al., Design of Trajectory Optimization Approach for Space
Maneuver Vehicle Skip Entry Problems, Springer Aerospace Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9845-2_2
8 2 Overview of Trajectory Optimization Techniques

Among these applications, one of the current objectives is the development of

space maneuver vehicles (SMV) for a dynamic mission profile [8, 18, 19]. The
Mach number and the flight altitude of the entry vehicle vary largely during the
whole flight phase, the aerodynamic feature of the vehicle has large uncertainties and
nonlinearities [12, 20]. Due to these reasons, numerical algorithms are commonly
used to approximate the optimal solution [21–23].
From the current development of optimal control theory, on the whole, the devel-
opment/application of numerical trajectory optimization methods for atmospheric or
exo-atmospheric spacecraft flight scenarios leads to two different trends. The first one
is that system discretization tends to become more reliable and adaptive such that it
can maximally capture the characteristics of the dynamical system [14, 24]. The other
is that optimization becomes more accurate and computationally friendly so that the
solution optimality, together with the real-time capability, can be improved. Depend-
ing on the order of discretization and optimization, numerical trajectory optimization
methods can be classified into two main categories. That is, the so-called indirect
methods (“optimization then discretization”) and the direct methods (“discretization
then optimization”) [24]. The former type of method aims to apply the calculus of
variations (COV) and solve the first-order necessary conditions for optimality with
respect to the spacecraft trajectory optimization problems. Successful examples have
been reported in the literature for addressing problems without considering inequal-
ity constraints [25, 26]. In these works, the first-order necessary conditions were
formulated as two-point boundary value differential-algebraic equations. However,
in terms of problems in the presence of inequality constraints, this type of approach
might not be effective. This is because it is difficult to determine the switch points
where the inequality constraints become active, thus limiting the practical applica-
tion of this type of method. Moreover, the Hamiltonian boundary value problem
(HBVP) should also be constructed and this process usually becomes costly due to
the complexity of the dynamic model and path constraints.
As for the direct method, the first step is to discretize the control or the state
and control variables so as to transform the original formulation to a static nonlinear
programming problem (NLP). Following that, different well-developed optimization
techniques are available to address the optimal solution of the resulting static problem.
Compared with the indirect strategy, it is much easier to apply the direct method to
handle the spacecraft trajectory design problem. Moreover, the way of formulating
constraints tends to be more straightforward. Therefore, applying the “discretization
then optimization” mode has attracted more attention in engineering practice.
For direct methods, one traditional technique which has been used in practical
problems is the direct multiple shooting approach [27–29]. In a shooting method, only
the control variables are parametrized [30–32]. Then explicit numerical integration
(e.g., the Runge–Kutta method) is used to satisfy the differential constraints [33–35].
Another well-developed direct transcription technique is the collocation methods.
Generally, there are two main kinds of collocation schemes: local collocation methods
and global collocation methods. Relative works on developing the local collocation
methods can be found in literatures. For example, Yakimenko et al. [36] applied an
inverse dynamics in the virtual domain collocation method to generate a near-optimal
2.1 Spacecraft Trajectory Optimization Problems and Optimal Control Methods 9

aircraft trajectory. The work of Duan and Li [37] presents a direct collocation scheme
for generating the optimal control sequence of a hypersonic vehicle.
In recent years, global collocation techniques have attracted extensive attentions
and a large amount of work is being carried out in this field [38]. For example, Fahroo
and Ross [39] developed a Chebyshev pseudospectral approach for solving the gen-
eral Bolza trajectory optimization problems with control and state constraints. In
their follow-up work [40], a pseudospectral knotting algorithm was designed so as to
solve nonsmooth optimal control problems. In addition, Benson et al. [41] developed
a Gauss pseudospectral (orthogonal collocation) method for transcribing general op-
timal control problems. In a pseudospectral method, the collocation points are based
on quadrature rules and the basis function are Lagrange or Chebyshev polynomials.
In contrast to the direct collocation method, pseudospectral method usually divides
the whole time history into a single mesh interval whereas its counterpart, direct
collocation, divides time interval into several equal step subintervals and the conver-
gence is achieved by adding the degree of the polynomial. To improve accuracy and
computational efficiency using pseudospectral method, a hp-strategy is proposed and
analyzed in [42–44]. By adding collocation points in a certain mesh interval or divid-
ing the current mesh into subintervals simultaneously, the accuracy of interpolation
can be improved significantly.
It is worth noting that the primary goal of this book is to present the latest progress
that has been achieved in the development of spacecraft trajectory optimization tech-
niques. Specifically, the main focus will be on the recently proposed optimization
methods that have been utilized in constrained trajectory optimization problems,
multi-objective trajectory optimization problems, and stochastic trajectory optimiza-
tion problems. Therefore, compared with the optimization process, the discretization
process is relatively less-important and will only be briefly presented in the follow-
ing chapters. A detailed and serious attempt to classify discretization techniques for
spacecraft trajectory design can be found in [8, 17].

2.2 Optimization Techniques and Applications

Nevertheless, all the direct methods aim to transcribe the continuous-time-optimal

control problems to a nonlinear programming problem (NLP) [45–47]. The resulting
NLP can be solved numerically by well-developed optimization algorithms.
The main objective of this section is to review the state-of-the-art optimization
strategies reported in the literature for calculating the optimal spacecraft flight trajec-
tories. Based on the reported results, one may be able to gain a better understanding
in terms of the performance and behaviors of different algorithms for addressing
various space vehicle flight missions. Moreover, it is possible to guide the reader to
improve one of these techniques in order to circumvent the limitations brought by
the classic methods.
In the literature, four types of optimization strategies are usually applied to solve
the spacecraft trajectory optimization problems. Specifically, the gradient-based,
10 2 Overview of Trajectory Optimization Techniques

Table 2.1 Popular deterministic optimization algorithms available for trajectory optimization prob-
lems
Deterministic optimization algorithms
Sequential quadratic programming (SQP) [7]
Interior-point method (IP) [48]
Interior-point sequential quadratic programming (IPSQP) [49]
Linear programming (LP) [50]
Second-order cone programming (SOCP) [47]
Semidefinite programming (SDP) [51]
Dynamic programming (DP) [52]
Differential dynamic programming (DDP) [53]
Stochastic differential dynamic programming (SDDP) [54]

Table 2.2 Popular stochastic optimization algorithms available for trajectory optimization prob-
lems
Stochastic Optimization Algorithms
Genetic algorithm (GA) [1]
Differential evolution (DE) [55]
Violation learning differential evolution (VLDE) [3]
Particle swarm optimization (PSO) [10]
Predator–prey pigeon-inspired optimization (PPPIO) [56]
Ant colony (AC) [57]
Artificial bee colony (ABC) [37]
Simulate annealing (SA) [58]
Tabu search (TS) [59]

convexification-based, dynamic programming-based, and derivative-free (heuristic-

based) optimization techniques are used to calculate the optimal time history with
respect to the spacecraft state and control variables. These algorithms can be further
grouped into the deterministic and the stochastic approaches.
The most popular optimization methods among these two groups are summarized
and tabulated in Tables 2.1 and 2.2. It should be noted that not all the optimization
algorithms under each category are listed in this table. Alternatively, only some
important examples are reviewed and these techniques are discussed in detail in
the following subsections. A large number of numerical simulations were carried
out in related works. The results indicated that these newly proposed optimization
strategies are effective and can provide feasible solutions for solving the constrained
space vehicle trajectory design problems.
2.2 Optimization Techniques and Applications 11

2.2.1 Gradient-Based Methods

One of the most commonly used optimization algorithms for optimizing the space-
craft flight trajectory is the classic gradient-based method. Among gradient-based
methods, the sequential quadratic programming (SQP) method and the interior-point
(IP) method are used successfully for the solution of large-scale NLP problems [60].
In [61], a fuel-optimal aeroassisted spacecraft orbital transfer problem was first trans-
formed to a static NLP via a pseudospectral discretization method. Then, the static
NLP was solved by applying the standard SQP method to generate the fuel-optimal
flight trajectory. Similarly, in [7] the SQP method was applied as the primary op-
timizer to search the time-optimal flight trajectory of a low-thrust orbital transfer
problem.
Although SQP methods can be used as an effective algorithm to produce the op-
timal flight trajectory, most of the SQP implementations require the exact solution
of the subproblem. This may increase the computational burden of the solver sig-
nificantly [49]. Moreover, since most SOP methods utilize the active set strategy
to handle inequality constraints, the computational burden may be increased if the
active set is initialized in an improper way.
Apart from the SQP method, an alternative gradient-based method is the interior-
point (IP) method developed during the last decade. Investigations of IP can be found
in a large amount of work. To apply this method, the inequality constraints need to be
transcribed to equality constraints by introducing some slack variables such that the
problem can be solved in a simpler form. An application of the IP method in space
vehicle trajectory design problem can be found in [48]. In this work, a space shuttle
atmospheric reentry problem was considered and discretized via a shooting method.
The resulting static NLP problem was then addressed by applying the IP method.
Simulation results provided in this work confirmed the effectiveness of applying the
IP method. However, it is worth noting that for the IP method, the main challenge
is to define the penalty functions and initialize the penalty factor in the augmented
merit function in order to measure the quality of the optimization process.
In [49], combining the advantages of the SQP and IP methods, the authors pro-
posed a two-nested gradient-based method, named interior-point sequential quadratic
programming (IPSQP), for solving the aeroassisted spacecraft trajectory design prob-
lem. One important feature of this approach is that an inner solution-finding loop was
embedded in the algorithm framework, thereby allowing the QP subproblem to be
solved inexactly. In this way, the design can have more flexibility to control the opti-
mization process and the algorithm efficiency can also be improved to some extent.
Simulation results and comparative studies were reported to show the effectiveness
as well as the reliability of this improved gradient-based method.
12 2 Overview of Trajectory Optimization Techniques

2.2.2 Evolutionary-Based Methods

In an optimization problem, if it is hard to get the gradient information of the ob-

jective functions or constraints (i.e., due to the high nonlinearity involved in these
functions), the classic gradient-based method might no longer be reliable or avail-
able. In this case, the evolutionary-based methods, also known as global optimization
methods, become the only way to produce the optimal solution, as there is no deriva-
tive information required in an evolutionary approach. This indicates that it will not
suffer from the difficulty of calculating the Jacobian as well as the Hessian matrix.
Evolutionary algorithms or global optimization methods use the principle of “sur-
vival of the fittest” adopted to a population of elements representing candidate so-
lutions [6, 11, 62]. Compared with classic gradient-based algorithms, there is no
initial guess value required by the algorithms as the population is initialized ran-
domly. Thanks to the nature of the evolutionary algorithm, it tends to be more likely
than classic gradient methods to locate the global minimum [10].
There are many types of evolutionary algorithms that are available to produce the
optimal solution of an engineering optimization problem. For example, the generic
class of evolutionary algorithms such as the genetic algorithm (GA) and differen-
tial evolution (DE), the agent-based class such as the particle swarm optimization
(PSO) and the pigeon-inspired optimization (PIO), and the colony-based class of
algorithms such as the ant colony optimization (ACO) and the artificial bee colony
(ABC) algorithm. Relative works on developing or applying these global optimiza-
tion methods in spacecraft trajectory design are widely researched in the literature.
In [63], a constrained space capsule reentry trajectory design problem was addressed
by applying a modified GA. Similarly, Kamesh et al. [64] incorporated a hybrid GA
and a collocation method so as to address an Earth–Mars orbital transfer task. The
authors in [62] produced the optimal path for a space robotic manipulator by using
a standard PSO method.
Conway et al. [6] combined global optimization algorithms with a standard
gradient-based method in order to construct a bi-level structural optimal control
method. In their latest work, Pontani and Conway [10] utilized a modified parti-
cle swarm optimization algorithm to globally optimize the flight path of a cycling
spacecraft.
An enhanced differential evolution approach incorporated with a violation degree-
based constraint handling strategy was constructed in our previous work to approxi-
mate the optimal flight trajectory [3] of a space maneuver vehicle entry problem. In
this work, a simplex-based direct search mechanism was embedded in the algorithm
framework in order to improve the diversity of the current population. Besides, a
learning strategy was used to avoid the premature convergence of the algorithm.
Furthermore, the authors in [65] established an ant colony inspired optimization
algorithm so as to plan a multi-phase space vehicle orbital flight trajectory. An au-
tomated approach based on genetic algorithm and monotonic basin hopping was
applied in [66] to address a launch vehicle interplanetary trajectory problem.
2.2 Optimization Techniques and Applications 13

Although the aforementioned works have shown the feasibility of using heuristic-
based methods for addressing spacecraft trajectory design problems, the validation of
solution optimality becomes difficult. Moreover, the computational complexity due
to the heuristic optimization process tends to be very high [67]. Therefore, it is still
difficult to treat heuristic-based methods as a “standard” optimization algorithm that
can be applied to solve general spacecraft trajectory planning problems. Much effort
is expected to improve the computational performance of this kind of algorithm.

2.2.3 Convexification-Based Methods

Recently, a growing interest can be found in applying convexification-based methods

for generating the optimal spacecraft flight trajectories [68]. An important feature of
applying this kind of method is that it can be implemented with theoretical guarantees
with regard to the solution and computational efficiency. Since most of the practical
spacecraft trajectory optimization problems are usually nonconvex, in order to apply
a convex optimization method, various convexification techniques are developed
to transform the original problem formulation to a convex version. This can also be
understood as using a specific convex optimization model to approximate the original
nonconvex formulation. Commonly, there are three types of convex optimization
existing in the literature:
1. Linear programming model (LP),
2. Second-order cone programming model (SOCP),
3. Semidefinite programming model (SDP).
In terms of the LP model, it should be noted that if the considered problem is
relatively complex (i.e., the nonlinearity of the system dynamics, objectives, or con-
straints is high), then the LP model might not be sufficient and reliable to approximate
the original problem formulation. On the other hand, as for the SDP model, although
it has the most accurate approximation ability among the three models listed above,
the transformed convex formulation is often not well-scaled, thereby resulting in
an increase with regards to the computational complexity. On the contrary, a good
balance between the approximation accuracy and the computational complexity can
be achieved by applying the SOCP model. This strategy approximates the problem
constraints using the second-order cone such that the transformed problem can be
solved with a relatively small computing power.
Contributions made to implement convexification-based optimization methods to
solve space vehicle trajectory design problems can be found in the literature. For
example, in [69, 70], the planetary landing problem was addressed by using the
convex optimization method under the consideration of nonconvex thrust magnitude
constraints. Also, in [71], the SOCP method was applied to produce the optimal
trajectory of the spacecraft entry planning problem. In this work, nonconvex collision
avoidance constraints, as well as the navigation uncertainties, were also taken into
account and reformulated into convex constraints during the optimization phase.
14 2 Overview of Trajectory Optimization Techniques

2.2.4 Dynamic Programming-Based Methods

The motivation for the use of dynamic programming-based methods relies on their
enhanced ability in achieving stable performance and in dealing with local optimal
solution, that naturally exist in nonlinear optimal control problems. In this subsection,
two typical dynamic programming-based algorithms are reviewed such as the stan-
dard dynamic programming (DP) method, and the differential dynamic programming
method (DDP).
Motivated by the Bellman’s principle of optimality, DP is proposed and applied
to solve engineering optimization problems [52]. The primary idea of the Bellman’s
principle is that the optimal solution will not diverge if other points on the original
optimal solution are chosen as the starting point to re-trigger the optimization process.
Based on this principle, DP calculates the optimal solution for every possible decision
variable. Hence, it is highly likely to result in the curse of dimensionality [54].
In order to deal with the main deficiency faced by the standard DP, the DDP
approach has been designed [72]. In this method, the solution-finding process is
performed locally in a small neighborhood of a reference trajectory. Subsequently,
this method calculates the local optimal solution by using a backward and a for-
ward sweep repeatedly until the solution converges. The DDP method has been
successfully applied to calculate the optimal solution of some space missions. For
example, in [73, 74], a comprehensive theoretical development of the DDP method,
along with some practical implementation and numerical evaluation was provided.
In [72], a DDP-based optimization strategy was proposed and applied to calculate
the rendezvous trajectory to near-Earth objects.
However, most of the recent DDP work does not take the model uncertainties and
noises into account in the process of finding the solution. Consequently, the solution-
finding process might fail to produce a nominal solution which can guarantee the
feasibility all along the trajectory when uncertainties or model errors perturb the
current solution.
According to all the relative works reported, it can be concluded that although
the results generated from most existing optimization algorithms can be accepted as
near-optimal solutions, there is still room for improvement with respect to applying
these optimization strategies in spacecraft trajectory design problems.

2.3 Multi-objective Trajectory Optimization Overview

Traditional trajectory design usually aims at one single objective, for example, min-
imizing the aerodynamic heating, maximizing the cross range, etc. However, it is
worth noting that in many practical spacecraft flight operations, multiple perfor-
mance indices must frequently be considered during the trajectory design phase
and this brings the development of multi-objective trajectory optimization (MOTO)
[75–77].
Another random document with
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dubbelzinnig kijken, als hij, de rijke, in de buurt was, maar Grint most
van d’r afblijve met z’n lompe pooten. En niet, omdat ze Grint geen
heel-knappe jonge vond, pik-zwart haar, met ooge!.… glimmend,
puur roet.… maar omdat ze nou eenmaal in ’r boerenhoofd de idee
had vastgespijkerd, dat z’n dame most worde.… En dan raik! raik!
Main Kristis! Nou zou ze met ruwe hebzucht wegduwen, wat ’r in den
weg stond.… Om ’r familie gaf ze geen zier. Gehechtheid had ’r nooit
ingezeten, bij niet één. Dirk was ’n stille zuiper en Piet ook.

Verdierlijkt en geteisterd in zwoeg, werkbeestig-stomp, zagen ze

alleen in elkaar, wat hun rauwe begeerten wilden. Guurt zag ze
alleen als zuiplappen, meidenlollers en spelers, en hun zwoeg-
naturen begreep ze niet. Voor den Ouë voelde ze niks. Die had ’r in
d’r leven nooit ’n zacht woord gezegd. Wat die docht dat wist se nie.
D’r moeder vond ze raar, kniezerig en grieniger, niet-wetend wàt ze
eigenlijk wou. Alleen Kees de Strooper, waar ze allemaal ’t land an
hadde, die mocht ze wel lijen, omdat ie ’r vroeger, in huis, nooit
geranseld had als Piet en Dirk.—Nee, aa’s se wat van d’r eige make
wou, mos se hem, ’t heertje, hebbe.… En aa’s ze getrouwd was, dan
naar g’n sterveling omzien.… dan was se ’n dame.—Dan naar ’n
stad.… en hem onder d’r duim. En dan Guurt.… maide in je
dienst.… zei ze zich ieder keer weer.… Paa’s op.… nie aa’s de
andere vraisters.… nie in de donkere loantjes aa’stie wil, en nie op
de grond, en nie achter de struikies.…

Want aa’s je je aige geef, bi je’m puur kwait.… Sai wàs f’soenlik, se
most ’t blaiwe. [45]
[Inhoud]
 DERDE HOOFDSTUK.

Om tien uur ’s morgens stond ouë Gerrit voor het hek van jonkheer
van Ouwenaar’s buitenplaats. Op het jachtterrein en bosch was
houtveiling voor tuinders van Wiereland en omstreken. Door de
lanen van het bosch, even voorbij het groote kasteelig-leelijk
woongebouw der adellijke familie, liepen, alleen of bij troepjes, de
sjofele tuinders, leuk-ironisch elkaar belollend, dat ze zóó maar,
vrijelijk op de binnenplaats, den tuin van het groote buiten, mochten
kuieren, heen en weer, waar ze wilden, als vrienden van den
hooghartigen jonkheer. ’n Paar bejammerden ’t, in luid naar-elkaar-
toegeschreeuw, dat de jonker, ze op zoo’n guren winterdag
„genooid” had. Ironie van kerels, die even hun ellende voelden,.…
dat ze nu als kóópers, de slijkige winterpaden nog vuiler mochten
bemorsen, met hun beklodderde klompen, maar zomer’s, als in
dàtzelfde bosch, in die lanen, alles wasemde van gouddamp, drééf
in zonnegloed, zij te eerbiedigen hadden, stugge bordjes met
strafwetsartikel zóóveel, dàn die zondampende heerlijkheid
verboden toegang bleef. Ze krieuwden en klomp-klepperden
tusschen het kreupelhout, de donkere tuindersstoetjes, als
hongerdieren, zoekend naar aas. Eén donkere stoet, bij groepjes,
lijven op klompen, in grauwen winterdag, één droeve, troosteloos
dolende massa, met nu en dan galgen-humor-uitroepen van kerels,
die elkaar voorbijschoten in scheemrig kreupel- en hakhout, elkaar
wat dollend toeriepen. Met handen in de zakken liepen ze te
huiveren, pijpsmakkend of pruimend. ’t Gewas stond bij groepen
genummerd te koop, met ’n rij ontvelde streepschors, aangevend
hoever elk nommer ging. [46]Telkens doolden van elkaar en
donkerden weer bij één de kruipende, bukkende tuinders achter
hoog kreupel door, op geul’rigen bultgrond, nauw-wringend hun
lijven door eng gestrengel van takkronkels, die verwilderd zwaar
uitschoten tusschen jong geboomte. Soms, achter elkaar gekromd,
zich door het kreupel wringend, suisden er, in giftig weggespan van
gestrengeld gewas, terugzwiepingen van knoest-takken, onder
pijnschreeuw van nà-duikende kerels, die ’t zwiephout tegen hun
kleum-paarse gezichten aangestriemd kregen. Voor dat de veiling
begon wilden ze de nummers zien, kijken wat hun het beste geschikt
leek.

Hassel liep met Taffer, armen tuinder, die niet koopen mocht, omdat
ie éénmaal op grondgebied van den jachtheer gesnapt was als
strooper; nooit meer hout voor z’n bedrijf krijgen kon. Maar toch was
ie eens gaan kijken. Naast hem strompelde manke Karner, vroeger
speciaal-teelder van erwten en boonen, maar die nog veertig gulden
houtschuld had van twee jaar, en niets meer bijkrijgen kon. Hij had
wel gejammerd en gehuilebalkt, bij den notaris, over z’n gemeen
jaar, z’n vernielden oogst, door wild, konijnen, ongedierte, muizen,
winden en plasregens, z’n beroerd brok grond met derrie verpest, en
dat ze allemaal wisten, dat ie niet zoop,—’t hielp niets. De notaris
kon geen krediet meer geven, want bij den jonkheer moest hij er
voor instaan nee, de notaris kòn, mocht niet langer. Als de jonkheer
van hem geld opeischte moest hij klaarstaan, al had ie van géén
tuinder ’n cent binnen. Dat had Karner moeten weten, en dat ze’m
zelf zoo vaak beet namen, ’m lieten zitten met ’t hout, of met
ànderen scharrelden als hij ze pas gekrediteerd had. Ja, als ie ’n
paar borgen had kunnen meebrengen dan ging ’t. En nou
strompelde en morde Karner rond, hopend iemand te ontmoeten, die
borg voor ’m zijn wou. Eerst dacht ie aan Hassel, maar die had ’m
kort en nijdig geweigerd. Bij ’n hoek van ’n laan, op ’n duinbult zag ie
den notaris en z’n bode al.… Jonge, jonge benauwde ’t in ’m, nou
wordt ’t puur tait.… hij mos d’r een vinde!

Met zwaren mank-tred stapte ie plots áán op Wipper, grooten

[47]tuinder-pachter, roomsch, met vrome handen, den kleinen ’t brood
uit den mond pikkend. Maar ’t most t’r nou maar uit, vond Karner.
Ademloos-òp van ’t harde hinken, smeekte ie ’m voor ’n paar gulden
hout borg te staan, dit jaar alleen. Maar Wipper hield zich
verontwaardigd, juichend innerlijk, dat zoo’n krenterige ketter bij hem
kwam bedelen.

—Wa, f’rsalderemende.… mô je main?.… zong z’n Wierelands

geluid in haastige stemstijging,.… wa’ bin ik van je?.… wà’ hep
ikke.… Waai borg f’r karnemelk!.… sel mooie klus sain.… f’r wa vrag
je sain nie, an Geldorp.… die hep de loodpot.—

Onrustig door ’t kreupelhout keek Karner naar den notaris, of ie al

begon, maar nergens zag ie ’m meer. Hij hoorde wel aan den toon
van Wipper, dat ie ’r niet om dacht ’m te helpen.… die uitzuiger,.…
die dief.… die had nou z’n brood veur vier.…

Weer loerde ie naar voorbij drentelende tuinders, of ’r éen tusschen

zat. Daar zag ie Kees Hassel, den Strooper.… verdomme, dat was ’n
vent, as die maar had.… maar die was zelf luis-arm van beroep.—

Te vroeg waren ze, de tuinders. Nog wat gescharrel was er òm den

eersten koop. Barend Swart had met z’n beklompten voet ’n
stekelvarken uit kuilerig bladnestje gerold.

—Kaik lui.… daa’s krek ’n prikkebaas.… riep ie naar ’n troepje dat

zijn richting uitdrentelde. Staan bleef ’t bij Barend.

Een ouë tuinder, Koo Bergert, hinderde ’t dat ze ’t beesje kwaad

wouen doen.

—F’rek là’ sitte da beesie.… la sitte.… binne tuikige

muisesnoepers.… toeë!.… la sitte da beesie.… se heppe ’t t’r
wàrm.…
—Verroest,.… hai.… wil puur nie loope.… jai luiwammes, lachte
Barend.… ik sel f’rbrande aas ’k s’n snuit sien.… wacht!.… kaik!.…
’n duwetje op z’n test.… kaik, net de poap uit de Pieterstraat.… wà ’t
’n smoel.…

Dat was berekende zet van Barend tegen Koo, hevig

katholiekenhater [48]als ie was, en belust om, waar ook, ze ’n trap te
geven.—En nou kon ie ’t t’met niet zetten, dat die rooie Koo ’m zoo
lijmerig had gezegd: la sitte da beesie.… hij, die geen kwaad in zin
nam, en puur sien had, dat tie s’n eige trekhonde, aa’s-tie woedend
was, so maar d’r poote knelde, tusschen de deur, van puur f’nijn.…

Overal, van kreupelhout en zijpaden uit, klonk stemgerucht van

tuinderslui in de gure dag-donkering. Van uit ’n duister dichtgegroeid
opkronkelend, hobbelig dwars-pad, kwam ouë Gerrit op ’t kringetje
aan met den radeloozen Karner, die nog geen borg had, overal was
opgebonkt tegen lollende of tartende kwaadwilligheid, en help-jezelf-
maar-egoïsme.

Nog stonden de koppen met pofpetten en kleurige platte dekkertjes,

gebukt kijkend naar ’t stekelvarkentje, dat Barend, uit lust tot verzet
niet met rust liet. Met z’n hand, bevilt in ’n stapeltje rotte bladeren,
stond ie tegen ’t prik-bollige varkentje te schudden, om ’m aan ’t
loopen te krijgen. Maar ’t diertje, dat langzaam z’n zwart kopje, door
de ruggeduwetjes van Barend, uit z’n prikkel-lijf liet wiebelen, deed
alsof ie loopen wou, maar niet kon.

—Kaik! daa’s Barend, stern-zong verbaasd ’n tuinder, achter het

kreupel uitloerend.… wa hebbe wai nou an de hand?.… ’n
bunsem?.…

—Nee frind, spotte Barend, ’t poapie van ’t Pieterstroatje.. kaik.…

f’rsalderemente.… kaik se snuut.… twee druppele woater ’t poapie
uit ’t Pietertje.… kaik van angst moakt ie ’n kruissie.… op s’n aige.…
—Is ’t weràchtig? gierde de tuinder in ’t kreupelhout, en metéen
stapte ie den gulzigen kijkkring in.… Ik wou d’r al puur segge.…
stonk ie van dat soon uur in de wind.—

—’t Is hier niks op hede, zuchtte ie naar Karner en Hassel toe, die
opgedrongen stonden achter ruggen van kijkers, en knorrige kerels,
die zwaar stampten van kou, en duivelsch nijdig elkaar vroegen of
meneer de notaris nog niet inzetten, liet.…

—’t Is hier niks op hede, hoestte Reldering weer uit.… [49]koal.…

koal.… aa’s de pest.… t’met allegoar elst.… elst.… wa hai je d’r
an?.… g’n saitak d’ran.… alle ste dik.. of alles te dun.… koal …
f’rvloekt koal.…

—Hoho.… ho.… ho.… kuchte Hassel, fijntjes lachend, se kenne je ’t

nog wel an huus brenge heé?.…

—’t Wort tog voor je gehakt, spotte Barend.

—Dank se de duufel.…, gromde Reldering, vaif pesent.. kost ons

duite, en wai.… arme donders.… wai betoàle de netaris, nog tien
pesent d’rboofediene!

—Was ommirs altait soo.…, zei plechtig-onderdanig een klein

tuindertje uit den kring,.… en aa’s jonk’r d’r is betoalt.… biej jullie
ommirs hóóger op.… en hai, meneer de netaris.… hai mo’ ommirs
s’n tweehalf pesent an ’t Raik puur kwait.… da heppie nie in ééne.…

—Hoor de gluipert, de stiekemert veur haorlie preeke.… Wat ’n

bunsum.… aa’s jonker je sien, smait ie je krek ’t hek uit.… dan si-je
in je stinker.… hee?.…

—Da sit nog.… da sit nog.… dolde nijdig-rood de kleine terug.…

main sinte heppe-eenderlai makelai.… aasjouwe.. vierkànt woar.…
—Ho!.… pfoe!.… ho-pfoe! wat ’n krakende woar.… minachte met
lipgeblaas Barend den roomschen tuinder toe.

—Wa geklieter, barstte éen lachend midden uit.… ’t sit t’im nie in de
breete, ’t sit t’im nie in de lengte.… moar ’t sit t’im in de ronte.…
doar!.…

—Hard-stikke midde in, lolde Barend terug, in lach-gekuch, voelend

dat ’t gehak ze begon te vervelen.

—Nou, d’r wort moar heul wà’ beskoue’.… mit sukke vailinge.…
daa’s main weust!.… bracht deftig ouë Gerrit ertusschen, zoo maar
om ook wat kwijt te wezen.

—F’r saldrefinke, vloekte Barend gemaakt, si je in de knaip? wou jài

beure veur jonker?.… Hai jullie sien Lieshout van Bunkeweg
f’rsaldrefinke.… stong t’met te spitte, gain voet mest op se land.…
Die is sóó luisig nakent.… da tie t’met g’n vreete hep.… Je mag
main an rieme snaie.… aas ie ’n poar klodders mest dokke ken.…
Op de reutel is niks meer [50]veur sain.… g’n halve sint.… sa’k
verbrandde!.… Nou spit tie se aige dood, mi-sonder mest.… Op s’n
bakkis kraigt tie niks.… vaiftien aggels mi-sonder ’n voet mest.…

—Da sel main groentetje worde, ironiseerde Kwaker, wi je hem’s

oogst ankommend joar buurmaàn?.… veur ’n kwartje de roe?.…
ikke, veur g’n sint.… duure mest.… ge’koope groente.… wà’ jou!.…

—Eige skult, zei gelaten Koo Bergert met ’n pruimspog op den

grond, en oogen neer.… Eige skult.… de half van sain ontvangs
verzuupt ie puur.…

—Wâ roomsche ras! barstte nijdig Barend uit, aige skult?.. gekruist
tuig! hep de netaris sain nie in hande, mi losse veurskietertjes? Hep
dokter Troost sain nie t’met drie joar mi ’n rekening achter se gat
sete?.… en hep ie kenne dokke?.… Hep ie nie ’n hiepeteek op sain
stukkie grond gànnift.… dat-tie nou.… nòu nog sit te bloeje.…? daa’s
’n skoft die dokter.… ’n fampier.… suigt se hier allegoar ’t bloed de
nagels uit!.… die hep se allegoar onder ’t duimpie!.… hai.… en de
netaris.—.… Aige skult?.… nou suipt ie van beloorighait.…

Barend was in schreeuw-woede uitgebarsten. ’t Wrokte ’m al zoo

lang, en niks, niks durfde ie zeggen, maar nou tegen dien
roomschen glupert, most ’t eruit.

—Aige skult, drensde sarrend, de rooie Koo door, aige skult..

versuipt s’n messtuit.…

—F’rsalderemoote, driftte met vuurrood opwindings-gezicht, Barend

weer terug,—doch jài da se bai jullie nie soope.… De meeste onder
ons saine tog van jullie ras.… hiet da liege!.. hiet da liege!.… nou
daa’t ’n noakende grifirmeerde is.… nou is ’t aige skult.… d’r binne
d’r genog bai jullie die d’r land niet beskaite kenne.… en suipe aa’s
’n spons.… wa jou.… Reldering, wà’ jou?.…

—La’ die dwarrel klietere.… die geep.… sullie magge suipe.… aa’s
se moar hullie petje veur de kerk wippe.… vàn de kerk, in de
kroeg.…

Barend, wat kalmer, lawaaiend in stugge gebaren met z’n [51]dikke

armen de lucht in, in z’n handen nog bladvuil, bukte weer over ’t
stekelvarkentje, en gaf het, ’n gedachteloos-woedenden duw, dat z’n
aapig zwart-gevlekt tronietje even hevig uit z’n priemlijf wiebelde.
Met z’n voet morrelde ie ’t toen weer terug in bladernest, zachtjes,
met ingehouen trapjes; streek ie nog meer bladrommel over ’t diertje,
’t warmer inbakerend boven z’n stekels. Achter het grauwe kreupel
kwam plots gerucht van zware, aristokratisch-accentueerende
notarisstem. Z’n zilver hoofdhaar schemerde al achter de boschjes
uit.…
—Huhu.… huhu!.… jaagde Hassel, uit den kring springend, t’met
begint ie, kaik, jonker van Ouwenaar hep ie bai sain.…

—F’rjenne wà’ koud, kermde er een, z’n armen koetsierig om z’n

borst slaand.

—Bar, bin soo koud aa’s m’n paip, mokte ’n ander.…

—Kruip in ’n stuk hout.… wà’ klieterkouse jullie benne. Een troepje

kerels, bibberend van guurte, strompelde voorbij, op struikloos
padje, armen over elkaar slaand, in woedende doffe patsen.…

—Set bloed àn.… hai je de skrik van jonker opsoge Tellepan?

—Guur aa’s de pest.… nattig.… ging éen voorbij, aanstampend met

zwaren loop op den bulterigen grond.

Hoesterig en stem-zwaar was de grijze notaris met jonker van

Ouwenaar de stoeten achterop geloopen. De bode met ’n klerk je
achter ’m, stem-luidde áán. Notaris achterop, bleef zwaar-deftig
praten, met jonkheer. Als ’n stoet dringende, waggelende, donkere
ganzen, strompelden en bonsden over den oneffen grond, vol
stronken en stompen, de tuinders op bode-geluid bijeen. Notaris had
wat te zeggen. Te luisteren stonden ze in ’n kring om ’m heen.
Notaris, in ’t zwart,—tusschen sjofele plunje-kerels,—met gebaren,
deftig, van begemsleerde handschoen-handen, z’n grijzen
levenslustigen kop, z’n diepe rijkelui’s-stemklank, vertrouwelijk-
hooghartig boeren en tuinders toesprekend, glimlachte met ironisch
gebaar van [52]wij-verstaan-elkaar, naar den jonkheer. Roerloos-
aristokratisch stond deze naast ’m, eerbiediglijk toch af van de
tuinders, broodmager als ’n menschelijk rijshout, schraal, om te
knakken, uitgesproten, bloedloos-huid-gelig, ongenaakbaar, in kring
van begroefde bruine zwoegerstronies, met hun breed-geweldige
zwoegborsten, en geteisterde werklijven. Notaris las even enkele
bepalingen voor. Als troepje dichter wat aandrong van achter, en
opschoof van voorste rij, dan deftig, met lichte trekjes aan z’n klein
rossig snorretje, stapte de jonkheer àchteruit, buiten vunzige lucht
van hun modderige kleeren, met voelbare allure van edelman in
gebaar, waaraan geen tuinder te na mocht komen. Notaris had door
gesproken:

—Jonges, stemklankte ie voornaam-intiem,—nou weet jullie ’t.…

Augustus volgend jaar betàle.… vijf procent voor den hakker.… tien
procent voor ons.

—Betale ook, lachte éen uit den kring,—daa’s weer nuufe

f’rreglemeteering.… was vroeger niks van sait.…

Notaris lachte goeiïg, den bode ’n wenk gevende, die begreep. Met
z’n wreed-stuggen kop, listig-gluiperige oogen, licht als schichtjes,
wachtte die af, kruiperig, den blik van z’n patroon. Als geranselde
hond zat er gehoorzaamheid in z’n gezicht en kwispelend-
onderdanig vreugde-beweeg in z’n nerveuze handen. Met zwarte
teerletters op plankje, was koop I aangeduid. Ze wisten allemaal wat
voor waar ’t was. Met ’n handdraai van bode, hobbelden stoeten in
beweging, in waggel-gang op bultgrond, elkaar verdringend en
bestriemend achter boschjes en kreupel, om ’t eerst bij koop I, dicht
naast den omroeper-bode, te staan. Plots stond stil, de donk’re
stoet, bij ’t plankje-van-koop, wachtend tot bode zou inzetten,
tusschen ’n opdringing van sjofele kerels, achter-elkaar, kring van
kou-koppen, en hevige gezichts-kontrasten. Van achterste rijen,
waren alleen maar koppen te zien met verdringing van lijven op
elkaar ingestoet, in spannende luistering. Kòppen, geteisterd van
kou, met vervreemde en vergrommende uitdrukking van leven.
Opgestoet in jagenden, haat-woelenden kooplust. Kòppen, paars-
blauwig, wrevel-dierlijk, bleeke, rooie en rossige gezichten.
[53]Snuiten, rauw-doorgroefd en verkerfd, doorpokt en bebaard.
Spitse, naast vet-ronde, sluike, naast wreedhoekige, en spottende,
tusschen vroom-strakke, primitieve boerentronies.

Pruik-haar naast woest-verwaarloosd groeisel, bruine en grijze

stoppels op woestige, grimmige en leuke koppen. Tronies, fanatiek-
gestard en valsch, van sluwe boertjes, met ingepriemde smuiger-
oogjes, licht en ondoorgrondelijk-speelsch loerend naar elke
beweging van jonker, notaris en bode. Eén kring van koppen en
koppen, de eerste rij lijven voorop, alleen in rot-plunje te zien;
wellust-koppen met hangende, smullende lippen en vuilbepruimde
mondhoeken, naast strak-geschoren gladhuiden, komedianterig
droog van trekken. Gezichten van àl-vreemde expressies, met halve
Shakespearefronts, hoog als muren, Mirabeau-neuzen en mottig
wangvleesch; met Dante-kinnen, vroom en scherp, bovenkaken van
hyena’s, buldoggenmonden en bovenlippen met bestoppelde
donk’re verbrande velkleuren en trekken van gesarde mandrils. Zóó,
in dreigkring, met brokjes èven zichtbaar, van oranje dassen en
kielblauw, stonden ze opgepakt, in den grauwen dag, tusschen het
sombre bruin-vale kreupel, hunkerend, loerig, elkaar ’t licht in de
oogen niet gunnend.

Machinaal-onverschillig met hoog-deunig Wiereland’s stemgeklank,

en snelle verslikking van halve zinnen zette de bode in.

—Kom f’rrinde, hoev’l geld!.… twòalf, twoalf geboje.… dertien.…

feertien.… feertien geboje.… vaiftien.… sestien.… sestien geboje.…
sefentien.… àgtien.… àgtien geboje.… àgtien.… niemand meer?.…
éénmoal.… àndermoal.… voor-de-derde-moal.… En uitstijgend,
zong z’n stem de cijfers, kijkend naar elken kant glunderig, of ie niet
vergat geheime bod-wenkjes op te vangen, van achterste rij koppen,
of van bijzij-staanden op ’t pad.

Tuinder van Oever had „geprijsd”, stapte parmantig uit kringgedrang

op bode aan, om sluiks-zeker z’n kwartje „plokgeld” naar zich toe te
graaien. Maar koop was er nog niet mee gedaan. Uit-zich-zelf
wetend, dat de heeren ’t laatste [54]d’r uit moesten hebben, sloeg
bode òp, boven prijsmaker nog tien gulden. Weer zong z’n zwaar
stemgeluid:

—Nog twintig kwart daar-en-boofe.., en toen langzaam zakkend, de

haat-loeringen van tuinders onderling, strak-cynisch negeerend, als
suggereerend-aanwijzend, elken keer dat cijfer làger werd, zoekend
met z’n dreigstem koop-slachtoffer, tusschen den stoet,—stootte ie
uit, afgebeten, rauw van kreet:

—Negen-tien, agg-tien.… sefentien.…. sestien.… vaiftien.…

viertien.…. dertien.…. twaalf.… ellef!.… dan lager dalend met
spannender stilterust in cijferzakking:

—tien!.… nege!.… àggt!.…

—Main, klonk heesche kreet van tuinder-venter plots wild achter uit
den stoet.

—G’luk d’rmee voor IJzerman, zangklankte de bode, die achter z’n

rug, heesch geluid van dien tuinder herkend had.

Notaris, lach-luchtig redeneerend, even noteerend prijs en naam,

handen warm-lekker-geborgen in dik gemsleer, sjouwde joviaal-
op-’n-afstand, achter den wiemelenden sjofele tuindersstoet, die
dwars en krom-wringend door kreupelboschjes, den bode vóór-
waggelde naar koop II. Tusschen den droeven stoet liepen kerels,
armelijk in voddige plunje, lawaaiende kooplui, met koek, jenever en
drink-kruiken geheimzinnig verwikkeld in rood-baaien lap. ’t Mocht
niet, jenever-verkoop, maar notaris en jonker knepen ’n oogje dicht,
bij rijzenveiling van tuinders.
In armelijk, paars-kaal jasje rommelde een venter, met boeventronie,
z’n bak, onder het snel-waggelend vooruitloopen van de tuinders.
Achter de koopers aanstrompelend, striemden telkens in zijn gezicht,
terugzwiepende takken van gewas. Met vloek en schreeuw, handen
en armen weerloos beladen met negotie-vracht, kroop ie door, van
pijn, stemscheller krijschend:

—Gooi up, gooi up!.… hondert moal f’r je golde.… gooi up.… ses
keere f’r je dubbeltje.… gooi up!.… d’r onder of d’r boove.… gooi
op.… onder de nege of boofe de twoalef!..

En sluwig-verborgen, wenkte ie de tuinders met klownige

[55]gebaartjes, dat ze dobbelen moesten om koek, wel wetend dat
jenever bedoeld werd. Armelijk met z’n uitgerafelde, franje-zware,
paarse jas, steen-rood hoedje, kroop ie, kromde ie door kreupelhout
om vóór te zijn uit andere boschhoeken schreeuwende
konkurrenten. Opdringend z’n waar, de tuinders aanklampend, onder
hun zwaar gesjok over krinkels en bultpaden, liet ie ze glunderig-
verlokkend jeneverkelk zien. En sluw zeker, dat ze dan komen
moesten, ging ie al hurken op z’n knieën op moddergrond,
loswikkelend met gretige rukjes z’n blikken jeneverkruik uit baaien
lap. Zoo, van den een naar den ander, in wild gejaag en gestrompel,
kroop ie voort, tusschen de koopers, vooral krijschend in nabijheid
van tuinders die telkens ’n kwartje strijkgeld ingraaiden, rammelend
luidruchtig tegen z’n konkurrent in, met bak en dobbelsteenen:

—Lekkere koek.… koek!.… d’ronder of d’r boofe.… gooi up!.…

Uren bleef zoo geloop van koop naar koop in grauwe

Decemberguurte, het heele bosch door, bijeendringend in cirkel om
bode. Sterk-rauw bleef z’n stem doorklanken. En één hand in zak
rammelend en grabbelend, in vooruit afgetelde kwartjes, reikte ie
met gratie ’t strijkgeld uit aan den sluiks op ’m aanstappenden
prijsmaker. Z’n gekleede jas, af gevreten kaal-zwart stramde ’m op
de borst, en telkens gaf ie zich ’n bons tegen z’n strot, scherper
afstootend z’n.… éénmaal.… àndermoal.… feur de derde moal.…
En overal galmde bij inzet, z’n kraaiige stemschorte door ’t bosch.

—Kùm f’rinde hoev’l geld.…

Kleiner was ringmuur van luisterende tuinderskoppen geworden.

Maar overal om en àchter ’m hield áán schreeuwrumoer van
jenever-koekverkoopers, waggelden wèg, uit den kring, dorstige
kerels op struiken-pad, haastig-dobbelend, over de bak gebogen,
met gretig gekijk hun worp uitklakkerend, woest op borrelkansje
méér.

En star monotoon bleef December-grauw neerschemeren, met hier

en daar, tusschen woelig kreupel, open hoeken plots, waarwije lage
wolkenlucht zwaar te droeven dreef, troosteloos, in [56]nattige
neveling. Soms druilde ’n groenig mospadje tusschen het grauw-
bruin van struiken uit.

Somberder ging de donkre tuinders-stoet als arbeids-processie,

slaverig en loom voort, met doffe klompbonzen, en klosserig-dof
gemep van hout op hout als loopplankjes overgesjokt werden bij
slootjes. Deftig, achter den verguurden stoet, blauw-geteisterd van
kou en kleer-dunte, stapten bedaard-áán, jonkheer en notaris, in
zacht gesprek.

Plots giftte nijdig éen uit den stoet, tusschen wegkronkelenden loop,
onder zwaar kreupel, naar anderen koop.

—Wà’ suinige piàs die jonker hier tug.… niks niemedal te bikke.…

—Of ie, gromde ’n ander.… bij Roomela in ’t bosch, dâ ha-je nog

brood mi koffie.… hai denkt.… geef jullie tuinders te freete.… ik-èn
dank-kie!.…
—F’r wà’ koop jai je hout dan nie gunter, saa’k moar segge, lolde ’n
ander.

—Dà’ he’k ook kocht, moar nie alles was-en skikt.…

—Nou kaik, nètaris kraigt ook niks.… Wai loope.… hai loope.…

—Nou seg gort sak! die kraigt se buikie vol.… petraisies en ’n

langoortje.…

—Da kâ je denke.… Die jonker hier is soo’n liefert.… wai.… wai.…

wee je nog vroegerts.… kraige wai altoos.. koffie mi brood.… bai
sain hier ook.… enn.… dan mog hai happe in brood mi gehak.… bai
tuinboas.… watte?.… doch-ie dat ie soo moar bai jonker in huis mog
komme?.… an me blouze! Aa’s wai.… aa’s wai in de loods sitte te
freete.… mag hai.… mag hai.… bai tuinboas.… En nou di’ joar in
eens g’n snars meer.…

Gesprek brokkelde af in den grimmigen haast-drang van bode om af

te maken. Nog dertig nummers, fort.… fort.… bromde die, achter
waggelstoet.

Ouë Hassel liep op bonkig struik-ruw terrein, vlak achter notaris

Breemsma, die ’m nu en dan vriendelijk aansprak en grapjes maakte
op z’n doorregend, groenig slap-vilten hoedje, [57]dat met den rand
plat afgeslagen, om z’n zilver-harigen kop heenrondde en z’n lokken,
in zilveren kluwen tegen z’n nek opdrukte. Plots zag Gerrit ’t fijn-
ranke gouden schuif-potloodje van notaris vallen. Uit de onbeholpen
handschoen-handen was ’t weggegleeën, onder vraag-
beantwoording van jonkheer. Hassel, die al ’n paar uur op ’t
prachtige potloodje loerde, geen oog meer voor koop over had,
heelemaal vergetend, waarvoor ie gekomen was, zag ’t vallen,
precies op zandplek, tusschen het nattige gestruik en blarengrond.—
Maar net deed ie of ie mee zocht, intusschen, beverig van hartstocht
en verrukking, z’n zwaren klomp-voet op de plek drukkend, waar ie
wist dat ’t potloodje liggen moest. In schijn van zoek-ernst, drukte ie
het hevig éven in den blader-grond, zonder dat notaris iets merkte,
met z’n achterste juist naar hem toegebukt. De smal-hooge jonkheer
was doorgeloopen en bleef staan op ’n kruispadje met z’n stok
tikkend tegen ’n paar struiken, uit speelsige leegheid. Maar
verbaasd-wrevelig keek ie om naar notaris Breemsma, niet
begrijpend, wat ie op één plek daar uitdraaide.

Beef-angstig-blij, had ouë Gerrit, nog al doend, alsof ie ingespannen

meezocht, plots ’n wilde greep gedaan onder z’n voet in modderig
zand, en zoo maar, wild in z’n jekkerzak afgeduwd, gis-voelend met
z’n slijk-klauw in de voering, of ie iets stijfs tusschen het grondvuil
gegrepen had. En snel-tastend voelde ie dat t’r zat, stijf, glad er
tusschen.

—Daa’s daan, daa’s daan juichte ’t woest-dol in ’m van binnen. En

strak ingehouen, met hevige beving in z’n stem vroeg ie notaris,
liefjes, of ie ’m al had, naarstig bukkend naast Breemsma en
wegduwend met z’n smerigen graaienden klauw, struiken en modder
voor notaris, die met z’n handen niet grabbelen wou in ’t vuil. Zoo
vriendelijk en lief vond ’m notaris, dat ie, onder scherp rondgeloer op
grond, overal heen, maar mompelde.… dank je wèl Hassel, dank je
wel.…

—Drommels, ik dacht dat ik ’t maar zoo voor ’t oprape had, zei de

notaris bedremmeld, nog even den achter zich loerenden bode een
sein gevend om iets z’n gang te vertragen.

—Huhu! huhu! da ke je puur so hewwe, perste in zwaren

[58]bukstand en harkig gekrabbel onder knoestig gestruik, de Ouë
eruit, de zwarte aardkluiten aan brei drukkend voor notaris oogen.
Stil, met zwaar ernst-gezicht doorzoekend voelde Gerrit hart-
bonkende verrukking, dat ie zoo vlak bij notaris stond, dat ding zóó
maar in z’n zak had en dat ie zóó netjes kon liegen, netjes kemedie
speule en zóó gejaagd en rustig tegelijk bleef.—Hij zou ’t wel kenne
uitgiere van lol, van pret.… moar stil, soek en kaik aa’s ’n dooie soo
strak, hou je goed.… jesis wà’ soàlig.…

Niets kwam te zien. Notaris had in wanhoop ook gegrabbeld in ’t

zand-nat en z’n vuile vingers streek ie, met viezig gezicht àf langs
boomstammetjes. Erger voelde notaris wrevelblik van den jonkheer.
Ouwenaar wilde niet langer wachten, en voor ’m hoorde notaris al
den bode opjagen, die naar huis wou en schor nu van schreeuwen,
doorkrijschte:

—Dertien, dertien mi je dertiene, veertien.… veertien mi je

veertiene.… nog twintig kwart daarenboofe.…—

Woedend voelde Breemsma zich, woedend op den grond, de

struiken, ’t potloodje, den natten vuilen modder.… Maar vooral
voelde ie vernedering in ’t brutale minachtende gekijk van den
jonker. Wat ’n branie, wat ’n vent om hem zoo z’n minderheid te laten
voelen, nog wel, tegenover die lamme kerels. Ja hij moest wel mee,
anders zou ie van Van Ouwenaar wel weer ’n uitbrander krijgen,
zooals laatst toen ie op ’n veiling ’n half uurtje te laat was gekomen.
—Wat had ie toen niet ruwe beleedigingen over zich heen gesmeten
gekregen, en ’n afstraffing, zoo maar, waar al die leelijke kerels bij
waren. Ze hadden gegrinnikt.…

Verdraaid, wàt lam nou.… dat potlood.… ’n goud ding.. Kijk ’m nijdig
zijn.… ook geen vent om mee te spotten.… Maar kalm houen.…
doen alsof ie niks merkte, weer vrindelijk lachen en anekdoten
oprakelen; anders was ie verdomd z’n klant kwijt. Wel tien notarissen
voor hem, die ’r op loerden.… Maar lànger kon ie niet zoeken.

Hassel zag ’t en zwaar-lekker, met zoete inzuiging van z’n eigen

valsche woorden, zei ie langzaam: [59]
—Aa’s je van de plek goat.… heppie ’t puur kwait.…

Notaris grinnikte, sjokte met vuurrood hoofd van bukken, weer voort,
achter tuindersstoet òp, vriendelijk-glimlacherig weer naast den
stuurschen jonkheer.

[Inhoud]

II.

Toen Hassel zag, dat ’r voor hem toch geen koop meer was, dreef ie
met ’n paar andere tuinders af, door ’n zijpad, modderend nog ’n half
uur door zand en struiken, moe en hijgend maar met ’n oplaaiend
hevig genot in ’m, van z’n diefstal.—Aan ’t Wierelandsche haventje
kwam ie uit. Kringetjes-spuwers en leegloopers stonden daar voor
kroegen, en aan straatjeshoeken gegroept. Z’n zoon, Kees den
Strooper, zag ie ’r óók. Hij zou den vent wel steenigen willen, zoo
woest was ie, alleen àl bij ’t zien van dat uitgeslepen bakkes. Nou
moest ie sain twee maal in ’t gemoet loopen, op de veiling en hier.…
bah.…

Stil, in troostelooze kleurvaalte lag het breeë havenplein, met z’n

droef-kaal boomgerij, dat droom-vaag in het vuil-bruine, donk’re
water spiegelde. De spoordijk, die dwars ophoogde, voor het
ontzaglijk-wije Wierelandsche polderland, lag scherp, in afsnijding
van de luchtruimte, alleen te zien, als men hoog op huizen-stoep van
’t haventje stond, duizel-zwaar overstolpt in wintergrauwen
wolkenhemel.

Uitgestorven sufte ’t haventje, met enkele schuiten en booten

dwarsliggend, aan den walkant, stug-vaal van kleuren, menie-rood
en rauw-groen, die waterig-flauw in wal-spiegel afbraken in
vloeiende kleur-scherven. Ouë Gerrit was een van de havenkroegjes
binnen geloopen, had snel ’n brandewijn met suiker in één slok
ingeborreld, met niemand sprekend, hòlde naar huis, vol van hevig
genot. Duizelig, met z’n modderhand, tastend in z’n zak naar het
potloodje, dat ie nog niet eruit had durven halen, liep ie over den
weg, in zoete zalige stille opwinding. [60]

Guurtje had z’n eten in bed gestopt, onder de dekens en toen ie,
toch grimmig van ’n leeg-weeïg maaggeprikkel instapte, vroeg ie
gauw z’n kliek. Bij het suffe gezicht van z’n vrouw was ie al weer uit
z’n humeur. Zij zat maar zonder ’m aan te zien, te suffen voor het
raampje, met ’r ellebogen op tafel, te staren op het doodsche
keipadje, naar ’n vuil kind dat voorbijkloste, naar ’n berooid-kale kip,
die aan ’t drentelen was op ’t leege weggetje, naar ’n venter, en al
maar voor d’r, de leeggevreten tuinderij, afgeknaagde singels, met
d’r nattige vuil-gele hooi-klampen, stil en dreigend, en d’r omgespitte
grondbrokken.—Bijna uit z’n humeur, toen ie d’r lamme snuit zag.…
Alleen het gladde zalige wrijven over het potloodje, hield ’m stil-
ingespannen. Tot vier uur bleef ie zitten smakken, blijerig denken,
alleen in z’n vreugde, stopte ie pijp na pijp.—

Piet en Dirk waren van het avondland huiverkil thuisgerumoerd en

bleven op ’t achterend, vlak bij keuken-warmte zitten schemeren,
turend door ’n klein raampje, dat uitkeek op smederij van Willemse in
de Bikkerstraat. Moeder Hassel en Guurtje zaten daar al van bij
vieren. Dat was gewoonte bij Wierelanders in wintervroege donkerte,
om licht te sparen, tot ’t broodje van half zes. In het donkere warme
achterend-hok, gloeiden alleen, nu en dan, schijnsel-rooie gezichten
òp, van vrouw Hassel en Guurt, die vlak tegen ’t raampje opgedrukt
tuurden, als smidse, aan overkant van nauw straatje aan het hijgen
ging, en van uit de open werkplaats ’n vlammenlicht, bevend over de
oud-behuifde geveltjes heenijlen liet, dat de brokkelige lage krotjes