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Springer Topics in Signal Processing

Mohammad Ali Nematollahi

Chalee Vorakulpipat
Hamurabi Gamboa Rosales

Digital
Watermarking
Techniques and Trends
Springer Topics in Signal Processing

Volume 11

Series editors
Jacob Benesty, Montreal, Canada
Walter Kellermann, Erlangen, Germany
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8109
Mohammad Ali Nematollahi · Chalee Vorakulpipat
Hamurabi Gamboa Rosales

Digital Watermarking
Techniques and Trends

13
Mohammad Ali Nematollahi Hamurabi Gamboa Rosales
National Electronics and Computer Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas
Technology Center (NECTEC) Zacatecas
Pathumthani Mexico
Thailand

Chalee Vorakulpipat
National Electronics and Computer
Technology Center (NECTEC)
Pathumthani
Thailand

ISSN 1866-2609 ISSN 1866-2617 (electronic)

Springer Topics in Signal Processing
ISBN 978-981-10-2094-0 ISBN 978-981-10-2095-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2095-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016946322

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein
or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer Science+Business Media Singapore Pte Ltd.
To my father Abo-Al-Ghasem, my mother
Ziba, my sisters Nazanin, Mahnaz, Saeedeh,
Freshteh, and my nieces Yekta & Anahita.
Preface

Due to wide range of digital watermarking applications in digital world, available

digital watermarking books just concentrate on specific application of digital
watermarking such as multimedia, document, and network. This book is written to
cover all possible application of digital watermarking in digital world. For this
purpose, the overall techniques and trends in each of the digital watermarking
forms are discussed with simple and understandable language. Since digital water-
marking has broad contribution in cybersecurity science, the authors believe that
any sort of digital watermarking for digital contents requires a separate chapter for
complete discussion. Therefore, every chapter of this book is dedicated to well-
known application of digital watermarking in audio, speech, image, video, 3D
graphic, natural language, text, software, XML data, relational database, ontology,
network stream, DNA, Bitcoin, and hardware IPs.

This book is suitable for beginners who do not have any information about digi-
tal watermarking concepts. In order to motivate readers to select, familiar, and get
some concepts of a desired watermarking field, this book is structured and organ-
ized in such a way that the reader has ability to only focus on a chapter. For more
and deep concentration on details for that chapter, the reader must study state-
of-the-art references in that chapter. For course work usage, the authors suggest

vii
viii Preface

students to familiar with basic concepts of digital signal processing, natural langue
processing, software engineering, network engineering, machine learning, digital
design, and cryptography subjects.
Although the authors have been attempted to provide the best suggestion
for classification of techniques and trends in the beginning of each chapter, the
authors declare that there is always improvement for classifying these techniques
and trends. Therefore, any suggestion from audience for enhancing the book’s
structure and book’s content will be most welcomed.

Pathumthani, Thailand Mohammad Ali Nematollahi

Pathumthani, Thailand Chalee Vorakulpipat
Zacatecas, Mexico Hamurabi Gamboa Rosales
Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to thank and pray to God for blessing my research
study and giving me strength and courage.
I also would like to thank my father and mother for their encouragement and
support by praying for me to do my book successfully.
Furthermore, I would like to express my gratitude and convey my thanks to
Dr. Hamurabi Gamboa Rosales and Dr. Chalee Vorakulpipat for their supervision,
advice, and guidance from the early stage of this book until the completion of the
book.
Similarly, I would like to record my gratitude to my Editors Dr. Loyola D’Silva
and Mr. Ravi Vengadachalam for their guidance, advice, and continuous support
during the entire course of this book.
Lastly, I would like to express my special thanks to Thailand’s National
Electronics and Computer Technology Center (NECTEC) for providing a beauti-
ful, peaceful, and calm academic environment for research and study.

ix
Contents

1 Preliminary on Watermarking Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Fundamentals of Digital Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Requirements of Digital Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Robustness of Digital Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Capacity of Digital Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.3 Imperceptibility of Digital Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.4 Tamper Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.5 Computational Cost. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.6 False Positive Rate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.7 False Negative Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Zero Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Applications of Digital Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Book Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Part I Signal Watermarking

2 Audio Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Transmission Channel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Audio Watermarking Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.1 Temporal Domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.2 Frequency Domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.3 Coded Domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Embedding Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.1 Embedding Before Encoding (Pre-encoding) . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4.2 Embedding During Encoding (in-Encoder). . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4.3 Embedding After Encoding (Post-encoder). . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5 Audio Attacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5.1 Dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

xi
xii Contents

2.5.2 Filter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.3 Ambience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5.4 Conversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5.5 Loss Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5.6 Noise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5.7 Modulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5.8 Time Stretch and Pitch Shift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5.9 Sample Permutations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6 Comparison Among Different Audio Watermarking Methods. . . 36
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3 Speech Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Speech Versus Audio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3 Linear Predictive Analysis (LPA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4 Speech Watermarking Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4.1 Speech Watermarking Based on Auditory Masking. . . . . 42
3.4.2 Speech Watermarking Based on Phase Modulation. . . . . 43
3.4.3 Speech Watermarking Based on Quantization. . . . . . . . . 45
3.4.4 Speech Watermarking Based on Transformation. . . . . . . 46
3.4.5 Speech Watermarking Based on Parametric Modeling. . . . 48
3.5 Attacks for Speech Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5.1 Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN). . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5.2 Low-Pass Filter (LPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5.3 Band-Pass Filter (BPF). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5.4 A-Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5.5 µ-Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5.6 CELP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5.7 Amplitude Variation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5.8 Resample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5.9 Requantization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.6 Challenges in Speech Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Part II Multimedia Watermarking

4 Image Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3 Image Watermarking Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.3.1 Spatial Domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.3.2 Transform Domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3.3 Multiple Domains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.4 Image Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.5 Challenges in Image Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.6 Image Watermarking Based on Human Visual System. . . . . . . . . 64
Contents xiii

4.7 Medical Image Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5 Video Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2 Background of Video. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.3 Video Watermarking Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3.1 Image-Based Video Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3.2 Video-Based Video Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.4 Video Watermarking Attacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.4.1 Temporal Frame Averaging (TFA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.4.2 Watermark Estimation Remodulation (WER). . . . . . . . . 74
5.4.3 Watermark Estimations Clustering
and Remodulation (WECR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.4.4 Watermarking Subspace Estimation Draining (WSED). . . 74
5.4.5 Block Replacement (BR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.4.6 Block Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4.7 Block Projection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4.8 Block Restoration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4.9 Block Swapping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.5 Video-Enforced Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.5.1 SS System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.5.2 SS-1 System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.5.3 SS-N System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.5.4 SS-α System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.5.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.6 Critical Review in Video Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6 Three-Dimensional (3D) Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2 3D Modeling Representation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.3 Background of 3D Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.4 Attacks in 3D Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.5 Techniques in 3D Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.5.1 Fragile 3D Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.5.2 Robust 3D Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.6 Distortion Evaluation in 3D Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Part III Document Watermarking

7 Natural Language Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.2 Background of Natural Language Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.2.1 Data Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.2.2 Linguistic Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
xiv Contents

7.2.3 Natural Language Parsing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

7.2.4 Word Sense Disambiguation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.2.5 Statistical Language Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.2.6 Natural Language Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.2.7 Natural Language Paraphrasing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.3 Natural Language Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.3.1 Requirements of NL Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.3.2 Natural Language Watermarking Techniques . . . . . . . . . 113
7.4 NL Watermarking Versus Text Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8 Text Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.2 Background of Text Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.3 Attacks in Text Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.4 Text Watermarking Robustness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.5 Text Watermarking Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.5.1 Image-Based Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.5.2 Syntactic Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.5.3 Semantic Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.5.4 Structural Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.5.5 Hybrid Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.6 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.7 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9 Software Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.2 Background of Software Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.3 Formal Representation of Software Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.4 Software Watermarking Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.5 Software Watermarking Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.5.1 Basic Blocking Reordering Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.5.2 Register Allocation Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.5.3 Spread Spectrum Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.5.4 Opaque Predicate Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.5.5 Threading Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.5.6 Abstract Interpretation Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.5.7 Metamorphic Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.5.8 Dynamic Path Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.5.9 Mobile Agent Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.5.10 Graph-Based Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.5.11 Birthmarks Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.6 Attacks in Software Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.7 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Contents xv

10 Relational Database, XML, and Ontology Watermarking . . . . . . . . . 145

10.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
10.2 Issues in Relational Database Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
10.3 Database Watermarking Attacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.4 Database Watermarking Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10.4.1 Distortion-Based Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10.4.2 Distortion-Free Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
10.5 Types of Digital Watermark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
10.5.1 Arbitrary Meaningless Bit Pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
10.5.2 Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.5.3 Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.5.4 Content Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.5.5 Cloud Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.5.6 Meaningful Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.5.7 Fake Tuples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.5.8 Virtual Attribute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.6 Extension of Database Watermarking to XML Watermarking. . . . 154
10.7 Preliminary in XML Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.8 XML Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.8.1 Query-Based XML Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
10.8.2 Fuzzy Queries XML Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.9 XML Watermarking Attacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.10 Extension of Database Watermarking to Ontology
Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.11 Ontology Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Part IV Advance in Watermarking

11 Network Stream Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.2 Network Traffic Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
11.3 Network Watermark Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
11.4 Network Watermarking Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
11.4.1 Network Flow Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
11.4.2 Watermarks in Anonymous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
11.4.3 Watermarks in Stepping Stones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
11.4.4 Interval Centroid-Based Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
11.4.5 Interval-Based Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
11.4.6 Spread-Spectrum Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
11.5 Network Watermarking Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.5.1 Active Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.5.2 Copy Attack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.5.3 Ambiguity Attacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.5.4 Packet Modification Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
xvi Contents

11.6 Watermarking Strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

11.6.1 Single-Message Watermarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
11.6.2 Multi-message Watermarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
11.6.3 Multiple Messages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
11.7 Types of Adversaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
11.7.1 Invisibility with Isolated Adversaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
11.7.2 Invisibility with Chosen Flow Adversaries . . . . . . . . . . . 177
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
12 Hardware IP Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
12.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
12.2 Background of SOC Design Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
12.3 Reusable and Deliverable IP Blocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
12.4 Hardware IP Watermarking Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
12.4.1 Dynamic IP Watermarking Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
12.4.2 Static IP Watermarking Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
12.4.3 Hierarchical IP Watermarking Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
12.5 Attack on IP Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
12.6 Criterion in IP Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
12.7 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
13 Security Enhancement of Digital Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
13.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
13.2 Digital Watermarking Application Scenarios
for Online Biometric Recognition Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
13.2.1 Stenographic (Covert) Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
13.2.2 Multi-biometric Recognition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
13.2.3 Multi-factor Authentication (MFA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
13.2.4 Sample Replay Prevention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
13.2.5 Sample Authentication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
13.3 Biometric Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
13.4 Quantum Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
13.5  DNA Watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
13.6 Application of Watermarking in Financial Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 199
13.7 Robustness Versus Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
About the Authors

Mohammad Ali Nematollahi was born in 1986 in Shiraz, Iran. He received his
Bachelor of Science degree in Computer Engineering (software engineering) in
Yazd, Iran, in 2008. He completed his Master’s degree in Computer Engineering
(software engineering) in Islamic Azad University (IAU), Dubai, UAE, in 2011.
He also was a lecturer in IAU in 2010 and 2011. He is a Ph.D graduate in Com-
puter and Embedded System Engineering from Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) in
2015. He is currently a postdoctorate researcher in Cybersecurity Laboratory at the
National Electronics and Computer Technology Center (NECTEC) of Thailand. He
had written numerous articles which were mainly published in International Jour-
nals. His research interests include digital signal processing, speaker recognition,
and digital watermarking.
Contact him: greencomputinguae@gmail.com
Dr. Chalee Vorakulpipat received his B.Eng. in electronics engineering from
King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Thailand, and M.S. in infor-
mation technology from Kasetsart University, Thailand. He was awarded a schol-
arship from the Royal Thai Government to pursue a doctoral study. He earned his
Ph.D. in information systems from the University of Salford, UK. He is currently a
senior researcher and head of Cybersecurity Laboratory at the National Electronics
and Computer Technology Center of Thailand. He has been involved in several pro-
jects in information security, mobile device management, social networking sites,
ubiquitous computing, context-aware computing, e-health, and mobile application
development. He has over 30-refereed publications in these areas which appeared
in conference proceedings and journals such as Computers and Security, Advanced
Engineering Informatics, Automation in Construction, Knowledge Engineering Re-
view, and ETRI Journal. He also serves as subcommittee on national information
security of Thailand. In the academic role, he works as a lecturer for information
systems courses at several universities in Thailand. He holds information security
professional certificates including CISSP, CISA, and IRCA: ISMS Lead Auditor,
and a project management professional certificate—PMP.
Contact him: Chalee.Vorakulpipat@nectec.or.th

xvii
xviii About the Authors

Hamurabi Gamboa Rosales received his Bachelor in Electronics and Communica-

tions Engineering in the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Guadalajara in 2000.
From 2001 to 2003, He completed his Master’s degree in Electrical Engineering from,
focusing on the Digital Signal Processing at the University of Guanajuato. He completed
his doctoral studies at the Technical University of Dresden, Germany, in the area of Voice
Processing 2010. Currently he is working as a professor and researcher at the Academic
Unit of Electrical Engineering of the Autonomous University of Zacatecas, Mexico, in
the area of research digital signal processing.
Contact him: hamurabigr@uaz.edu.mx
Abbreviations

AbS Analysis-by-synthesis
AD Analog to digital
ADPCM Adaptive differential pulse code modulation
APF All pass digital filters
AR Autoregressive
ATC Air traffic control
AWGN Additive white Gaussian noise
BER Bit error rate
BPF Band-pass filter
BR Block replacement
CELP Code excitation linear prediction
DA Digital to analog
DBA Database base administrator
DCT Discrete cosine transform
DEW Differential energy watermark
DFT Discrete fourier transform
DNA Deoxy-ribonucleic Acid
DRT Diagnostic rhyme test
DSP Digital signal processing
DSSS Direct sequence spread spectrum
DWT Discrete Wavelet Transform
ELT Extended lapped transforms
FFT Fast fourier transform
FNR False negative rate
FPGA Field programmable gate array
FPR False positive rate
FSM Finite state machine
HAS Human auditory system
HDL Hardware design language
HVS Human visual system

xix
xx Abbreviations

IBW Interval-based watermarking

ICA Independent component analysis
ICBW Interval centroid-based watermarking
IP Intellectual Property
IPD Inter-packet delays
IPR Intellectual Property Rights
JAWS Just another watermarking system
LAR Log area ratio
LM Language model
LPA Linear predictive analysis
LPC Linear predictive coefficient
LPF Low-pass filter
LSB Least significant bit
LSP Line spectrum pair
LUT Lookup table
LWT Lifted wavelet transform
MFA Multi-flow attack
MFA Multi-factor authentication
MFCC Mel frequency cepstrum coefficients
M-JPEG Moving Joint Photographic Experts Group
ML Maximum-likelihood
MLT Modulated lapped transforms
MNB Measuring normalized blocks
MOL Maximum occurring letter
MOS Mean opinion score
MPA Modified patchwork algorithm
MPEG Motion Picture Experts Group
MRMS Maximum root mean square
MRT Modified rhyme test
MSE Mean-squared error
MST Minimum spanning tree
NLG Natural language generation
NLP Natural language processing
NURBS Non-uniform rational basis spline
OCR Optical character recognition
OLPP Orthogonal locality preserving projections
OS Operating system
PCA Principle component analysis
PCFG Probabilistic context-free grammar
PESQ Perceptual evaluation of speech quality
PMR Pattern matching rate
PN Pseudo-noise
PSNR Peak signal-to-noise ratio
PSQM Perceptual Speech Quality Measure
Abbreviations xxi

QEM Quadric error metric

QIM Quantization index modulation
QP Quadratic programming
QPS Quantitative perfusion SPECT
RBA Random bending attack
RDM Rational dither modulation
RDWT Redundant discrete wavelet transform
RMSE Root mean-squared error
RNG Random number generator
RTL Register transfer level
SAT constraint-SATisfaction
SD Spectral distortion
SDG Subjective difference grade
SEGSNR Segmental signal-to-noise ratio
SNR Signal-to-noise ratio
SOC System-on-a-chip
SS Spread spectrum
STG State transition graph
SVD Singular value decomposition
TFA Temporal frame averaging
TMR Text meaning representation
VEP Vector extraction paradigm
VHF Very high frequency
VLC Variable length coded
VoIP Voice over IP
VSI Virtual socket interface
WDR Watermark distortion rate
WECR Watermark estimation clustering and remodulation
WER Watermark estimation remodulation
WSED Watermarking subspace estimation draining
XML Extensible markup language
ZCR Zero crossing rate
List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Book focus in the field of data hiding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Figure 1.2 Concept of digital watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Figure 1.3 Requirements of digital watermarking [2]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Figure 2.1 Various transmission channels including:
a digital, b resample c analog, and d over the air. . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 2.2 Audio watermarking techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Figure 2.3 Different approaches for embedding the watermark. . . . . . . . . . 28
Figure 3.1 Block diagram of speech production model [15]. . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 3.2 An overview on speech watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 3.3 Frequency range of G.711 (narrowband) and G.722
(broadband) with voice energy concentration slope
in frequency domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 4.1 Image watermarking techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 4.2 Classification of different attacks for image watermarking . . . . 62
Figure 5.1 The sequence of video frames including. a I-frame.
b P-frame. c B-frame. d I-frame, and other
video components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 5.2 Video watermarking an overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 6.1 Various component in a mesh model. a Vertices. b Edge.
c Faces. d Polygons. e Surface. f 3D object. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Figure 6.2 Summary of 3D watermarking and attacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Figure 6.3 A vertex is projected to nearest interval for binary
watermark bits (a) an edge is divided into two intervals
for better robustness (b) an edge is divided into four
intervals for better imperceptibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 6.4 A PCA classification approach for 3D watermarking. . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 6.5 3D watermarking based on histogram manipulation . . . . . . . . . 92
Figure 6.6 A bunny model is represented as (a) geodesic map
(b) iso-geodesic map [17]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 7.1 Dependency tree for sentence “I am trying to compute
the relationship” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

xxiii
xxiv List of Figures

Figure 7.2 An overview of NL watermarking techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Figure 7.3 The general structure of a NL watermarking system. . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 7.4 NL watermarking by syntactic tree structure:
a original sentence; b watermarked sentence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Figure 8.1 Text watermarking–an overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Figure 8.2 Text watermarking based on syntactic approach . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 9.1 An example of a software watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Figure 9.2 Classification in software watermarking technology . . . . . . . . . 132
Figure 9.3 Different criterion in software watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Figure 9.4 Taxonomy of different software watermarking techniques. . . . . 137
Figure 10.1 An overview of database watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Figure 10.2 Classification in XML watermarking technology. . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Figure 10.3 a XML code b XML tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Figure 10.4 Ontology watermarking concept for proof of ownership. . . . . . 160
Figure 11.1 An overview on network stream watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Figure 11.2 Spread-spectrum watermarking for network stream [5]. . . . . . . 172
Figure 11.3 Treat models for a isolate adversary b chosen flow adversary. . . . 176
Figure 12.1 An overview on hardware IP watermarking technology. . . . . . . 182
Figure 12.2 IP watermarking in different levels of SOC design flow . . . . . . 183
Figure 13.1 Different layers in designing a watermark system [1] . . . . . . . . 192
Figure 13.2 Quantum watermarking a embedding process
b watermark detection process [29]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Figure 13.3 Classification of watermarking attacks according
to robustness and security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
List of Tables

Table 1.1 MOS grades [3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Table 2.1 Comparison among various audio watermarking techniques. . . . 33
Table 3.1 Comparison between audio and speech watermarking. . . . . . . . . 40
Table 3.2 Comparison of related audio and speech watermarking
methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Table 5.1 Comparison of related image and video watermarking
methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Table 5.2 Advantage and disadvantage of each video watermarking
technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Table 6.1 The most common 3D mesh models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Table 7.1 Available corpora in linguistic data consortium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Table 7.2 Syntactic transformation in English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Table 9.1 The main platforms for software watermarking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Table 9.2 Comparison among various software watermarking
techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Table 12.1 Comparison among different hardware IP watermarking
techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Table 13.1 Performance criteria of watermarking in certain digital
applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Table 13.2 Summary of biometric watermarking techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Table 13.3 Summary of multimodal approaches by using digital
watermarking techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

xxv
Chapter 1
Preliminary on Watermarking Technology

1.1 Overview

A recent development in communication technology, storage device, and digital

recording has created an Internet environment with the ability to distribute, dupli-
cate, obtain, and replicate digital media without any quality lossless. However,
this technology advancement is worrying multimedia content publishing indus-
tries due to unauthorized access through digital media content which is requiring
a serious and immediate protection for Intellectual Property Rights. Although a
traditional cryptography approach can apply to prevent an unauthorized party to
access a digital media content by encrypting the content of the media, cryptog-
raphy technology has some limitations to fully protect the Intellectual Property
Rights. Therefore, it is obvious that other technology should be applied to con-
struct the Intellectual Property Rights, track the digital media content, and provide
the digital media content authentication which ensure authorized access and pre-
vent illegal manipulation to the content of digital media. As an effective solution,
Digital Watermarking is applying to facilitate the requirements for protecting the
Intellectual Property Rights of a digital media. Currently, digital watermarking is
becoming the hot topic for the research communities that actively working on this
industry. The idea of digital watermarking is the hiding information about digital
content as a metadata within digital content to protect the ownership. Probably,
this idea is invented in Germany due to a German term “wassermark” is available
that means effect of water on paper [1].
Apart from the basic concepts in data hiding, this book is attempting to cover
recent and practical applications of digital watermarking in all computer science
fields in order to provide an overview on different roles of digital watermarking in
computer science. Figure 1.1 shows the main branch in data-hiding technology. It
presents the main focus of this book to narrow down the constraints in the field of

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2017 1

M.A. Nematollahi et al., Digital Watermarking, Springer Topics
in Signal Processing 11, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2095-7_1
2 1 Preliminary on Watermarking Technology

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Fig. 1.1  Book focus in the field of data hiding

data hiding. As shown, each chapter of this book is dedicated to an application of

digital watermarking in order to provide a deep and comprehensive overview on
major digital watermarking technology.

1.2 Fundamentals of Digital Watermarking

The art of watermarking is hiding extra information (which could be an image

logo, text message, and raw watermark bits) inside the content of the host objects
such as images, audio signals, speech signals, 3D graphical objects, videos, texts,
software codes, network streams, XML data, and ontologies without serious deg-
radation on the quality of the objects. The watermark must be detectable from the
watermarked content even when intentional and unintentional manipulations have
been conducted on the digital watermarked content. Therefore, digital watermark-
ing can be expressed by two main processes: watermark embedding and water-
mark extraction, which are illustrated in Fig. 1.2.
The watermarking processes can be described formally. For creating a water-
marked cover WC, a watermark data W should be embedded into a cover object Oc.
As a result, watermark distortion is defined by the deference between Oc and WC.
Usually, the raw watermark data W is encoded by using a secret key K in order to

:DWHUPDUN +RVWREMHFW :DWHUPDUN

$WWDFN
:DWHUPDUN :DWHUPDUN :DWHUPDUN :DWHUPDUN
(PEHGGLQJ &KDQQHO 'HFRGLQJ
(QFRGLQJ ([WUDFWRU

Fig. 1.2  Concept of digital watermarking

1.2 Fundamentals of Digital Watermarking 3

improve the security and decrease the watermark payload P. Then, a modulated/
scaled watermark method WM is used to embed watermark bits into the cover
object Oc with minimum embedding distortion to provide enough imperceptibil-
ity. After embedding the watermark, the watermarked cover WC may be imposed
to intentional and unintentional manipulations such as conversions, compression,
noise, adding, removing, and editing which would change it to manipulated water-
marked cover W C. The amount of degradation can be computed by finding the def-
erence between W C and WC which may be considered as noise of the environment.
Detection of the watermark is done based on the received manipulated water-
marked cover W C and the watermark key K. There are two major approaches for
watermark detection: The first one is informed detector (non-blind) approach that
requires original cover work Oc, and the second one is oblivious detector (blind)
approach which extracts watermark only from manipulated watermarked cover W C
without any knowledge of the original cover Oc. Thus, digital watermarking can
be categorized based on source and extraction module into three main classes:
(a) Blind watermarking that detects the watermark without the original cover Oc.
However, in some applications, key K uses are required for generating random
sequences.
(b) Semi-blind watermarking that detects the watermark with using some informa-
tion about the original cover Oc. For example, it should access to the published
watermarked signal that is the original signal after just adding the watermarks.
(c) Non-blind watermarking that detects the watermark using the original cover
Oc and manipulated watermarked cover W C together.

There is always possibility to categorize the watermarking techniques based on

various factors. With respect to robustness, the watermarking methods can be
divided into three main groups:
(a) Robust digital watermarking that detects the watermark even under serious
and malicious manipulation.
(b) Semi-fragile digital watermarking that detects the watermark just under unin-
tentional manipulation.
(c) Fragile digital watermarking that detects the watermark only if no intentional
and unintentional manipulations are took place. This type of watermark is
needed for paper of bank notes. These watermarks do not survive any kind of
copying and can be used to indicate the bill’s authenticity. Reaching for fragil-
ity is more difficult than robustness.

1.3 Requirements of Digital Watermarking

Basically digital watermarking can be considered as a tradeoff problem due to the

nature of digital watermarking which is competing among payload, transparency,
robustness, and security. Depending on various and wide applications of the digital
4 1 Preliminary on Watermarking Technology

Fig. 1.3  Requirements of
digital watermarking [2]

watermarking, the watermarking system is designed based on these requirement

and system inherent properties. Figure 1.3 illustrates the requirements of digital
watermarking. As shown, these requirements oppose one another and to make
them meet is difficult. Within this magic triangle, “the mode of operation” of a
particular watermarking system can be set. For example, a high data rate system
may enhance its rate by lowering the robustness at the same moment.
There are other properties such as fidelity, tamper resistance, false positive
rate, and computational cost which may be required in some applications. In real
application, designing a prefect watermarking system that facilitates all water-
marking requirement is impossible or if to be positive, it is much more difficult
task. Therefore, giving priority to each watermark requirement is necessary which
must be performed with special attention and careful analysis of the application.
In addition, the major requirements of digital watermarking are discussing to clear
terminology definition with various application.

1.3.1 Robustness of Digital Watermarking

While the watermarked object is published and distributed, it is subjected to com-

mon operations such as conversion, compression, addition, editing, and removing
which may influence on watermark extraction process. Although the watermark
must be extractable under these situations, the extracted watermark is not neces-
sary similar to original one. Whatever, the extracted watermark has less difference
with original watermark under intentional and unintentional attack, digital water-
marking is tending to be robust. Considering robustness as a single-dimensional
value is incorrect because each watermarking technique is weak against at least
an attack. Moreover, designing a watermarking technique which is robust to all
types of manipulation is unnecessary and excessive. For example, in radio and tel-
evision broadcast monitoring application, there are needs that watermark is robust
against transmission modification including A/D, D/A conversions, compressions,
1.3 Requirements of Digital Watermarking 5

vertical, and horizontal translations but there is no need that watermark is robust
against wide variety of modifications such as scaling, rotation, filtering, and distor-
tion that might not take place during broadcasting.
In addition, other types of applications require other types of covert communi-
cation including steganography and fragility in which robustness is totally undesir-
able and irrelevant for that application. For example, authentication only requires
fragile watermarking to check whether the digital object has been modified. To
conclude, robustness requires just for unpredictable applications such as proof of
ownership, copy control, identification, and fingerprinting where conceivable dis-
tortion is inevitable and there is a concern about removal of the watermark.

1.3.2 Capacity of Digital Watermarking

The hidden bit rate in digital object is defined as capacity or payload and usually
is measured in bit per second (bps). In some cases, the watermark bit is inher-
ently tied to the number of alternative messages that can be embedded thanks to
the encoding algorithm. It is obvious that the payload is directly related to the size
of the host data. Whenever the amount of the host samples increases, more water-
mark bits embed into the host data.

1.3.3 Imperceptibility of Digital Watermarking

Imperceptibility is defined as the amount of distortion which is injected by embed-

ding the watermark. Imperceptibility can be expressed by measuring quality or
fidelity. In contrast to fidelity that measures the similarity between original and
watermarked objects, an independent acceptability technique is applied on water-
marked object to measure quality of the watermarked technique. There are two
tests available for fidelity and quality measurements including subjective and
objective measurements. The most reliable and accurate test for both quality and
fidelity is the subjective test that involves human observation and psychophys-
ics model. Subjective test is conducted based on a scientific discipline in order to
determine the relationship between the physical world and the people’s subjective
experience of that world.

1.3.3.1 Objective Measurement

In the objective test, the main aim is expressing the amount of the watermark dis-
tortion which can be computed by comparing similarity or deference between
original and watermarked objects. A simple and common method known as sig-
nal-to-noise ratio (SNR) can be a good example of objective measurement which
6 1 Preliminary on Watermarking Technology

tries to quantify the watermarked distortion by expressing it as a noise. The objec-

tive tests are varying for different digital contents. In the case of audio and speech
watermarking, the main tests include spectral distortion (SD), root-mean-squared
error (RMSE), mean squared error (MSE), peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR), and
segmental signal-to-noise ratio (SEGSNR).

1.3.3.2 Subjective Measurement

There is not always correlation between objective measurement and human per-
ceptions. On the other hands, human response to a watermarked object may be
different from the result of objective measurements. Therefore, subjective meas-
urement is used to better evaluate watermarking techniques. The most common
subjective technique is mean opinion score (MOS) which is more simple and
popular than other subjective techniques. It is based on reporting the dissimilar-
ities between the quality of the original and watermarked objects. For instance,
Table 1.1 presents MOS grades for speech watermarking techniques based on the
understanding of the speech signals.
Subjective listening tests are conducted by human’s auditory and human’s visu-
ally perceptions. It should be mentioned that Human Auditory System (HAS) is
much more sensitive than Human Visual System (HVS). As a result, reaching
inaudibility for audio and speech signals is much more difficult than invisibility
in which both are related to imperceptibility requirement of digital watermarking.

1.3.3.3 Intelligibility Measurement

Intelligibility means how understandable the digital object is. The main focus
of intelligibility is on information value and content of digital media. For exam-
ple, high-quality voice of a baby speech has lack of verbal information which
causes no intelligibility at all although the sound quality is pleasant. For major-
ity of applications such as speech, text, and natural language, intelligibility is
much more desirable than imperceptibility [4]. Here some intangibility measure-
ment techniques for speech include the following: Measuring Normalized Blocks
(MNB), Modified Rhyme Test (MRT), Perceptual Speech Quality Measure
(PSQM), Perceptual Evaluation Of Speech Quality (PESQ), Subjective Difference

Table 1.1  MOS grades [3]

MOS Quality Quality scale Effort to understand the meaning scale
5 Excellent Imperceptible No effort required
4 Good Perceptible, but not annoying No appreciable effort required
3 Fair Slightly annoying Moderate effort required
2 Poor Annoying Considerable effort required
1 Bad Very annoying No meaning was understood
Another random document with
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 CHAPTER V.
A MESSAGE FROM THE SKY.

When Andy thus wildly rushed out of doors he fell over some object
which he did not chance to see. Perhaps in his excitement he even
imagined some one had given him a clip alongside the head with a
club, for he struck the ground with a bang that must have made him
see stars.
“Frank! Frank! Come here, quick!” he shouted.
The other, who had been thrusting his head out of the window of the
hangar, immediately made a break for the door. Doubtless he half
expected to see his cousin wrestling with some daring intruder,
whom he had caught in the act of setting fire to the shed or some
such caper.
“Where are you? What’s going on here?”
Calling in this strain Frank arrived in time to see Andy still on his
hands and knees just as he had fallen. He seemed to be staring up
at the starry heavens as though he had taken a sudden intense
interest in the planets of the universe.
“Did you see anything?” he questioned, as he managed to clamber
to his feet and clutch hold of the other.
“Not a thing!” came the ready reply; “but it seemed to me I heard
shouts. And they seemed to be getting fainter and fainter, as if the
fellows were running away.”
“That’s it, Frank, voices that sounded like they were sailing along
overhead!” exclaimed Andy, excitedly.
“What’s that?” demanded the other, turning upon him; “overhead,
you say? Ginger! Now that you mention it, seems to me there might
be something in that. But how could anybody get above us, when
there isn’t a single tree in this big field?”
“Frank,” Andy went on, earnestly, “I saw something just disappearing
over yonder, where the woods begin to poke up in the east. And I
give you my word that was where the voices came from!”
“Disappearing? Do you mean over the tree-tops, Andy?” cried the
other, just as if the announcement he listened to nearly took his
breath away.
Andy nodded his head several times, while his face, seen in the
moonlight, appeared to be covered with an eager grin.
“Yep, went over the tops of those same trees just like a bird—poof!
and it was gone. I couldn’t make head or tail out of it, because, you
see, I was nearly standing on my own head just then. But it wasn’t a
bird, I’ll take my affidavit on that! It sure must have been some sort of
flying machine, Frank!”
His listener whistled to express his surprise.
“Here, let’s go and get some clothes on over these zebra stripes,” he
suggested. “Then we can come out and look into this thing a little
closer.”
In less than three minutes they issued forth again, better able to
stand the chilly air of the night.
“Did you hear anything more than the shouts?” asked Andy, as they
emerged.
“Why, yes; some sort of racket woke me up. Don’t just know what it
was, but I thought somebody might be banging on the side of the
shack, and I jumped. I guess that’s what woke you, too,” continued
the taller lad.
“But Frank,” declared Andy, impressively, “I couldn’t say for certain,
and yet it seemed to me as I lay here, after tumbling over that
wooden bucket I forgot to carry indoors, I heard some sort of sounds
that made me think of the popping of a little motor!”
“A motor!” cried the other, “and up there in the air, too!”
They stared hard at each other. Some startling thought must have
instinctively lodged in each brain, for almost immediately Andy went
on sadly, saying:
“Just to think, they’ve beaten us a mile! And after all the talking we’ve
gone and done, too. However will we hold our heads up after this?”
“See here, you don’t mean that those fellows have got their biplane
rigged up already and are soaring around in the moonlight?”
demanded Frank.
“Well,” Andy continued, “it looks like it, don’t it? Something that can
fly and carry passengers certainly passed over our hangar just then.
And not only that, but they let loose at us, no doubt intending to
smash in our roof with a great big dornick.”
“Hold on, you’re jumping too far ahead, Andy. Let’s go slow and not
get off the track so easy. If you were on the witness stand could you
swear that you saw a biplane just disappearing over the trees
yonder?”
“Well, no; perhaps not exactly,” said the other; “but I saw something
that was moving along just as neat as you please.”
“Yes, and the moonlight is mighty deceiving, I know,” remarked
Frank. “But we’ll say that you did see something, that might have
been a flying machine or a cloud. Will you declare that you heard the
popping of a motor?”
“I think I did, but perhaps it may have been the blood rushing through
my brain, for I came down pretty solid. Still, it wouldn’t surprise me if
we learned, after all, that it was a motor in an aeroplane. Then think
what they tried to do to us, will you?”
“There you go, Andy. Don’t be a false alarm all your life. We’re going
to investigate that same noise presently, when we’ve threshed this
other thing dry. It may be that they’ve gone and done it. But if two
greenhorns can start up in an aeroplane by moonlight and sail
around just as they please, flying must be easier than I ever
dreamed of, that’s all.”
Frank did look puzzled. He could not bring himself to believe such a
wonderful thing had happened. Knowing both Percy and his crony as
he did, he doubted their ability to accomplish the feat in broad
daylight, let alone night, with its deceptive moonlight.
And that was why he frowned as he tried to figure the thing out.
“We both heard the big row,” he mused. “Then Andy here declares
he saw something floating off above the trees yonder; he can’t say
for sure whether it was an airship or a nighthawk. And he kind of
thinks he heard something like the crackling of an aeroplane motor!
Now, what happened? That’s what we’ve just got to find out.”
He looked around him.
“Yes,” he continued, as if speaking to himself, “I’m nearly sure that
crash came from over yonder to the west. It seemed to reach me by
way of the window, and that was why I made for that opening in such
a hurry. Thought some fellow might be trying to climb in there and
had fallen back.”
Again he cast his eyes upward, then slowly described a half circle.
“Andy says it disappeared over that clump of trees, which is almost
due east of here. And I thought I heard the crash over at the other
side of the shack, making it almost west. Now, that sounds
reasonable. If they dropped something, meaning to hit the roof of the
hangar, and undershot the mark, it would have fallen to the ground to
the west of the building!”
“Yes,” said Andy, who had been listening eagerly, “and you
remember, there’s a little pile of lumber lying there, which we meant
to use if we had to enlarge the house. It must have struck those
boards, Frank!”
“That’s a clever thought,” admitted the other, “and one I didn’t clutch
myself. Let’s meander over that way and take a little observation.
What say?”
“I’m with you every time,” declared Andy, quickly. “I never could
stand having two mysteries bothering me at once. It’s enough to be
always wondering where that blessed little monkey wrench could
have vanished to.”
“Come on and drop that, if you please. Life is too short to be
everlastingly whining about lost opportunities and monkey wrenches
and such things,” said Frank, leading off as he spoke.
“Oh, splash! You haven’t got a grain of sentiment about you, Frank.
Everything is too practical, according to your way of thinking. Now to
my mind, there’s nothing prettier in the world than a cleverly
constructed wrench that knows its business and refuses to get out of
joint just when you need it to hold most.”
But Frank had declined to listen to his “chaff,” as Andy would have
called it himself. Already the other had advanced toward the opposite
side of the structure. Here, in the fairly bright moonlight, they could
see the pile of planks that had been left in the expectation that the
building might have to be enlarged sooner or later.
Straight toward these Frank strode. The nearer he came to the pile
the stronger grew his impression that they must be near a plausible
solution of the mysterious racket.
“It came from somewhere about here, I should say,” he remarked, as
he halted by the heap of boards to glance around.
“Yes, but so far as I can see there’s no big stone lying on top of the
pile. Guess after all it was a mistake. We must have dreamed it,”
said Andy, ready to give up.
But Frank was very stubborn. Once he had set his mind on a thing it
was hard indeed to change him. And somehow he believed more
than ever that if they looked close enough they would find the
explanation of the queer noise in this quarter.
“Strange!” he muttered, evidently chagrined because he did not
seem to discover what he had expected as soon as he had thought
would be the case.
“No big stone here, that’s sure!” declared Andy, picking himself up
from the ground.
“What was that you stumbled over?” asked his cousin quickly.
“That? Oh, only a bag of sand that swift bunch of masons who laid
the foundations of our shack forgot to carry away with them. They’re
a punk lot. Might have knocked my nose that time and started the
claret to running,” and he gave the object of his disgust a vicious kick
with his toe, after which he immediately began a war dance around
the spot, for he had quite forgotten that he was wearing a pair of
deerskin moccasins just then and had stubbed his toe against the
hard contents of the bag.
“What are you giving me?” demanded Frank. “A bag of sand! Why,
you know very well those masons never brought their sand in bags.
It came in a load and was dumped right over at the other side of the
shack.”
“All right. This is a bag, I tell you. Perhaps it’s got gold dust in it, for
all I know. Feels hard enough for that. I’ll put you wise, Frank. Just
you try giving it a good kick, if you want to see,” grumbled Andy,
nursing his injured toe.
“A sandbag! Whew! I wonder——”
Frank did not finish what he had on his mind, and his companion
looked his surprise at seeing him drop down alongside the object in
question, which he began to handle eagerly.
Then, to the utter amazement of Andy, he made to pick the heavy
bag up and start away with it.
“Hey, come back here!” called the other, trailing and limping after
him; “what under the sun are you going to do with that thing? Want it
for a pillow? Maybe you think we can make a breakfast off it? Why,
what ails the fellow? He acts like he’d struck a prize, that’s what!”
“Come along inside and I’ll show you something,” called the other
over his shoulder, which, of course, only added new fuel to the fire of
curiosity that was already raging in Andy’s soul.
When he got inside he found Frank in the act of scratching a match,
which he immediately applied to a lamp, one of those by which they
were wont to work of nights.
There upon a rude table where they planed and sawed Andy saw a
small, stoutly made canvas bag that had what seemed to be a
handle on one side.
“Well, I declare, it’s got a label of some sort tied to it! Nice, pleasant
fellows these, trying to smash in the roof of our hangar and then
sending their compliments along with it!” Andy exclaimed, for like a
flash it had come to him that the sandbag had been hurled down
from above!
“Here, listen while I read what it says!” exclaimed Frank.
“Balloon ‘Monarch.’
“DeGraw, Pilot.
“Launched at St. Louis July 4. Sixty-seven hours up. Last
bag ballast but two. Please notify committee through New
York newspapers.”
“Butt in; I’m listening, Frank!”
Then the two boys stood there and stared at each other, as though
hardly able to grasp what the whole thing meant, but the one positive
fact that stood out was that this sandbag must have come down from
a passing balloon!
 CHAPTER VI.
BLOOMSBURY IS BOOKED FOR FAME.

“Please pinch me, Frank!” said Andy, weakly.

“What for? Do you think you’re asleep?” asked the other, himself
hardly able to believe what his eyes had read.
“It seems like a dream. I just can’t understand it all. Yet there’s the
message all right that dropped down from the clouds. And we sure
heard voices. Tell me I’m not seeing things that don’t exist, Frank.
Say something, for goodness sake!”
Frank did manage to arouse himself at last.
“Well,” said he, slowly and seriously; “let’s look at this thing a bit
closer. We were waked up by a big bang. Then we thought we heard
voices that gradually grew fainter. You got the notion in your head
you glimpsed some sort of flying thing that disappeared over the tree
tops to the east. Finally, we picked up this sandbag, made just like
those we saw with that balloon that was down at the aviation meet
on Long Island. That about covers the business, I reckon.”
“Covers it, yes!” cried Andy, now growing excited; “but it gives me a
creep just to think how that balloon, drifting all the way from St.
Louis, happened to pass straight over our heads! And then what a
streak of luck to have the pilot drop his message at the door of our
hangar. Why, it was just like he knew there were a pair of aeroplane
boys here ready to grab his message as they would a gold nugget.”
“Right you are, Andy,” observed his cousin. “And do you know I take
this as a sign that we’re going to have good luck with our aeroplane.
Things are coming our way.”
“I should say they were. First some fellow sneaks in here and cuts
the wings of our bird to flinders. Then these balloon racers get the
notion that our camp would be a rattling good place to drop a
message to their committee. Do we carry out their suggestion,
Frank?”
“Do we?” echoed the other, instantly; “well, what would you think of
our chances among the profession if we declined to assist fellow
aviators hustling the news along? Why, I’d get up out of a warm bed
any time of night and wheel twenty miles to carry such a message as
that.”
“Then you’ll go to town with it and send to the papers in New York?”
demanded Andy.
“Yes, right away; so they can have the news in the morning issues, if
it isn’t too late. I’ll hunt up Casper Dunbar. You know he has some
sort of connection with the Herald, and never fear but that he’ll find a
way to tell the whole story.”
Frank was nothing if not energetic. Even while he was speaking he
began to hurriedly dress himself.
“I suppose,” ventured the other, cautiously, as if an idea had
suddenly come to him, “our names will have to be mentioned in the
telegram?”
“We’ll leave that to Casper. Ten to one he’ll make it a point to say
that the boys who had the message left at their door are known as
local aeronauts,” replied Frank, secretly chuckling, for he could
guess what was coming.
“Well,” said the other, presently, “would you mind asking Casper if he
seems bent on mentioning us in his dispatch that he get my name as
Andy and not Andrew? You know nobody but the dominie calls me
that, and I’ve always detested the name. It belonged to an uncle who
after all turned out bad. Spell it for him, Frank—just plain Andy Bird.”
“All right, just as you say. But there’s no need of you sitting up to wait
for me. I may be gone quite a while, because you see Casper would
want to hear all the particulars. Go back to your cot, Andy.”
“Perhaps I will,” replied the other, who was, however, evidently in no
frame of mind to woo the gentle goddess of sleep, for he continued
to shake his head from time to time and mutter words covering his
astonishment over the “miracle.”
“Say,” he finally burst forth with, “we are lucky and that’s a fact.
Suppose now that pilot of the Monarch had just knocked at the door
of the Carberry home instead of here, wouldn’t that have queered
us? Well, anyway, he knew a real bird-boy had his nesting place
where he saw the roof of our hangar. I’m going to let Mr. DeGraw
know some day that I consider him a mighty far-sighted gentleman.”
“Shucks! It was just an accident, pure and simple,” laughed Frank,
“and we’ll let it go at that. I’m ready to skip off now. Is your wheel in
condition, Andy?”
“Plugged that rear tire only yesterday and made a cracking good job.
Yep, she is holding like a house afire. Good luck to you, Frank. And
be sure that you spell the whole name out for Casper. I’d hate to see
it Byrd or Budd or something like that.”
“You certainly take the cake, Andy. Don’t you know that a bird by any
other name would fly just as high? But I’ll impress on Casper the
enormous crime he’ll be committing if he gets a single letter wrong.
By-by!”
Wheeling the bicycle out of doors, Frank threw himself into the
saddle after the manner of an accomplished rider and was off.
The moon still rode high in the clear summer sky, so that, after a
fashion, it was almost as light as day. Frank quickly found himself on
the road. Then it was an easy dash into town and out along the other
road, which would speedily bring him to the home of Casper Dunbar.
Left alone in the shed, Andy did return to his cot, for it was rather
cool at that uncanny hour of the night. Sleep, however, was the very
last thing he considered as he lay there, a thousand thoughts flying
riotously through his excited brain.
The strange passing of that balloon racer, which had covered
something like a thousand miles in its long drift across country, filled
his mind with awe.
If a mere bag of gas, the sport of every shifting wind, could be
guided thus far by the skill of its pilot, in rising and falling in order to
continue a direct easterly course, what ought not a genuine
aeroplane, equipped with the lightest and most complete engine ever
constructed, be capable of doing?
In imagination the sanguine bird-boy saw himself and comrade
sailing over tracts of wild country never before looked upon by mortal
eye, learning the strange secrets that Nature had hidden from
mankind all these thousands of years.
“Why,” said Andy, talking to himself in lieu of any better audience,
“there can be nothing beyond the reach of a flying machine properly
constructed and run by experienced birdmen. It can pass over
burning deserts, where caravans have perished. It might even sail to
the South Pole and beat Peary at his own game. And of all the
pursuits in the world, to my mind that of an aeronaut is the finest. No
wonder my poor father was drawn to take it up by his studies. And
nothing shall ever keep me from following the same profession,
unless I meet with a knockout in the start, which I hope won’t be the
case.”
After what seemed to be a long time he fancied he heard Frank
returning. But as more minutes passed and no one knocked at the
door, across which he had drawn the protecting bar, after the
instructions of his mate, Andy concluded he must have been
mistaken.
“But it did sound like the tire of a wheel had hit the side of the shack.
May have been a squirrel playing about, because I’ve seen lots of
’em,” he muttered as he sat up, leaning on his elbow.
Perhaps it was, but all the same, when the little jar came again, Andy
was impelled to climb out of his simple bed and move over to the
window.
Possibly he could not wholly forget that on the preceding night some
persons had paid a secret visit to the home of the new monoplane
and shown a vandal spirit in cutting the wings to shreds.
What if they meant to come again on this night? Andy’s imagination
was doubtless pretty well fired after this strange visit from the racing
balloon. He also knew the character of the two rival aviators and to
what low depths they had often sunk in order to get even with those
they chanced to be at odds with.
But all seemed well. The moon hung there like a great silver shield.
An owl in a neighboring tree whinnied like a horse, calling to his
mate. Everything seemed peaceful enough and with not a sign of
intruders anywhere.
Ah, something certainly moved over yonder. Andy had a thrill as he
looked with his whole energy. How deceitful that bright moonlight
was after all! Why, he could see to read almost, and yet at fifty feet
away it would be next to impossible to decide whether the black
object he saw were a stump or a cow lying down.
Yes, the thing was moving and coming straight toward the hangar,
too. What if it turned out to be either Percy or his shadow, Sandy
Hollingshead? Would they dare attempt another mean trick similar to
that which was played on the preceding night?
Andy was gritting his teeth and trying to decide whether he ought to
shout to let them know their presence was known, when he heard a
low signal whistle.
Then after all it was Frank coming back. The two Bird boys had
studied telegraphy together, as well as “wigwagging” and the use of
the heliograph, as used by the signal corps of the United States
army. They had arranged a code after the manner of Morse, by
means of which they could communicate with each other, no matter
what the distance separating them.
“Hello, Frank, that you?” Andy now asked, softly.
“What’s left of me after banging along the road on a flat tire,” came
the immediate answer.
“Gee! did that plagued plug let go after all my pains to set it?” said
Andy, regretfully, for he did not like his cousin to deem him an
indifferent workman.
“It sure did before I’d gone two hundred feet along the road. But then
I wasn’t going to let a little thing like that keep me back,” replied the
other, as he came in through the door Andy opened.
“Did you manage to wake him up? I tried once, I remember, and it
was a healthy old job. Casper sleeps like a log,” Andy went on.
“Well,” replied Frank, smiling, “it was no easy task; but I pounded on
his door with a club till I made such a racket a neighbor called out to
know if anybody happened to be dead. I told him I was afraid Casper
must be. But just then he poked his head out of a window and told
me not to worry, that he had only been napping.”
“Wow! he sure is the limit;” declared Andy. “And then, when he heard
what news you brought, did he dress and come down?”
“I guess he did, and was tickled to know that Bloomsbury was going
to be on the map again. He asked me a heap of questions, not alone
about the message and the dropping of the sand bag, but about our
monoplane, and what we expected to do after we got it ready. Why,
Casper even remembered that your father had been the well known
aviator and balloonist, Professor Bird, once of Cornell.”
“Oh! did he mention that?” breathed Andy, who was always visibly
stirred whenever any one spoke of his father. “And Frank, I do hope
he gets the name straight. I’d hate so much to see it misspelled;
more than ever if he means to mention that I come by my craze
naturally.”
“I impressed it upon him good and hard; and Casper promised to
print it in big capitals, so that there would be no mixup. And now I’m
going to turn in again. It’s a long while to dawn, and what’s the use of
our staying up?”
Frank was as good as his word. In ten minutes the shed was
wrapped in silence; nor did anything else occur to arouse the boys
until the sun, peeping in at some crack, chanced to fall upon the face
of Frank, and aroused him.
Andy went in to breakfast, and after he returned to the hangar Frank
followed suit; for that was the arrangement, since they did not mean
to leave the precious machine alone if it could be helped.
Then they started to work again, for numerous little things remained
to be done ere the aeroplane could be deemed in absolutely perfect
condition, with every wire taut as a piano string, and the engine
working smoothly.
It must have been along about eleven in the morning, when Andy,
who had been bending over holding some parts that Frank was
adjusting raised his head.
“Somebody coming,” he said, “and it sounds like the rat-tat of
Colonel Josiah’s crutch and cane. Say, he’s certainly making speed,
all right, like he wanted to see us in a hurry. Wonder what can have
happened now, Frank?”
The other immediately crawled out from under the engine of the
aeroplane, and hurried to the door, which he opened; to discover that
it was the crippled veteran traveler sure enough, and that he was
showing signs of some great excitement.
 CHAPTER VII.
A SENSATION FOR OLD HOME WEEK.

“Hurrah! Great news, lads!” shouted the colonel, as he waved a

paper over his head, when he could stop his forward movement for a
second or two.
“Oh, what if it is about father?” gasped Andy, turning pale, for the
unrevealed fate of the daring aviator had always borne heavily on
the poor lad’s mind, and in the silent watches of the night he often
allowed himself to think of the great joy that would come to him
should his parent ever be found again.
Frank turned to him quickly.
“Don’t allow yourself to think it can be that, Chum Andy,” he said,
softly, for he knew what the dream was that his cousin kept nurturing
deep down in his heart, and also how impossible of fulfillment it must
ever be; “I have an idea it’s only something connected with our little
adventure of last night. But here’s Colonel Josiah at hand and we
shall soon know the worst.”
“Bully news for you, my bold young aviators!” cried the old man as
he came hobbling along, his smooth face aglow and his long white
hair floating over his shoulders. “And I made ’em do it, too! When
they heard about that balloon dropping that message and how
Bloomsbury was destined to become famous as the center of
aeronautic doings, they just couldn’t hold back. And so they had the
printer strike off fifty of these circulars, and they’re going to be
posted all around the county.”
“What did I tell you?” said Frank, smiling, but nevertheless he
reached for the paper the old man extended with a hand that shook
a little.
“Why,” he said, “it’s issued by the Committee on Sports for the Old
Home week of this month, when they expect to have all sorts of
athletic stunts going on to interest the crowds of people who will flock
to Bloomsbury.”
“Just so,” observed the old man, with a broad smile. “And I finally
showed ’em what a tremendous thing it would be to have an aviation
meet at the same time.”
“An aviation meet!” ejaculated Andy, his eyes almost popping out of
his head with new interest.
“And we talked it over,” went on the old man, “with the result that a
prize is to be offered to any one who first plants an American flag on
Old Thunder Top, landing on the little plateau where the foot of man
has never yet trod, from an aeroplane built in Bloomsbury and
piloted by Bloomsbury boys!”
“Whoop! It’s great! And did you originate that clever stunt, Colonel
Josiah?” shouted Andy, wringing his guardian’s hand as though it
were a pump handle.
“To be sure I did,” replied the veteran, proudly. “I’ve had it in my mind
for some little time now, and what you told me this morning about
that other machine being constructed here just capped the climax, as
I may say. But she’s all fixed now, lads. The prize is to be a silver
cup. And unless I miss my guess, that trophy is bound to be kept in
the Bird family, to be handed down to future generations of bird
boys.”
He did not mention the fact, but Frank suspected it on the spot and
afterwards discovered it to be true, that his money had gone to
purchase the said trophy and have it suitably engraved.
“When is this great day to be?” demanded the excited Andy, leaning
over, the better to scan the little poster that told in as few words as
possible what the several conditions of the contest would be.
“July fourteenth, and at two p. m. the word will be given to go,”
replied Frank.
“Whew! That gives us a scant five days to get ready and one of them
Sunday, too, when there’s nothing doing. Can we get the machine in
trim and master her by that time, Frank?” asked his cousin,
anxiously.
“We certainly can and will!” came the steady reply from the boy who
believed in his own powers to accomplish things. “Besides, you must
remember that our only competitors are likely to be Puss Carberry
and his crony Sandy, who know far less than we do about running an
aeroplane.”
“That’s right,” agreed Andy, his confidence returning again, as it
always did after being bolstered up by his chum’s unwavering
determination and faith. “With only those two against us seems to
me we ought to have a walk-over.”
“Now, don’t jump to the other extreme and underrate the enemy,”
warned Frank. “You know that’s always a dangerous business.
Besides, Percy has a certain amount of perseverance and cunning
that often carries him along. He’s in dead earnest about this aviation
business and bent on making a success of it. I never knew him to
show so much interest in anything before. And it strikes me as funny,
now that I look back, how neither of us ever suspected that he was
up to beating us at our own game. He’s a sly one, all right.”
“Yes,” Andy went on, “and we might still be as much in the dark as
ever if it hadn’t been for my silly blunder in starting to open his
package of freight, without examining the tag first. That gave the
secret away and put us on to their slick game.”
“Perhaps,” replied his cousin; “not that it would make much
difference in the end, though, for they couldn’t have kept their secret
much longer. But I’m going over to town now and see if that canvas
has arrived at Spencer’s Emporium.”
“This time,” said Andy, “my wheel ought to hold out, for you put the
plug in yourself, and I humbly confess that I’m far from a success as
a mechanic. My jobs look well, but hang the luck, they don’t just
seem to hold good.”
Frank was quickly off. He never felt so happy before in all his life.
Everything seemed to be as fine as the weather. Their little
monoplane was about ready for its trial spin, once they fastened the
new canvas to the planes. There was this competition, which
pleased him more than words could tell. And then the indefinite
future beckoned beyond, holding all sorts of wonderful possibilities
for a couple of bold spirits, fully devoted to solving the secrets of the
upper air.
“I only hope the weather is just like this on that same Old Home day,”
he was saying to himself, as he pushed on the pedals and went
spinning along the road to town. “Not a breath of air stirring around
and just a few clouds lazily floating up yonder above the crown of
Old Thunder Top.”
He turned to cast a glance toward the peak that hung over the
waters of peaceful Lake Sunrise, and memory carried him back to
several occasions when he had been baffled in trying to scale the
upper tier of frowning cliffs, that up to now had made the top of the
peak inaccessible to climbers.
It was a positive fact that so far as was known to the oldest
inhabitant of Bloomsbury no one had ever attained that summit,
though many had tried. The upper cliffs made a complete circle
around the crown and were something like eighty feet in height.
It had long been the one desire of Frank’s boyish heart to find out
some method of surmounting the difficulties that had thus far
debarred any one from planting a flag up on that lofty summit.
And to think that the idea had also come to Old Colonel Josiah, who
possibly in his younger years may have climbed the Matterhorn or
scaled some of those awful peaks in the northern Himalayas.
It would indeed be a proud day for Frank if he were ever allowed to
put foot on that elevated plateau of solid rock, up to now only the
lonely eyrie for the eagles that sailed through the blue vault of
heaven.
And strangely enough at about that same moment Andy was
standing outside the shed that sheltered the idol of their hopes, with
his eyes also glued upon the indistinct crown of Old Thunder Top.
In imagination doubtless the sanguine bird-boy was seeing their
monoplane gently dropping like a feather on that hitherto
inaccessible rocky fortress, soon to yield its secrets to modern, up-
to-date methods of exploration.
And again would the honored name which his late father bore be
crowned with a measure of success.
“I’d just be as happy as a clam at high tide,” muttered Andy, “if it
wasn’t for that measly monkey wrench getting away from me. Never
had such a sad thing happen. And just when I had saved enough
money to get out a patent, too. But, as Frank says, there’s no use
crying over spilt milk. I can make another model if given time. And
then who knows but what it might pop up again in some unexpected
place. Sometimes I am a bit careless, I admit. But better that than to
believe it went in that mud to land in China, as Larry Geohegan
said.”
From the contemplation of the mountain peak he allowed his
thoughts to slip off to that other subject which was never long out of
his mind.
“If we can drop down on that plateau so easy,” he said to himself,
Colonel Josiah having betaken himself back to the house and his
book, “what’s to hinder our scouring the whole range of the Andes in
the hope of finding some trace of any one who might have been lost
there? I haven’t said much to Frank about that, but it’s the dream of
my life. If I only could know how he died—oh, if I could only learn
where his poor body lies! That uncertainty is what hangs like a load
on my soul. But some day, please Heaven, I mean to go down there
were he was last seen and devote my whole energies to solving the
riddle.”
When Frank came back, which was shortly, he found his cousin
tinkering at the planes and getting the last remnant of old canvas off
in readiness for the new material soon to be fastened there.
“I see you got it all right, Frank,” remarked Andy, cheerily, for it was
not in his nature to remain for any length of time in the dumps.
“Yes, it came in yesterday after all. But then we haven’t really lost
any time, you know. And by tomorrow morning I calculate we’ll be in
good trim to make the first real test of our ship in her natural
element, the air. I tell you, Andy, the prospect looks mighty good to
me.”
“And to me,” promptly said the one addressed. “Given two days to
make little flights around our field here, and we ought to be able to
rise to higher things.”
“Well, I learned something just now that rather took my breath away,”
Frank went on saying.
“What was that?” asked the other, curiously.
“You remember that Puss was off somewhere a week ago. I heard
that he was down in the city, but no one knew what for. And now it
develops that he spent two days around the aviation field over on
Long Island, watching the way they ran the aeroplanes. And it is said
that he went up several times with Curtiss in one of his biplanes, so
as to learn how to handle the wheel!”
“You don’t say?” ejaculated Andy, his eyebrows denoting the most
intense astonishment. “Well, in that case he has got the bulge on us,
for a fact. Why, if he had such an experienced aviator for a teacher
Puss must be in the swim right now. And we’ve just got to dig for all
we’re worth to get on even terms with him.”
“Don’t worry,” said Frank, composedly. “In the first place I don’t
believe the story. If he went up with any one it was a man less
famous than Curtiss, who certainly wouldn’t bother taking a boy up
with him while exhibiting his machine and what tricks it could do.
Even if Puss did go up, that doesn’t make him an aviator. We’re
going to learn our little lesson by slow degrees and without the help
of any outsider, too.”
They were soon busily employed in cutting out the wings and starting
to secure them to the planes. It was a particular job, for upon those
essential parts of the monoplane almost as much depended as on
the engine itself. If the latter broke down while in flight or stopped
while “banking” the aeronaut could save himself by volplaning down