Trees A Handbook of Forest Botany

TREES
A HANDBOOK OF FOREST-BOTANY
Anthony Walsh
TREES
A HANDBOOK |of| FOREST#BOTANY
TREES
A HANDBOOK |of| FOREST#BOTANY
Anthony Walsh
Trees*!a#Handbook|of|Forest#Botany
^by* Anthony Walsh
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Contents
1@ Forest Plantations 1
2@ Forest**anÂrea|of|Density|of|Trees 62
3@ Forest * Botanical Relationships 105
4@ Silviculture*and%Management*in=Forestry 140
5@ Food*and%Plant Products*in=Forestry 162
6@ Forest Structure*and%Patterns 213
7@ Land*and%Farm Resources*in=Forestry 237
1
Forest Plantations
Introduction
Forest plantations covered 187 million hectares*in=2000* |of| w h i c h
Asia accounted{for}62 per cent@*the^forest plantation area represents
!a# significant increase{from]*the^1995 estimate |of| 124 million hectares@
*the^ reported n e w annual planting rate[is]4@5 million hectares globally*
with Asia*and%South A m e r i c a accounting{for}89 per cent@ A b o u t 3
million hectares {are] estimated {to] be successful@ Globally* half *the^
forest plantation estate [is] {for} industrial end#use* one#quarter {for} non#
industrial end#use*and%one#quarter not specified@ Globally**the^m a i n
fast#growing* short#rotation species {are] *in= *the^ genera Eucalyptus and+
Acacia@ Pines *and% other coniferous species {are] *the^ main medium#
rotation utility species* primarily*in=*the^temperate*and%boreal zones@
The potential {for} forest plantations {to] partially m e e t d e m a n d
^from* natural forests{for}w o o d*and%fibre{for}industrial uses[is]increasing@
A l t h o u g h accounting{for}only 5 per cent|of|global forest cover* forest
plantations {were] estimated*in=*the^year 2000{to]supply about 35 per
cent |of| global roundwood@ This figure [is] anticipated {to] increase *to^
44 per cent {by] 2020@ *in= some countries forest plantation production
already contributes *the^ majority |of| industrial wood supply@ There *is$
increasing interest *in= development |of| forest plantations as carbon
2 Trees*!a#Handbook|of|Forest#Botany
sinks~ however* failure {to] resolve international debates on legal

instruments* mechanisms*and%monitoring remains!a#serious constraint@
In developing countries about one#third|of|*the^total plantation
estate was primarily g r o w n{for}woodfuel*in=1995 # although{it]should
b e noted that planted trees on farmland**in=villages*and%h o m e s t e a d s
{and} along roads*and%waterways contribute significantly{to]fuelwood
supplies* enabling*the^d e m a n d {to] b e met*in=most instances@
N e w forest plantation areas {were] reported as being established
globally {at] *the^ rate |of| 4@5 million hectares per year* with Asia and+
South America accounting {for} more new plantations than *the^ other
regions@ |of| plantations established* about 3 million hectares per year
^were* estimated as being successful@
Of*theêstimated 187 million hectares |of| plantations worldwide
*in& 2000* Asia{had]{by]far*the^largest area@*in=terms |of| composition*
Pinus spp@ (20 per cent)*and%Eucalyptus spp@ (10 per cent) remain
dominant worldwide* although*theôverall diversity|of|species planted
w a s s h o w n{to]be increasing@ Industrial plantations account{for}48 per
cent* non#industrial plantations {for} 26 per cent *and% plantations *for^
unspecified use {for} 26 per cent |of| *the^ global forest plantation estate@
T h e results |of| *the^ plantation assessment {were] *the^ first global
estimates with !a# uniform definition |of| forest plantations*and%can
therefore not b e directly compared{to]previous estimates@ F R A 2000
country statistics on plantations m a y also differ {from] those reported
*in& prior F A O publications* partly because |of| changes*in=definitions@
Countries participated directly*in=*theâssessment* providing technical
documentation*and%supporting analysis*and%validating *the^ results
generated{by]FAO@ Several experts around*the^world {were] enlisted
^to* provide detailed information on various aspects|of|*the^plantation
situation*in=*the^form |of| special studies@
B e t w e e n *the^ e x t r e m e s |of| afforestation *and% u n a i d e d natural
regeneration |of| natural forests* there[is]!a#range |of| forest conditions
*in& w h i c h h u m a n interventions occur@ E u r o p e a n forests {have] long
t r a d i t i o n s |of| h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n *in= s i t e p r e p a r a t i o n * t r e e
establishment* silviculture*and%protection~ yet these{are]not always
defined as forest plantations@*the^traditional forest plantation concept
tends {to] be applied {to] single species* uniform planting densities and+
even age classes@ Terms such as $natural forest under management$
or $assisted natural regeneration${are]applied{to]stands |of| indigenous
Trees*!a#Handbook|of|Forest#Botany 3
species*in=m o r e heterogeneous m a n a g e m e n t m e c h a n i s m s*in=Europe

{and} other industrialized temperate*and%boreal countries@
Methods
The area |of|existing forest plantations would ideally all *have^
been derived {from] statistically designed inventories |of| forest
plantations or statistics{for}planted areas reported{by]planting agencies
or appearing*in=national reports@ However* information also comes
^from* m a n y other sources including nursery production* seedling
distribution *and% e s t i m a t e s d e r i v e d {from] *the^ goals |of| p l a n t i n g
programmes@
The vast range |of| agencies* industries*and%non#governmental
organizations within countries engaged*in=planting programmes made
*the^ comprehensive collection |of| all relevant source documents !a#
major logistical exercise@ {for} FRA 2000* over 800 source documents
^were* analysed {to] derive *the^ forest plantation estimates@ *in= m o s t
d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s !a# n a t i o n a l c l e a r i n g h o u s e {for} c o l l e c t i n g
information on plantations [is] either lacking or ineffective owing *to^
*the^ enormity |of| *the^ task *and% limited resources@
Data Collection
T o retrieve*the^source documents{for}*the^plantation study* F A O
m a d e formal requests {to] all developing countries* s o m e |of| w h i c h
contributed*the^necessary materials@ M o s t|of|*the^reports{were]collected
directly {by] FAO staff during FRA 2000 workshops *and% visits *to^
national ministries@ {for} consistency FRA 2000 prepared guidelines
{and} questionnaires {for} *the^ collection |of| forest plantation statistics *in^
which *the^ objectives* scope* definitions* sources |of| data *and% templates
^for* specific data collection{were]supplied{to]each country@ Parameters
requested included*
• Total estimated forest plantation area* 2000~
• Annual area |of| new plantations~
• Species groups* broadleaf* conifer* non#forest like* African oil palm
(Elaeis guineensis)* coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) bamboo or
unspecified~
• Purpose*and%end#use objective |of| forest plantations* industrial
(producing wood or fibre{for}supply{to]wood processing industry)
or non#industrial (fuelwood* soil*and%water protection)~
• Ownership* public* private* other (e@g@ traditional* customary) or
unspecified@
O t h e r data requested*in=*the^guidelines* w h i c h p r o v e d difficult

^for* c o u n t r i e s {to] p r o v i d e {by] s p e c i e s group* i n c l u d e d age class
distribution~ end#use{by]forest product (industrial plantations)~ growth
{and} yield ( m e a n annual increment)~ standing volumes~*and%rotation
lengths@ Despite *the^ absence |of| these data* F R A 2000[is]*the^m o s t
comprehensive forest plantation resources assessment that{has]b e e n
carried out@
In previous assessments|of|forest plantation resources* plantation
data {were] available u p{to]*the^reference year{for}m o s t countries* since
*the^ reporting followed*the^reference year@*in=F R A 2000**the^reference
year w a s 2000* so if data {were] not available{to]that date* then existing
area*and%annual planting data {were] used{to]extrapolate*the^necessary
information@
For*the^few countries that {have] n o data sets since 1990**the^rate
|of| planting *in= preceding years *and% future planting programmes *were^
considered *in= projections {to] *the^ year 2000@
FAO also enlisted *the^ assistance |of| several experts around *the^
world {to] make specific technical contributions on *the^ forest plantation
situation*in=*the^1990s@ These studies constituted*anîmportant part
|of| *the^ g l o b a l r e s u l t s as w e l l *and% c o m p l e m e n t e d *the^ c o u n t r y
information@
Analysis *and% Interpretation
The quantity *and% quality |of| forest plantation data provided *is$
dependent upon *the^ capacity |of| *the^ national forest inventory systems
^to* collect*and%analyse data*and%{to]adjust*theînformation{to]conform
with global*and%regional reporting parameters@*in=m a n y developing
countries there[is]!a#lack|of|institutional capacity{to]carry out periodic
national forest inventories* so data can b e incomplete* inconsistent*
outdated*and%|of|variable reliability@ Because |of| this*{it]w a s necessary
^to* derive*and%*in=some instances{to]verify forest plantation statistics
through desk research using available country reports@ All sources
|of| country data {were] referenced*and%m a d e available*in=!a#transparent
manner@
In addition* regional*and%national focal persons {were] appointed
^to* assist *in= *the^ forest plantation data collection* {to] ensure that *the^
latest data {were] available *and% {to] maintain coordination and+
communication between FRA 2000* FAO regional offices *and% each
participating country@ O n completion |of| *the^ data sets* !a# formal
verification process w a s undertaken with e a c h participating country@

Purpose*and%ownership within*the^global forest plantation estate
Purpose*and%ownership |of| forest plantations vary m a r k e d l y a m o n g
regions@ Industrial plantations provide*the^r a w material{for}w o o d
processing {for} commercial purposes* including timber *for^
construction* panel products *and% furniture *and% pulpwood {for} paper@
In contrast* non#industrial plantations {are] aimed {for} example *at^
supplying fuelwood* providing soil *and% water conservation* wind
protection* b i o l o g i c a l d i v e r s i t y c o n s e r v a t i o n *and% o t h e r non¬
commercial purposes@
In m a n y countries* particularly*in=*the^developing world**theênd
purpose |of| *the^ plantations [is] not clearly defined {at] *the^ outset@ *in^
some |of| these cases* valuable tree resources {are] established which
coincidentally m a t c h future needs@ However**in=other cases*the^lack
|of| planning m a y result*in=plantations that {have] little commercial
value*and%!a#low potential{for}local use@
Plantation Resources*in=India
Plantation resources {have] been generated *and% maintained *in^
India over *the^ ages@ Emperor Ashoka (273#232 BC) [is] known {to] *have^
^had* trees planted along long stretches |of| main roads *in= his vast
empire@ E m p e r o r Shivaji (1630#1680)[is]reported{to]{have]encouraged
plantation forestry within his empire@ Sher K h a n (1472#1545)* w h o
asserted his independence {from] *the^ Mughal Emperor Humayun and+
built *and% ruled over !a# large empire* [is] known {to] {have] formally
converted*anôld imperial h i g h w a y spanning almost*theêntire north
|of|*theÎndian sub#continent into*the^G r a n d T r u n k R o a d*and%{had]large
stretches|of|*the^roadsides planted with trees@
The earliest plantation |of| *the^ colonial era *in= India [is] reported *to^
be |of| !a# native species* teak (Tectona grandis)* planted *in= 1840 *in^
Nilambur* Kerala@ Regular planting* mainly |of| teak* b e g a n*in=1865
*in& m a n y|of|*the^teak#growing central*and%southern provinces@
In 1910* Eucalyptus spp@ was introduced *in= *the^ Nilgiri Hills |of| *the^
present Tamil Nadu@ Planting |of| other native species was accelerated
after*the^taungya system w a s introduced*in=1911@ These plantations*
however* did not cover*anêxtensive area until 1950@
P l a n n e d afforestation {for} soil conservation* industrial wood*
fuelwood*and%fodder started*in=*the^late 1950s@ *the^ total plantation
area{to]*theênd|of|1972 was about 2@1 Mha@ Establishment |of| plantations

remained confined mostly{to]forest reserves until 1979@*the^plantation
b o o m occurred w h e n*the^social forestry projects ( S F M P r o g r a m m e s )
^were* launched*in=m a n y states along with several other afforestation
projects carried out with*theâssistance|of|external donors@ *the^ annual
planting rate increased {to] about 1 M h a during 1980#1985@ Most
plantations {have] since then b e e n established outside forest reserves
*in& wastelands o w n e d{by]*the^government or on c o m m u n i t y or private
farmers@ land@ Plantation forestry received further impetus when !a#
National Wasteland Development Board was created *in= 1985@ *the^
annual rate |of| planting increased {to] 1@8 Mha during 1985#1990@ *the^
area |of| plantations established during 1980#1990 was estimated *by^
converting seedlings planted/distributed {by] !a# notional equivalence
|of| 2*000 seedlings {to] one hectare@
Records |of| plantations established since 1991 {are] maintained *for^
planted area *and% distributed seedlings separately* {by] *the^ National
Afforestation*and%Eco#development B o a r d (NAEB) created*in=1992
ât**theÛ n i o n Ministry |of| Environment*and%Forests@ *the^ annual rate
|of| planting since 1990{has]b e e n ranging b e t w e e n 1@4{to]1@6 Mha@
India {has] sizeable plantation areas |of| non#forest species@ *the^
total area {to] 1997 was about 15@3 Mha* |of| which rubber (Hevea
#2
brasiliensis) o c c u p i e d 1@2><10 M h a *and% b a m b o o *and% c a s h e w
(Anacardium spp@) occupied 0@4 M h a*and%0@1 M h a respectively@
Species Composition
A large variety |of| species{are]planted*in=*the^varied agro#climatic
zones@ However* detailed information about *the^ composition |of|
species *in= plantations [is] lacking@ Acacia spp@* Eucalyptus spp@ and+
Tectona grandis occupy*the^greatest areas*in=*the^plantations@
Eucalyptus globulus* E@ grandis *and% E@ tereticornis {are] most c o m m o n
species* while a m o n g*theÂcacias* Acacia auriculiformis* A@ catechu* A@
mearnsii* A@ nilotica *and% A@ tortalis {are] common@ Other c o m m o n l y
planted broadleaves {are] Albizia spp@* Azadirachta indica* Casuarina
equisetifolia* Dalbergia sissoo* Gmelina arborea* Populus spp@ Prosopis
spp@* Shorea robusta *and% Terminalia spp@ Survival rates |of| species
differ*and%sal (Shorea robusta)[is]k n o w n{for}seedling dying#back disease@
Among conifers* Cedrus deodara *and% Pinus roxburghii occupy !a#
major area@ Pinus patula *and% P@ caribaea {have] been planted {to] !a# limited
extent@
Growth *and% Yield

W o o d production {from] forest plantations{at]*the^national or sub#
national level [is] not available@ {it] [is] reported that productivity *from^
plantations *in= general [is] quite low@ {for} example* mean annual
increment (MAI){for}teak{at]*theâverage rotation age |of| 58 years
3 3
varies between 0@6 {to] 7 m /ha/yr with !a# mean |of| 2@5 m /ha/yr *in^
Kerala* one |of| *the^ major teak producing states@
This recorded productivity m a y differ {from] real productivity on
account|of|not taking into account*the^since smalltimber*and%fuelwood
removal {from] forests[is]not taken into account@ Productivity levels
|of| some plantations* mainly |of| eucalyptus *and% poplar* raised *by^
farmers under private ownership* [is] better@
Yield |of| selected species[is]as below*
Dalbergia sissoo
Rotation (years)* 30{to]4 0
3
M e a n annual increment m /ha/yr* 4{to]6
Eucalyptus spp@
Rotation (years)* 10{to]20
3
Gmelina arborea
Rotation (years)* 30{to]4 0
3
Acacia nilotica
3
Populus spp@
3
Land Use*and%Availability
India@s biomass demands may be met through afforestation and+
reforestation coupled with sustainable plantation forestry
management practices@ Large potential exists {for} afforestation *in^
private lands* such as farm fallow lands *and% marginal croplands@
This chapter contains information on forestland* wastelands and+
land use patterns@
Present Outlook
In*theâbsence|of|!a#robust industrial plantation movement* several
types |of| relations b e t w e e n w o o d b a s e d industry*and%*the^farmer
c o m m u n i t y {are] seen {to] {have] evolved*

• Supply |of| free or subsidized seedlings
• Bank loan schemes
• Leasing or share cropping schemes
• R&D*and%commercial sale|of|improved clonal planting stock Saigal*
S@* Arora* H@* Rizvi* S@S@ (2002)@ *the^ new foresters* *the^ role |of|
private enterprise *in= *the^ Indian forestry Sector@ Ecotech Services*
New Delhi *and% International Institute |of| Environment and+
Development* London@
In *the^ e a r l y 1990s* m a n y p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s s t a r t e d t e a k
plantations {by] raising funds {from] public sources@ T h e y p r o m i s e d
very attractive rate |of| return@ Their calculation was based on *the^
assumption |of| high volume per tree on !a# 20#year rotation* which was
found unrealistic*and%wrong@ *the^ plantation sites {were] m o s t l y
degraded*and%less productive*and%*the^planting material w a s also not
|of| genetically superior quality@ O n scrutiny |of| accounts |of| some
planting companies{by]*the^Securities*and%E x c h a n g e B o a r d |of| India
(SEBI)* {it] w a s found that *the^ c o m p a n i e s depended on *the^ fresh
investors *and% not on interim returns |of| teak plantations {to] honor *the^
commitment |of| earlier investors@ *the^ companies also could not prove
their claims |of| high productivity* as!a#result most|of|*the^c o m p a n i e s
^were* closed d o w n during late 1998@ *the^ total area b r o u g h t u n d e r
teak plantation {by] t h e m w a s around 5*000 ha@
Factors Affecting Growth |of| Production Forestry

Several factors constrain *the^ growth |of| production forestry *in^
India*
• High cost |of| credit*and%lack |of| access{to]credit
• Long gestation period* particularly{for}long#rotation forestry
• Absence |of| market institutions
• Regulations on planting* harvesting**and%transportation |of| trees
• Import |of| timber* pulp**and%paper
• Lack |of| high yielding genetic planting material*and%silviculture
practices
• Absence |of| forestry extension services{to]farmers
• External funding largely{to]forest department* not{for}farmers or
plantation companies
• No foreign direct investment*in=forestry@
The disaggregation |of| production forestry sector[is]possibly also
reflected*in=surveys*and%assessment figures thereof@ O n l y*theânnual

statistics on plantations done under different schemes *and% *the^
cumulative plantation areas since 1951 {are] available@ Monitoring and+
inventory |of| plantations [is] inadequate *and% as !a# result *the^ actual area
|of| existing plantations [is] uncertain@
Plantations established after 1985 constitute more than 70 percent
|of|*the^total@ Part|of|*theânnual plantation target (35{to]4 0 percent)*
particularly after 1985*[is]achieved{by]*the^distribution |of| seedlings@
Since 1992* N A E B {had] started survival assessments |of| first#year
plantations *in= limited areas (about 10 %)* but *the^ results |of| *the^
assessment {are] not used {to] correct *the^ area figures reported@
Development |of| Forest Plantations

B y*the^seventeenth century*the^decline*in=*theârea|of|native forest
*in& European countries led{to]*the^planting |of| trees* largely{to]provide
alternative sources |of| timber supply@ Sometimes plantations *were^
established {for} *the^ provision |of| services or other products than timber@
They might be planted as shelterbelts* {for} dune stabilization* *for^
amenity or {for} *the^ supply |of| firewood@ Plantations |of| native species
^were* established{at]first*in=areas{where}forests occurred naturally*
^for* example France* Germany* England*and%Scotland* b u t later also
on previously unforested land@ *in= France* {for} example* planting |of|
Pinus pinaster was started on *the^ sand dunes |of| *the^ Landes *and% with
Pinus sylvestris *and% Picea abies on former agricultural land *in= *the^
Vosges~ *in= Germany likewise agricultural land was planted with
N o r w a y spruce (Picea abies) *in= Saxony@*in=tropical countries such as
Myanmar (then Burma)* teak (Tectona grandis) was planted as !a#
native species *in= *the^ taungya system@
Teak was one|of|*the^first exotic forest plantation species{to]b e
used* being planted*in=Sri L a n k a*and%*theîsland |of| J a v a (Indonesia)
^from* early*in=*the^nineteenth century@ Exotic species* such as D o u g l a s
fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)* Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis)* Japanese
larch (Larix kaempferi)* lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) *and% poplar
(Populus deltoides)* {were] introduced{to]Europe during*the^nineteenth
century* when they began {to] play *an^ increasingly important role *in^
forest plantation programmes@ Other exotic species* particularly *the^
eucalypts (Eucalyptus spp@)*and%wattle (Acacia spp@) {from] Australia*
^were* introduced as exotics *in= tropical *and% subtropical countries *from^
*the^ middle |of| *the^ nineteenth century* while Pinus radiata was
introduced {from] California{to]N e w Zealand*and%other countries such

as Chile{from]*theêarly years|of|*the^twentieth century@
The m a i n reason{for}*theêstablishment |of| plantations remained
*the^ decline *in= natural forest area *and% !a# scarcity |of| wood and* *the^
conversion |of| woods *and% forests {to] agricultural *and% grazing use@ *in^
recent years increased areas |of| natural forest {have] been managed *for^
nature conservation* recreation* wildlife parks* etc@* *and% commercial
w o o d production{has]b e e n either reduced or eliminated@{for}example*
over 25 000 h a |of| high#yielding hybrid poplar plantations {have] b e e n
established *in= *the^ north#western USA between 1992 *and% 1997 *in^
response {to] both increased demand {for} poplar wood {for} orientated#
strand b o a r d*and%decreased supply {from] public forests@ O n*theôther
hand* s o m e n e w areas {have] b e c o m e available*in=European countries
as l a n d [is] t a k e n out |of| a g r i c u l t u r e d u e {to] t r a d e *and% m a r k e t
considerations@
Objectives
Forest plantations {are] tree crops that{are]*in=some* b u t not all*
w a y s analogous {to] agricultural crops@ T h e y often {have] !a# simple
structure* {at] least *in= youth* *and% {are] usually composed |of| one or !a#
few species (but not varieties as *in= agriculture* except *in= !a# few cases
such as*theîntensively bred poplars) chosen{for}their fast growth*
yield|of|specified products*and%ease|of|management@ W h e n established
^for* w o o d production they{have]!a#higher productivity |of| usable w o o d
than natural forests* but due{to]*the^w a y they{are]m a n a g e d they do
not* indeed cannot* provide*the^full range |of| goods*and%services that
natural* seminatural or e v e n secondary forest can provide@ Although
*the^ objective |of| m a n y plantations[is]*the^production |of| industrial
roundwood and/or fuelwood* m a n y{are]established{for}environmental
p r o t e c t i o n or o t h e r s e r v i c e s (e@g@ soil *and% w a t e r conservation*
e n h a n c e m e n t |of| agricultural production *in= agroforestry systems*
c a r b o n sequestration) *and% s o m e also p r o v i d e n o n # w o o d forest
products* such as fodder* various foodstuffs* medicines* etc@
Area
The area |of| forest plantations throughout *the^ world started *to^
increase *in= *the^ 1970s as many governments became concerned about
w o o d supplies{for}industry**and%*in=developing countries fuelwood
supplies**and%{has]continued{to]increase since@ However* there{are]no
reliable global figures{for}plantation areas because forests |of| native

species*in=several developed countries*in=*the^temperate*and%boreal
regions* especially*in=continental Europe*{are]frequently regenerated
naturally *and% {it] [is] not possible {to] distinguish those areas *where^
supplementary artificial planting {has] been done@ Furthermore many
countries consider their plantations as @seminatural@ forests over !a#
certain age* because as stands mature *the^ clear initial row layout |of|
*the^ trees [is] lost *and% other species naturally regenerate under *the^
canopy@ {for} example* Austria* Czech Republic *and% Finland* *in^
responding {to] !a# questionnaire {to] collect data {for} *the^ ECE/FAO
Temperate*and%Boreal Forest Resource Assessment (TBFRA)* stated
that they {had] no plantations *in= their countries as defined {by] *the^
TBFRA process@
In 1995* *an^ approximate estimate |of| *the^ area |of| plantations *in^
developed countries was 60 million ha* comprising 13@7 million ha
*in& North America* 22@2 million ha *in= *the^ Commonwealth |of|
Independent States* 12@1 million ha *in= Europe *and% 13@2 million ha *in^
Oceania (Australia* N e w Zealand* Japan)@*the^m o s t significant areas
|of| plantations{were]*in=*the^Russian Federation (17@3 million ha* 2@1%
|of|*the^country@s total forest area)**theÛ S A (13@7 million ha* 6@3%)*
J a p a n (10@7 million ha* 44@4%)* Ukraine (4@4 million ha* 46@8%) ( F A O /
ECE 1996)* Spain (1@9 million ha* 14@9%)* N e w Zealand (1@54 million
ha* 1 9 %|of|*the^total forest area *in= 1996* 9 1 % |of| w h i c h w a s Pinus
radiata) *and% Australia (1@04 million h a*in=1994* 8 5 % |of| which was
softwood species* mainly P@ radiata)@
The estimated @net@ plantation area|of|55 million h a*in=developing
countries *in= 1995 was about 2@8% |of| *the^ total area |of| forests *in^
developing countries@ *in= 1980 *the^ net plantation area was assessed
ât* about 40 million ha@{it]{has]thus increased{by]about 15 million h a
*in& 15 years* but e v e n this figure m a y b e liable {to] error@ M a n y
developing countries* especially those with large forest plantation
p r o g r a m m e s * p r o v i d e d u p d a t e d i n f o r m a t i o n on their p r e s e n t
plantation plans{to]F A O*in=1996*and%1997 {from] which *the^ reported
annual rate |of| n e w plantations |of| 3 million h a w a s derived@ Note*
however* that this[is]*the^reported or planned rate* w h i c h m a y not
necessarily {have] b e e n achieved@ M o s t |of| *the^ countries with large
plantation estates indicated that they intended {to] double their
plantation areas b e t w e e n 1995*and%2010@
It was estimated {from] reported figures that 5 7 %|of|*the^forest

p l a n t a t i o n a r e a c o n s i s t e d |of| h a r d w o o d s p e c i e s *and% 6 3 % w a s
established{for}industrial purposes@ Nearly three#quarters |of| these
plantations{were]*in=*theÂsia#Pacific region*{where}China (21 million
ha) *and% India (20 million ha) dominate* while about 15% {were] *in^
Latin America *and% 10% *in= Africa@
One |of| *the^ trends *in= *the^ tropics {has] been that *the^ proportion |of|
industrial plantations established *in= large blocks fell {from] 40% |of| *the^
total plantation area*in=1980{to]3 5 %*in=1990@*the^proportion |of| smaller
p l a n t a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h farm forestry or a g r o f o r e s t r y
p r o g r a m m e s g r e w *in= i m p o r t a n c e d u r i n g *the^ p e r i o d 1980#95*
particularly*in=*theÂsia#Oceania region@
Unfortunately**the^figures on small#scale private or community#
o w n e d forest plantations {are] even less reliable than{for}large#scale
plantations@ S o m e |of| these farm forestry or agroforestry plantations
supply industrial wood markets {for} pulpwood (e@g@ Brazil and+
Thailand) or peeler logs (e@g@ India)@ *in= many countries* particularly
those with limited forest area* planted trees grown outside*the^formal
forest area often provide*the^b u l k |of| fuelwood* poles* construction
wood* utility wood* as well as fodder*and%other non#wood forest
products{for}household use@
Of*theârea |of| h a r d w o o d plantations planted{for}industrial use*
30% or nearly 10 million ha consists |of| eucalyptus* followed *by^
acacias (3@9 million ha or about 12% |of| *the^ hardwood area) *and% teak
(about 7%)@ Short rotation plantations |of| h a r d w o o d species such as
*the^ eucalypts* acacias*and%Gmelina arborea {have] b e e n grown{for}m a n y
years {by] *the^ private sector* but *the^ establishment |of| plantations |of|
teak or other valuable hardwood species {has] been carried out only
^by* government forest services because |of| their slow growth and+
hence delayed returns@
However* *the^ likelihood |of| reduced supplies |of| high#quality
hardwood logs derived{from]natural forests* combined with increasing
purchasing power *and% expected higher prices {for} logs* [is] leading *to^
increasing interest *in= investment {by] *the^ private sector *in= valuable
hardwood species* especially teak* *in= !a# number |of| countries* *for^
example India* Malaysia* Costa Rica *and% Ghana@
Of *the^ softwoods g r o w n{for}industrial purposes* fast#growing
pines such as Pinus radiata* P@ patala*and%P@ caribaea constitute about
2 5 %|of|*theârea while other* often slow#growing pines (e@g@ P@ kesiya*

P@ massoniana* P@ merkusii* P@ rox#burghii* P@ halepensis* P@ pinaster and+
P@ wallichi#ana) make up about 36%@
Responsibility{for}*the^monitoring*and%regulation |of| plantation
crops grown {for} food *and% certain other purposes {has] long been *the^
job |of| *the^ agricultural sector@ *in= recent years* however* several |of|
these crops (the main ones being rubber* coconut *and% oil palm) *have^
been providing @forest@ products that {have] been used {for} wood and+
fibre@
For example* rubber wood [is] now used {for} *the^ manufacture |of|
about 80% |of| *the^ furniture made *in= Malaysia* while coconut *and% oil
p a l m trunks*and%*the^b r a n c h e s |of| rubber w o o d{are]used{for}various
forms |of| reconstituted @wood@@ Rubber wood *and% coconut stems *are^
derived {from] *the^ conversion |of| old plantations formerly disposed |of|
^by* burning* while oil p a l m fruit residues {are] u s e d {for} medium#
density fibre board@*the^development |of| these n e w markets{has]thus
not only improved financial returns but also used *the^ resources *in^
*an& environmentally friendly manner@
The area |of| these species appears{to]{have]increased{from]*the^14
million h a reported *in= 1990@ *the^ increase m a y b e due {to] better
coverage |of| *the^ data* although {it] [is] known that oil palm areas *are^
increasing rapidly* rubber tree areas {are] also increasing *and% coconut
plantations{are]decreasing@ Coconut plantations comprise*the^largest
area (about 4 2 %|of|*the^total)* rubber 3 6 %*and%oil p a l m 22%@ M o s t
of *the^ coconut plantations {are] *in= Indonesia (33% |of| *the^ area) *and% *the^
Philippines (28%)~ most |of| *the^ rubber plantations {are] *in= Indonesia
(34%)* Thailand (20%)*and%Malaysia (18%)* while m o s t|of|*theôil palm
plantations{are]*in=Malaysia (44%)*and%India (29%)@
Coniferous Forests*and%Temperate Broadleaf

Of closed canopy forests* perhaps n o n e{has]b e e n as extensively
utilized*and%altered{by]h u m a n s as*the^temperate forests@ Significant
portions |of| Europe *and% eastern Asia that once supported forests *have^
long since been converted {to] pasture *and% agriculture* *and% little |of|
*the^ original vegetation remains@ Similarly* m u c h |of| *the^ temperate
forest*in=*theÛ S A{has]b e e n cut* although!a#large percentage returned
^to* forest after cutting or agricultural abandonment@ N o n e*the^less*
forests still occupy moderate{to]significant portions|of|*the^temperate
regions |of| North*and%South America* Europe* Asia*and%Australia*

{and}{are]|of|significant economic*and%ecological importance@
Distribution*and%Extent
2
There{are]about 1@1 million k m |of|temperate broadleaf deciduous
2
forests*in=*the^world* with perhaps another 3#8 million k m |of| temperate
coniferous*and%broadleaf evergreen forests*and%woodlands@*in=North
America* temperate broadleaf forests {are] confined primarily {to] *the^
eastern USA *and% south#east Canada@ West |of| *the^ central prairie
region {are] *the^ interior *and% mountainous coniferous forests* and+
beyond them *the^ coastal temperate coniferous rain forests |of| *the^
Pacific North#west@ Latitudinally* they occur b e t w e e n*the^subtropical
zone (about 28#30°N) *and% *the^ boreal zone (46#47° N)* although *the^
temperate coniferous rain forests |of| *the^ Pacific coast |of| Canada and+
Alaska grow !a# little north |of| 56° N@ Smaller areas |of| temperate forest
occur*in=southern M e x i c o*and%into Belize*and%Guatemala* principally
ât* high elevations*and%along river courses{at]0#2500 m@ *the^ South
A m e r i c a n temperate forests g r o w primarily along *the^ far south¬
western coast *and% *the^ southernmost tip |of| *the^ continent@ *the^
deciduous forests east |of| *the^ Andes grow south |of| 45° S* while *the^
coastal rain forests g r o w b e t w e e n 41*and%56° S@ Temperate broadleaf
evergreen forests g r o w principally*in=Chile* with!a#minor extension
into Argentina@ European temperate forests occur predominantly *in^
western *and% central Europe* continuing *in= !a# narrow band through
eastern Europe{to]*theÛral Mountains*in=Russia@ Temperate deciduous
forests also occur*in=*the^N e a r East*in=!a#b a n d around *the^ southern
Caspian Sea* broadening {to] *the^ east into *the^ Iranian highlands*
Turkmenistan* Uzbekistan *and% Kazakhstan@ Mountainous areas *are^
forested primarily {by] conifers@
Asian temperate deciduous forests {are] found primarily *in= *the^
central *and% south#eastern region* including mainland China* Taiwan*
Korea*and%Japan@*the^region lies b e t w e e n about 26°*and%50° N* with
conifers i n c r e a s i n g *in= i m p o r t a n c e w i t h latitude *and% elevation@
Temperate forests* primarily coniferous b u t often with abundant
deciduous canopy species* also occur *in= central Asia* principally *at^
higher elevations *in= *the^ Himalayan region@ *in= Australia* moist
temperate deciduous forests {are] found predominantly *in= northern
{and} western Tasmania* while*the^mainland [is] occupied principally
^by**theêvergreen Eucalyptus forests|of|*the^south#east*and%southwest@
M u c h |of| N e w Zealand [is] temperate broadleaf evergreen forest@

Soils
Soils{are]naturally variable* although*the^dominant soil orders
found under broadleaf temperate forests {are] Alfisols* Inceptisols and+
Ultisols* with substantial areas |of| Entisols *in= floodplain environments
(Archibold 1995)@ Spodosols*and%Ultisols{are]m o s t c o m m o n under
temperate coniferous forest* but ash#derived A n d o s o l s{are]c o m m o n
*in& volcanic regions@ Alfisols* Inceptisols *and% some Ultisols *are^
relatively fertile* with high base saturation@ Soil pH typically ranges
^from* slightly acidic {to] slightly basic* although under conifers and+
some hardwoods* or *in= low#lying areas with impeded drainage and+
decomposition* soil p H m a y b e 4 or less@
Climate
As expected{for}!a#forest type distributed so widely* prevailing
climatic conditions vary substantially@ Generally* though* temperate
environments{are]characterized{by]warm* relatively h u m i d s u m m e r s
{and} cool#cold winters@{where}precipitation[is]insufficient{to]support
closed canopy forests* temperate forests variously grade into grassland
(steppe or prairie)* savannah or open woodlands@ {to] *the^ north*
^where* b o t h temperature*and%precipitation decline* they m e r g e with
*the^ boreal forests**and%{to]*the^south with (sub)tropical vegetation@
At lower elevations* m e a n temperature during*the^coldest m o n t h
typically ranges b e t w e e n #5*and%10°C* with m e a n temperatures
b e t w e e n 10*and%18°C@*in=m o u n t a i n o u s regions**the^temperatures can
be significantly lower* approaching those|of|*the^m o r e northerly boreal
zone@ M e a n annual temperatures typically range b e t w e e n 8*and%13°C
but can be lower or higher* depending on geographical location and+
local elevation@
P r e c i p i t a t i o n [is] year#round* a l t h o u g h t h e r e {are] significant
geographical differences*in=seasonal distribution@ Winters{are]wetter
than s u m m e r s *in= m u c h |of| *the^ temperate forest region* although
precipitation[is]m o r e evenly distributed*in=portions |of| eastern North
America* western Europe* far southern South A m e r i c a*and%N e w
Zealand@*in=*the^temperate coniferous rain forests|of|*the^north#western
U S A *and% s o u t h e a s t e r n Canada* s u m m e r s {are] d r y *and% m o s t
precipitation falls during*the^late a u t u m n*and%winter@ M e a n annual
precipitation[is]less than 500 m m*in=s o m e portions |of| South A m e r i c a
and Russia@{at]*theôther extreme{are]*the^temperate coniferous rain

forests|of|*the^north#west North A m e r i c a n Pacific coast (cover photo)*
^where* annual precipitation approaches 2500 mm@ M o r e typical values
^for**the^temperate forests |of| eastern North America* western Europe
{and} South#East Asia {are] 550#1300 mm@
Regional Formations
Although there {are] distinct regional compositional differences*
there[is]remarkable taxonomic similarity a m o n g*theÂsian* European
{and} North American formations@ Numerous genera {are] common *to^
all three* including Acer* Betula* Fagus* Fraxinus* Populus* Quercus and+
Ulmus@ *the^ flora |of| North America*and%eastern Asia{are]m o s t similar
^to* one another**and%share several genera |of| forest trees not found
*in& Europe* including Catalpa* Diospyros* Liriodendron* Nyssa and+
Sassafras@ There {are] further such affinities *in= *the^ herbaceous flora |of|
*the^ forest floor (Li 1972)@
A l t h o u g h *the^ m o d e r n floras e v o l v e d u n d e r similar climatic
regimes**the^taxonomic similarity[is]due primarily{to]their c o m m o n
geological past@ Both*the^North A m e r i c a n*and%Eurasian continents
^were* connected until*the^mid#Tertiary* after*the^period (Cretaceous)
during w h i c h m o s t|of|*the^genera c o m m o n{to]*the^temperate forests
|of| *the^ Northern Hemisphere differentiated@ *the^ South American and+
Australasian formations do not share !a# common geological past and+
differ tax#onomically {from] those |of| *the^ N o r t h e r n Hemisphere@
However* they do share some families (e@g@ Fagaceae)@ |of| *the^ three
Northern H e m i s p h e r e formations**theÂsian[is]*the^richest* followed
^by* *the^ North American *and% *the^ European distantly third@ *the^
comparatively depauperate European temperate flora [is] believed *to^
^have* resulted largely {from] *the^ east#west orientation |of| *the^ region@s
mountain ranges* w h i c h inhibited migration*and%reduced available
refugia during past glaciations@
Asian
On *the^ Asian mainland* temperate deciduous forests occupy !a#
coastal band along *the^ China Sea {from] *the^ Korean Peninsula *and% into
China*in=*the^vicinity|of|Tianjin@ {from] here* deciduous forests broaden
throughout *the^ Chinese lowlands{to]*the^west (to *the^ M o n g s h a n
Mountains) *and% south {to] *the^ Yangtze River@ Intermixed along *the^
Chinese coast *and% *in= *the^ interior highlands {are] mixed broadleaf#
coniferous forests@
Further{to]*the^south* evergreen broadleaf trees b e c o m e more

abundant@ Coniferous forests b e c o m e more prominent*in=*the^northern
parts |of| both China *and% Korea@ Japan@s forests consist primarily |of|
temperate broadleaf deciduous communities *in= *the^ central#north
region* with conifers more abundant{at]higher elevations*and%latitudes@
^to**the^south* b e t w e e n about 26° 30@*and%35° 30@N* lie*the^temperate
broadleaf evergreen forests@ Ching (1991) {has] described *the^
composition |of| *the^ region@s forest *in= some detail *and% I only briefly
summarize t h e m here@
China@*in=China@s north#eastern temperate forest region (eastern
Heilongjiang*and%Liaoning provinces)* conifers occur{at]*the^highest
elevations*and%*the^northern latitudes* lending*the^forests!a#(sub)boreal
character@ B e l o w these forests (up{to]1 1 0 0 m elevation){are]*the^Pinus
koraiensis#mixed h a r d w o o d forests* some |of| w h i c h{are]rather species#
rich@ Subtypes include*the^m i x e d hardwood#Pinus koraiensis forest*
oak forests (Quercus mongolica) *and% Betula forests**the^latter |of| which
occur{at]higher latitudes*and%elevations@
China@s northern temperate forest[is]roughly triangular*in=shape*
extending {from] 32° 30@{to]4 2 ° 30@N*and%{from]103° 30@{to]124° 10@E@
*the^ major types within*the^region include*the^northern oak forest
{and}*the^southern oak forest@ C o m m o n throughout*the^northern oak
forest [is] Quercus liaotungensis* with increasing Quercus mongolica *to^
*the^ east@
The Liaotung hills *and% plains comprise *the^ central portion |of| *the^
northern oak forest area* with forest composition varying {by] landform
{and} geography@*in=*the^mountainous regions|of|*the^Hebei*and%Laioning
hills* broadleaf trees g r o w{to]elevations |of| about 1600 m**the^forests
being dominated {by] Quercus spp@ along with Betula *and% Populus@ *the^
forest |of| *the^ high loess plateaus |of| Shaanxi *and% Shanxi consist |of|
Pinus *and% various hardwoods@ *the^ Picea meyeri *and% Picea wilsonii
characteristic|of|*theôriginal primary forest{have]been widely replaced
on*the^plateau {by] Betula *in= disturbed areas@
The southern oak forest|of|*the^northern region includes not only
deciduous species b u t also broadleaf evergreens@{it][is]distinguished
^from**the^northern oak forest{by]*the^scarcity |of| Quercus liaotungensis
{and}*the^presence|of|*theêvergreen Quercus variabilis@
The vegetation |of| eastern Shandong bears close similarity *to^
many |of| Japan@s forests *and% [is] floristically diverse@ Frost#tolerant Tilia
spp@*and%Corylus spp@{are]found{to]*the^north**and%Machilus thunbergii

*is] present further south@ *the^ central *and% southern Shandong hills *are^
forested with Quercus#dominated communities* as {are] *the^ plains and+
hills|of|southern Shanxi*and%central Shaanxi@ Betula*and%Salix b e c o m e
progressively more important with elevation* as do *the^ conifers
Pinus armandii* Pinus tabulaeformis *and% Abies fargesii@
The Y a n g t z e River drainage*in=east central China[is]!a#transitional
zone b e t w e e n*the^temperate forests{to]*the^north*and%*the^subtropical
forests{to]*the^south@ There[is]!a#h i g h degree |of| endemism@*the^genus
Quercus [is] well represented**and%*the^tree flora[is]!a#m i x |of| more
northerly *and% southern species@ Deciduous species *and% conifers *are^
intermixed with *the^ broadleaf evergreens* which include *the^ genera
Actinodaphne* Castanopsis *and% Lindera@ B a m b o o @forests@ grow here*
including Aruninaria spp@*and%Phyllostachus spp@ *the^ u p p e r river
valley [is] particularly diverse**and%includes 50 broadleaf*and%12
coniferous genera@
Forest |of| Abies* Picea *and% Tsuga occupy*the^h i g h elevations@
Korean Peninsula@ There [is] disagreement over*the^classification
{and} latitudinal zonation |of| Korea@s forests b u t*the^following types
âre* relatively distinctive* w a r m temperate b r o a d l e a f evergreen*
southern deciduous* northern deciduous*and%cool temperate/boreal
coniferous@
The warm temperate broadleaf evergreen forests occupy *the^
southernmost coast |of| *the^ Korean Peninsula* *and% include Quercus
spp@* Castanopsis spp@* Cinnamomum camphora*and%Machilus thunbergii@
Temperate deciduous forests lie north |of| approximately 35° N and+
account {for} about 85% |of| Korea@s forested land base@ Species common
^to**the^southern deciduous forests{are]Acer formo#sum* Carpinus laxiflora*
Carpinus tschonoskii* Quercus mongolica *and% Quercus serrata@ *the^
northern deciduous species include Celtis koraiensis* Choseia bractesa*
Hemiptera dividii* Larix olgensis* Magnolia parviflora *and% Populus
maximowiczi@ Other species found variously*in=*the^temperate region
include Acer mono* Betula spp@* Carpinus spp@* Fraxinus spp@ and+
numerous Quercus spp@ *in= *the^ plateaus *and% mountains |of| northern
Korea* coniferous species dominate*theôverstorey* including Abies
nephrolepis* Abies holophylla* Larix dahurica *and% Picea jezoensis@ Pinus
pumila*!a#dwarf species* grows{at]*the^highest elevations (above 1200¬
1600 m)@ Broadleaf understorey species include Acer spp@* Betula spp@*
Tilia spp@*and%Ulmus spp@

Japan@ *the^ forests |of| J a p a n include w a r m temperate broadleaf
evergreen* temperate deciduous*and%cool/cold coniferous@ *the^ w a r m
temperate broadleaf evergreen forests occur on*theîslands |of| Honshu*
Shikoku*and%Kyushu**and%extend {from] *the^ lowlands{to]600#850m@
Species characteristic |of| *the^ region include Castanopsis cuspidata*
Cycobalanus spp@* Cinnamomum spp@* Machilus spp@*and%Quercus spp@
*in& more mature forests* Quercus gilva grows on deeper soils* Quercus
slicina on steep slopes*and%Quercus glauca over limestone@ Following
disturbance* Quercus acutissima* Quercus serrata*and%Quercus variabilis
establish *in= mid#succession@ *the^ conifers Abies firma* Podocarpus
macrophyllus* Podocarpus nagi* Torreya nucifera* Pinus thunbergii and+
Tsuga sieboldii variously occur* depending on latitude *and% proximity
^to**the^coast@
Temperate deciduous forests on*the^four main Japanese islands
(Hokkaido* Honshu* Shikoku *and% Kyushu) {are] diverse *in= species and+
habitat* too much so {to] adequately describe here@ *in= general* though*
Fagus crenata dominates m a n y forests@{its]associates vary* depending
on topography* disturbance history* soils* etc@ Sites facing *the^ Sea |of|
Japan {are] commonly cold* snowy *and% windy* *and% species like Acer
tschonoskii* Acer matsumarae* Alnus maximowiczii* Quercus mongolica
{and} Sorbus commixta {are] common@
Various species |of| Alnus* Populus *and% Salix g r o w *in= floodplain
environments**and%*the^conifers Abies sachalinensis* Abies firma* Abies
mariesii* Picea jezoensis* Pinus thunbergii *and% Tsuga sieboldii variously
g r o w with species |of| Betula* Carpinus* Fraxinus* Magnolia* Quercus*
Tilia*and%Ulmus*in=montane regions@ Quercus cripsula[is]also!a#c o m m o n
dominant* particularly on Hokkaido**and%grows well on s o m e w h a t
drier sites than Fagus crenata@{its]associates include Abies sachalinensis*
Acer mono* Betula ermanii* Kalopanax pictus* Ostrya japonica* Picea
jezoensis* Tilia japonica*and%Ulmus davidiana var@ japonica@ Pinus densiflora
sometimes forms pure stands* with!a#broadleaf understorey@{at]higher
latitudes*and%altitudes**the^cool/cold coniferous forests{are]dominated
^by* Picea spp@*and%Abies spp@ Broadleaf associates include Betula spp@*
Fraxinus mandshurica* Kalopanax septemlobus *and% Fagus crenata@
Australasian
Australia *and% Tasmania@ *the^ majority |of| Australia@s forests *are^
considered (sub)tropical* some |of| which (the south#western and
eastern Eucalyptus forests) {have] been described above@ Webb and+

Tracey (1994) consider Australian forests south |of| about 38° S {to] be
temperate**and%I adopt that latitudinal b o u n d a r y here@ However*
others consider*the^temperate forest zone{to]extend as far north as
about 25° S**and%*in=reality*the^transition {from] (sub)tropical{to]temperate
*is] characteristically indistinct@
Regardless |of| *the^ precise line |of| demarcation* *the^ temperate
forests |of| *the^ Australian mainland {are] dominated primarily *by^
Eucalyptus* *and% account {for} approximately 29 million ha |of| !a# total
42 million h a |of| closed forest* b o t h temperate*and%tropical@ Groves
(1994){has]described*the^dominant vegetation*in=some wet sclerophyll
Australian temperate Eucalyptus forests distributed a m o n g four main
geographical regions@ Similar tabulations* including both wet and+
dry sclerophyllous Eucalyptus forests divided into major alliances*
^have* b e e n m a d e{by]Ovington*and%Pryor (1983)@ Despite*the^diversity
|of| Eucalyptus* temperate forests {are] often dominated {by] only!a#few
species*{for}example E@ obliqua#E@ viminalis forests*in=parts |of| Victoria
{and} E@ marginata#E@ calophylla forests*in=Western Australia@
Temperate rain forest occupies small areas |of| south#eastern
Australia* principally*in=*the^territories |of| Victoria**the^north#eastern
corner |of| New South Wales *and% far south#eastern Queensland@ *the^
canopies |of| Victorian forests {are] dominated {by] Nothofagus
cunninghamii* while Athersperma moschatum* Acacia melanoxylon*
Eucriphia lucida*and%Phyllocladus asplenfolius {are] occasional or c o m m o n
associates@ Nothofagus cunninghamii does not g r o w *in= easternmost
Victoria* *and% Athersperma moschatum* Eleaocarpus holopetalus and+
Telopea oreades {are] most common@ Eucalypts dominate *the^ drier
u p l a n d s*in=*the^region ( H o w a r d & A s h t o n 1973~ Ashton & Attiwill
1994)@*in=*the^forests|of|N e w South Wales* Eucryphia moorei* Nothofagus
moorei *and% Doryphora sassafras {are] common* with *the^ former two
species occurring {at] s o m e w h a t higher elevations@
Western Tasmanian temperate rain forests {are] dominated *by^
Nothofagus cunninghamii* which may contain any |of| about 70 associates*
only!a#few |of| which typically occur together*in=!a#stand@ Athrotaxis
spp@ (especially A@ cupressoides) occur{at]altitudes greater than 900 m@
*in& drier environments* like eastern Tasmania* Eucalyptus spp@ *are^
dominant~ common ones include E@ delegatensis* E@ dalrym#pleana* E@
gunnii* E@ archeri* E@ coccifera* E@ urnig#era *and% E@ pauciflora@
New Zealand@ *the^ climate|of|N e w Zealand ranges {from] subtropical

^to* cool/cold temperate* b u t here I consider {it] mainly temperate@
Generally**the^native taxa{are]similar{to]those|of|*the^South A m e r i c a n
{and} T a s m a n i a n forests@ M o s t{are]evergreen*in=habit* including b o t h
conifers *and% broadleaf species@ There {are] two broad categories |of|
New Zealand forest* conifer#broadleaf* *and% beech@
The conifer#broadleaf forests {are] predominantly lowland *and% *are^
dominated {by] podocarps* including *the^ genera Dacrycarpus*
Dacrydium* Phyllocladus and* |of| course* Podocarpus@ Also present *are^
two species |of| Libocedrus *and% *the^ kauri (Agathis australis)@ *the^ warmer
inland forests support primarily Podocarpus spicatus *and% Podocarpus
totara as canopy dominants* along with !a# more minor component |of|
Podocarpus dacrydiodes *and% Dacridium cupressinum@ Hardwood
associates |of| lower stature include*the^genera Beilschmiedia* Knightia*
Laurelia* Litsea *and% Nestegis@ Forests range {from] relatively open *to^
closed canopy* depending on species *and% habitat@ {for} example*
Dacridium cupressinum* Podocarpus hallii *and% Podocarpus totara *are^
most common on drier sites *and% may form near#monospecific stands*
while Podocarpus dacrydiodes often dominates on wetter* s w a m p y
sites@ *in= *the^ coastal hills *and% plains* Dacridium cupressinum *is$
commonly dominant* although Podocarpus hallii *and% Podocarpus totara
âre* likely{to]occupy more xeric sites@
Genera c o m m o n*and%often dominant*in=coastal lowland forests
include Elaeocarpus* Met#rosideros *and% Weinmannia@ *the^ conifer#
broadleaf shrub c o m m u n i t y*in=these forests[is]often well developed*
with abundant species@ *the^ overstorey tree Weinmannia racemosa *is$
abundant *and% widely distributed on *the^ wetter* western side |of| both
islands@ Another important tree species[is]*the^giant kauri (Agathis
australis)* much reduced *in= extent *and% growing primarily north |of|
38° S* particularly on ridges@ {it] grows with podocarps *and% various
hardwoods**and%occurs b o t h singly*and%*in=groups or thickets on
poorer soils@
The beech* or Nothofagus* forests occupy cold* wet* m o n t a n e
environments*and%{are]characteristically lower *in= stature*and%less
species#rich than *the^ conifer#broadleaf forests@ Four species |of|
Nothofagus grow *in= New Zealand* N@ solandri* N@ menziesii* N@ fusca
{and} N@ trun#cata@ Nothfagus solandri[is]*the^m o s t widespread|of|*the^four
species*and%there{are]two recognized varieties* var@ solandri *and% var@
cliffortoides@ *the^ former occupies warm* dry lowland environments

primarily {from] East Cape on North Island{to]*the^centre |of| South
Island * while var@ cliffortoides grows{at]higher altitudes or on poor
soils u n d e r h i g h rainfall{to]*the^south@ Nothfagus solandri forms nearly
p u r e stands* w i t h !a# s p a r s e u n d e r # s t o r e y c o m p o s e d |of| s h r u b s
(especially Coprosma spp@)* lichens*and%mosses* although both varieties
co#occur{where}their geographical ranges overlap@ Nothofagus fusca
*is] distributed {from] East Cape{to]*the^southern end |of| South Island*
{and} grows best on deeper* well#drained soils@ Nothofagus menziesii
^has* similar site requirements *and% dominates *the^ subalpine zone |of|
western South Island *and% *the^ eastern mountain ranges |of| North
Island@ Nothofagus truncata grows on drier* less fertile sites* primarily
north |of| 4 2 ° S@
Near Eastern
The N e a r Eastern temperate forest lies b e t w e e n 35*and%4 5 ° N*
^from* about 27° E*in=eastern Turkey{to]about 58° E*in=eastern Iran@
*the^ forests|of|this region{are]!a#mixture|of|b o t h European*and%Colchian
species* with elements |of| (sub)Mediterranean*and%steppe flora@
In western Turkey* oak forests{are]common* c o m p o s e d |of| various
species |of| Quercus *and% other hardwoods@ Fagus orientalis grows *at^
higher elevations* though not *in= abundance@ *in= *the^ western portion
|of|*theÂnatolian plateau*in=Turkey* Quercus#dominated temperate
broadleaf forests grow between 1000 *and% 2000 m *and% contain !a#
number |of| other genera as well@ Extending into Iran further {to] *the^
east {are] other forests dominated {by] Quercus@ Various species |of| Acer*
Pyrus *and% Prunus also occur* as well as!a#few species* like Fraxinus
excelsior* more commonly found *in= *the^ Middle European and+
Submediterranean regions@ On alluvial soils {at] lower elevations
(<400m) g r o w more diverse forests* w h i c h*in=addition {to] Quercus
spp@ include Alnus barbata *and% Carpinus spp@ Moist forests b e t w e e n
*the^ Caspian Sea*and%Black Sea contain!a#n u m b e r |of| species* including
m a n y missing{from]*theÊuropean forests{to]*the^west@ Further east*
*the^ species*and%assemblages change b u t!a#few genera predominate*
with !a# number |of| low#stature woody species occupying *the^
understorey (e@g@ Buxus* Crataegus* Corylus* Ilex* Ligustrum*
Rhododendron *and% Sambucus)@
At h i g h elevations (600#1100 m ){are]*the^b e e c h (Fagus orientalis)
forests@ N e a r pure Fagus orientalis forests g r o w b e t w e e n*the^Sakarya
River*in=western Turkey*and%*the^Turkey#Georgia border@ B e t w e e n

600 *and% 1300 m on calcareous northern slopes on *the^ mountains |of|
*the^ southern Crimean Peninsula* Fagus orientalis grows alone or with
Carpinus betulus* Fraxinus excelsior* Tilia cordata *and% Ulmus glabra@ O n
southern slopes*{it][is]found with Acer hycranum* Pinus nigra* Carpinus
orientalis *and% Quercus petraea@
In*the^Caucasus Mountains*{it]grows b e t w e e n 1000*and%1500m
with Acer spp@* Fraxinus excelsior* Tilia platyphyllos *and% Ulmus glabra@
ât* higher elevations* Fagus orientalis grows with coniferous species
like Abies born#mulleriana* Abies equitrojani* Abies nordmanni#ana* Picea
orientalis *and% Pinus sylvestris* along with some|of|*the^broadleaf species
found{at]*the^lower elevations@
North*and%Central American
Temperate forests occupy m u c h |of| North America* {from] north
|of| *the^ border between *the^ USA *and% Canada south into Mexico and+
some Central American countries {at] high altitudes@ *the^ conifer#
dominated forests |of| western North America {are] separated {from] *the^
more deciduous forests |of| *the^ east {by] vast areas |of| former prairie
n o w dominated {by] agriculture{where}rainfall or irrigation permit@
USA*and%Canada@ *the^ eastern North A m e r i c a n temperate forest
*is] primarily deciduous* although *the^ forests |of| *the^ south#eastern
U S A contain large amounts |of| conifers* b o t h natural*and%planted* as
do *the^ states bordering *the^ Great Lakes@ *the^ forests |of| *the^ region
^have* been extensively described* especially {by] Braun (1950) and+
more recently Barnes (1991)@ I follow Barnes@s (1991) classification
scheme* w h i c h[is]derived {from] Braun@s (1950)*and%Kuchler@s (1964)@
The South#eastern Evergreen region covers *the^ coastal plain |of|
*the^ south#eastern USA* stretching roughly {from] Virginia along *the^
Atlantic coast* continuing south across Florida*and%*the^Gulf|of|M e x i c o
^to* Texas@ Pinus palustris#Aristida stricta savannahs formerly dominated
m u c h|of|*theûplands but {have] b e e n largely converted{to]other uses
or cover types**and%b o t h Pinus elliottii *and% Pinus taeda {are] presently
*the^ most abundant conifers *in= *the^ region@ Magnolia grandiflora and+
Fagus grandifolia {are] believed {to] be climax dominants on mesic sites*
although!a#n u m b e r |of| other genera {are] abundantly represented@
Inland|of|*the^South#eastern Evergreen region[is]*theÔak#Hickory#
Pine region* extending {from] Pennsylvania{to]A l a b a m a*and%bordered
^by**the^coastal plain towards*theÂtlantic O c e a n*and%*theÂppalachian
mountains{to]*the^west@ A s{its]n a m e implies**the^principal species

include those*in=*the^genera Quercus *and% Carya* often*in=mixture with
species c o m m o n{to]adjacent regions* including Pinus@
T h e A p p a l a c h i a n O a k r e g i o n i n c l u d e s *the^ A p p a l a c h i a n
mountains* {from] Georgia north*and%eastward into eastern N e w York
{and} Massachusetts**and%[is]*the^m o s t floristically diverse *in= North
America@ O a k s{are]abundant{at]all elevations*and%aspects@ {at] higher
elevations (> 1100 m)* species{are]more characteristic|of|*the^beech#
sugar maple *and% sugar maple#basswood forests {to] *the^ north@ {at] *the^
highest elevations {are] boreal forests composed |of| Picea rubens and+
*the^ endemic Abies fraserii *in= *the^ south* *and% Picea rubens *and% Abies
balsamea {to] east{to]south#west{from]western Pennsylvania{to]northern
Alabama* *and% coincides physiographi#cally with much |of| *the^
unglaciated Appalachian plateaus@
The vegetation comprises principally species{from]*the^regions
w h i c h {it] borders@ *the^ W e s t e r n M i x e d M e s o p h y t i c r e g i o n lies
immediately {to] {its] west* covering central *and% western Tennessee and+
Kentucky* *the^ southern boundary |of| *the^ Wisconsinan Glaciation *in^
southern Indiana *and% Ohio* *and% northern Mississippi *and% Alabama@
Forests dominated {by] Quercus spp@ cover m o s t|of|*the^region* with
!a# large c o m p o n e n t |of| Carya *and% Pinus@
The westernmost region [is] *the^ Oak#Hickory* bordered {to] *the^
west formerly {by] prairies *and% presently {by] agricultural lands@ *it^
extends {from] Manitoba* Canada {to] southern Texas@ South |of| *the^
glaciated portion lie*theÔuachita Mountains*and%Ozark Plateau@
Quercus alba[is]*the^dominant species on dry#mesic uplands* with
various species |of| Carya* Quercus *and% Pinus characteristic |of| drier
sites@*in=*the^glaciated region{to]*the^north* Quercus spp@{are]c o m m o n
on drier uplands* while Fagus grandifolia *and% Acer sac#charum grow
on more mesic sites@ Quercus macrocarpa formerly formed savannahs
interspersed with prairie* m o s t |of| which{has]b e e n lost{to]agriculture
{and} urbanization@
The Sugar Maple#Beech region occurs on glaciated till *in= *the^
southern half |of| Michigan@s lower peninsula* Indiana *and% Ohio~ Acer
saccha#rum *and% Fagus grandifolia{are]*the^dominant species*in=mature
forests* although!a#n u m b e r |of| other species{are]common@ *the^ Sugar
Maple#Basswood region{to]*the^north|of|*the^Sugar Maple#Beech region
*is] situated on glaciated terrain and* as*the^n a m e implies* Acer saccharum
a n d Tilia americana {are] dominant@ O t h e r a s s o c i a t e s {are] t h o s e

characteristic|of|*the^Sugar Maple#Beech region@
The Northern Hardwood#Conifer region extends across *the^
northern USA *and% southern Canada {from] Manitoba {to] Maine and+
Nova Scotia@ *the^ terrain [is] glaciated *and% supports !a# wide array |of|
forest types@ Species common {to] *the^ Sugar Maple#Beech region
predominate on glacial till* although *the^ region extends beyond *the^
northern range |of| Carya* Liriodendron* Nyssa *and% other genera common
^to**the^more southern forest regions@ Quercus ellipsoidalis grows on
dry glacial outwash plains* but fire#prone Pinus banksiana[is]*the^m o s t
dominant species on these soils@ M u c h|of|*the^presettlement forest
w a s dominated{by]Pinus strobus but virtually all|of|*theôriginal forest
w a s cut*and%converted naturally {to] hardwoods* including Betula
papyrifera* Populus tremuloides* Populus grandidentata *and% Quercus spp@
Coniferous s w a m p s on calcareous soils often consist predominantly
|of| Thuja occidentalis with lesser amounts |of| other hardwoods@
The temperate forests |of| western North America differ *from^
those *in= *the^ east {by] !a# preponderance |of| conifers rather than
hardwoods@ Furthermore* m u c h |of| forested western North America
*is] mountainous*and%*the^vegetation [is] often distributed *in= rather
discrete elevational bands* as opposed{to]*the^more subtle changes
with landscape position associated with*theêastern deciduous forests@
The R o c k y Mountains extend{from]north#central Canada* through
*the^ U S A*and%into Mexico**and%form *the^ eastern border |of| North
America@s temperate coniferous forests@ {at] *the^ lowest elevations
(1500#1600m)* Pinus edulis *and% Pinus monophylla g r o w with various
species |of| Juniperus *and% Quercus@ {at] higher elevations {are] Pinus
ponderosa forests* b o t h closed canopy*and%open park#like stands*
above which lie forests dominated {by] Pseudotsuga menziesii@ *in= *the^
southern Rockies* *the^ associates |of| Pseudotsuga menziesii {are] few* but
*in&*the^northern Rockies{it][is]variously found with Abies grandis* Larix
occidentalis* Pinus contorta *and% Populus tremuloides@ W i t h increasing
elevation*in=*the^northern Rockies* Pseudotsuga menziesii occurs with
Thuja plicata *and% Tsuga hetero#phylla@ These two species often form
nearly pure stands@ Populus tremuloides grows{at]similar elevations*
colonizing after disturbances* principally fire@ Just b e l o w*the^treeline
âre* found Picea engelmannii *and% Abies lasiocarpa@*in=*the^far northern
Canadian Rockies**the^principal sub#alpine species{are]Abies lasiocarpa*
Picea glauca *and% Pinus contorta@

In *the^ Sierra Nevada Mountains |of| California* Pinus sabiana [is] !a#
dominant conifer *in= *the^ western foothills* growing with Quercus spp@
On western slopes* Pinus lambertiana grows with Pinus ponderosa *at^
higher elevations (750#1800 m)* together with Abies concolor *and% Calo#
cedrus decurrens@
Pinus jeffreyi occupies lower eastern slopes*and%higher west#
facing elevations@ Further south* Pseudotsuga macrocarpa *and% Pinus
coulteri g r o w*in=*theêlevations b e t w e e n desert scrub*and%*the^m i x e d
conifer forests described above@ Sequoiadendron giganteum* *the^ world@s
largest trees*{are]distributed b e t w e e n 1350*and%2250 m on*the^western
slopes|of|*the^Sierra Nevada@ Abies magnifica *and% Pinus contorta grow
b e t w e e n roughly 1800*and%2400 m**in=regions |of| extremely high
snowfall (4#20 m snow#pack)@ *the^ subalpine forests (>2400m) consist
|of| Pinus albicaulis* Tsuga mertensiana* Pinus balfouriana* Pinus flexilis
{and}*the^long#lived (>4000 years) Pinus aristata@
The coastal mountain ranges|of|*the^northwestern U S A*and%south¬
west Canada differ {from] *the^ interior mountains principally {by] *the^
abundant precipitation they receive (upwards |of| 2000 mm annually)
{and}*theêxceptionally large size that m a n y |of| *the^ species attain@
A l o n g*the^Pacific coast {from] northern California into southeastern
Alaska *and% *the^ Kodiak Islands* Picea sitchensis forests {are] found *in^
narrow bands (generally only !a# few kilometres wide) below 150 *to^
600 m elevation@ {its] associates include Pseudotsuga menziesii* Thuja
plicata* Tsuga heterophylla *and% Alnus rubra@ *in= southern Oregon and+
northern California* Sequoia sempervirens forests grow {at] similar
elevations* extending as far as 15#20 k m inland**and%growing on
slopes*and%sometimes{at]higher elevations@
A b o v e*the^Picea sitchensis zone[is]*the^Tsuga heterophylla zone (550#
1200m)* above which Abies amabilis dominates*theêlevational b a n d s
ranging between 600 *and% 1500 m@ *the^ highest elevation forests *are^
*the^ subalpine Tsuga mertensiana forests that grow as high as 2000 m
*in& southern Oregon@ Principal associates include Abies amabilis* Abies
lasio#carpa *and% Abies procera@ Tsuga mertensiana [is] replaced {by] Abies
lasiocarpa*in=*theînterior portions|of|*the^Cascades*and%on *the^ drier
eastern slopes@ *the^ most extensive forests |of| *the^ eastern slopes |of| *the^
Cascades {are] those dominated {by] Abies grandis* which grow *at^
elevations |of| 1000#1500m *in= *the^ north *and% 1000#2000m *in= southern
Oregon@ Central America *and% Mexico@ Geographically speaking* *the^

forests |of| *the^ region {are] primarily (sub)tropical *in= nature* although
there[is]!a#large degree|of|taxonomic similarity b e t w e e n*the^vegetation
|of|*theÛ S A*and%M e x i c o*and%Central America@
S o m e|of|*the^similarity[is]due{to]*the^continuity |of| species@ range
distributions* but{it][is]also believed that*the^region provided!a#refuge
during cool periods|of|*theÔligocene* after which geological uplift
{and} further climatic changes isolated*the^temperate forests{to]disjunct
islands among otherwise (sub)tropical forests{from]Mexico southward
into Nicaragua@
A m o n g deciduous species* Carpinus carolini#ana* Liquidambar
styracifl@ua* Nyssa sylvatica* Ostrya virginiana *and% Prunus serotina grow
*in& b o t h*theÛ S A*and%Mexico@ Species with!a#high degree |of| similarity
include Fagus mexicana *and% Fagus grandifolia* Carya ovata var@ mexicana
{and} Carya ovata**and%Acer sutchii*and%Acer saccha#rum@ Several genera
âre* well represented*in=b o t h regions* including Alnus* Carya* Fraxinus*
Juglans* Magnolia* Platanus* Populus *and% Salix@ *the^ genus Quercus *is$
especially abundant* both deciduous *and% evergreen@
In m o n t a n e d e c i d u o u s forests* Juglans olancha* Liquidambar
styraciflua *and% Ostrya virginiana {are] dominant* growing{at]1200#1800m
*in&*the^Sierra de Chucharas*in=*the^M e x i c a n state |of| Tamaulipas@
Forests dominated {by] Quercus spp@ *and% Pinus spp@ often occupy *the^
highest elevations (> 1800 m)* with (sub)tropical species prominent
*in&*the^lower elevations@ Riverine forests m a y b e c o m p o s e d primarily
|of| deciduous genera like Carpinus* Fraxinus* Platanus* Populus* Salix
{and} Ulmus* but uplands typically contain representatives {from] more
(sub)tropical families like Clethraceae* Fabaceae* Sabiaceae* Lauraceae*
Staphylaceae* Cunoniaceae*and%Rutaceae@
M e x i c o*and%Central A m e r i c a also contain!a#rich coniferous flora*
especially |of| pines@ There{are]{at]least 4 7 Pinus species* which[is]about
half*the^world total@ M a n y species{are]five#needled pines**and%they
occupy niches {from] coastal{to]high montane environments@ Some*
e@g@ Pinus caribaea *and% P@ patula* {are] widely planted*in=*the^tropics@
European
Temperate forests once covered m u c h |of| Europe*and%*the^British
Isles* but m o s t|of|*theôriginal forest {has] long since b e e n converted
^to* agriculture@ Moreover* m a n y i n t r o d u c e d species {have] b e e n
extensively planted*{for}example plantations|of|*the^western North
American conifers Picea sitchensis *and% Pseudotsuga menziesii *in= *the^

British Isles@ None *the^ less* temperate forests remain *an^ important
resource*and%there{are]n u m e r o u s recognized c o m m u n i t y types@ J a h n
(1991) {has] extensively described *the^ European deciduous forests*
{and} I m a k e considerable use |of| his excellent work *in= m y more
abbreviated s u m m a r y here@ T w o regions |of| temperate forest can b e
recognized**the^Middle European* w h i c h occupies!a#b a n d b e t w e e n
about 43°*and%55#60°N**and%*the^Submediterranean* w h i c h generally
follows *the^ southern border |of| *the^ Middle European south {to] a
latitude |of| about 40° N@
Middle European@ *in= *the^ M i d d l e E u r o p e a n r e g i o n {are] four
s o m e w h a t distinctive provinces* *the^ Atlantic* Subatlantic* Central
European*and%Sarmatic@ Throughout*the^region{are]genera c o m m o n
^to* most|of|*the^temperate forest|of|*the^Northern Hemisphere* including
Acer* Betula* Carpinus* Fraxinus* Pinus* Populus* Prunus* Quercus* Sorbus*
Tilia*and%Ulmus@ *the^ genus Fagus[is]represented principally {by] Fagus
sylvatica* which[is]distributed throughout most|of|*the^Middle European
region*and%is* alongside Quercus* *the^ m o s t conspicuous*and%perhaps
m o s t ecologically important tree *in= Europe@
The Atlantic province includes*the^British Isles*and%*the^coastal
regions |of| western Europe**and%!a#n u m b e r |of| characteristic native
species are* or were* widely distributed@*in=*the^British Isles* Quercus
spp@ still dominate m a n y sites* although Acer spp@* Carpinus betulus*
Fraxinus excelsior* Tilia spp@**and%other species{are]abundant@ Fraxinus
excelsior [is] often*the^dominant species on high p H soils* with Quercus
robur *and% Quercus petraea on sites |of| lower p H*and%fertility@ Fagus
sylvatica*and%Fagus sylvatica#Quercus petraea woodlands occur*in=south¬
eastern England@ Fagus sylvatica [is] also c o m m o n *in= north#western
France* portions |of| B e l g i u m*and%throughout*the^Middle European
{and} portions |of| *the^ S u b m e d i t e r r a n e a n regions@ *in= *the^ Atlantic
province* Fagus sylvatica [is] typically absent only on sites that{are]wet*
steep* calcareous or very sandy@*the^Subatlantic province[is]orientated
along!a#north#east{to]south#west axis* covering*anêast#west region
b e t w e e n about 8*and%1 5 ° W*in=southern Fennoscandinavia*and%about
3° W*and%3°E*in=southern France*and%northern Spain@ Quercus robur
*is] c o m m o n*in=*the^north*and%co#occurs with!a#n u m b e r |of| associates
depending on soil conditions@ Fagus sylvatica [is] prominent on upland
sites*in=*the^north*and%*in=*the^hills*and%mountains{to]*the^south* and
forms !a# complex regional mosaic |of| communities* determined {by] !a#
combination |of| climatic* soil *and% physiographic factors@ *in= *the^ southern
portion|of|*the^Subatlantic province* Quercus spp@ b e c o m e increasingly
prominent* particularly{at]lower elevations@*in=*theêastern Pyrenees*
Quercus pubescens [is] found{at]*the^lowest elevations* Fagus sylvatica
{and} Abies alba {at] higher elevations* with Abies alba increasing *in^
importance with altitude@
The Central European province covers*the^former East Germany*
western Poland *and% western Czech Republic *and% [is] characterized *by^
!a# more continental climate than *the^ Atlantic or Subatlantic provinces@
Fagus sylvatica r e a c h e s {its] e a s t e r n m o s t extent here* *and% occurs
extensively north|of|*the^Baltic Sea@{it]{has]m a n y associates* depending
on elevation**and%often{has]!a#more species#rich ground layer than
comparable forests*in=*the^Subatlantic province@ Carpinus betulus#
Quercus petraea communities formerly occupied rich* mesic plains
{and} uplands* but m o s t {have] b e e n converted {to] agriculture@ Betula#
Quercus forests g r o w on nutrient#poor* low p H soils* with Betula
pubescens *and% Quercus robur c o m m o n on wet sites*and%Betula pendula
{and} Quercus petraea on drier sites@ Pinus sylvestris *and% Picea abies *are^
locally intermixed *in= *the^ north *and% east* with Larix decidua common
^to**the^hills |of| southern Poland@
The Sarmatic province extends*in=!a#b a n d eastward{to]nearly 60°
E* {its] north#south boundaries tapering {from] about 50#60° N *in= *the^
west {to] about 53#54° N {at] {its] eastern edge@ {to] *the^ south lies steppe
{and} {to] *the^ north boreal forests@ Generally* *the^ Sarmatic province *is$
characterized {by] !a# progressive west#to#east loss |of| *the^ deciduous
species characteristic|of|*the^three provinces{to]*the^west*and%*anîncrease
*in& *the^ importance |of| conifers@ {for} example* there [is] !a# tendency *for^
nutrient#poor sites {to] shift {from] domination {by] Betula *and% Quercus
robur *in= *the^ Subatlantic province {to] domination {by] Pinus *in= *the^
Sarmatic@ Similarly* on more fertile sites* Fagus sylvatica [is] no longer
present* *and% {has] been replaced {by] Tilia* Quercus robur* Carpinus and+
Pinus@ Pinus sylvestris [is] distributed throughout *the^ Sarmatic province
{and}[is]*anâssociate or dominant on all but*the^m o s t fertile* moist soils@
O n sandy soils {it] forms nearly pure stands* without deciduous
associates@ Picea abies[is]also common* occurring with Pinus sylvestris*
{and} increasing*in=importance with soil fertility*and%moisture@ Abies
alba occurs*in=*theêastern part|of|*the^province* with Abies sibirica in
the far western portion@ Populus tremula*and%Quercus robur {are] present

along *the^ southern boundary* although *the^ latter [is] uncommon *in^
*the^ north@ *in= contrast {to] *the^ northern portions |of| *the^ Sarmatic province*
*the^ south [is] largely deciduous@ Quercus robur *and% Tilia cordata *are^
dominant* but Carpinus betulus [is] *an^ important (though often low
stature) associate@
Intermixed or adjacent {to] these four provinces |of| *the^ Middle
European region{are]*the^forests |of| *the^ Alps*and%*the^Carpathian
Mountains@ *the^ Western Alps (orientated north#south*and%running
^from**the^Mediterranean{to]Grenoble* France){are]occupied {by] Quercus
pubescens forests*in=*the^west#facing foothills* with Fagus sylvatica*
Quercus petraea *and% Pinus sylvestris occurring{at]higher elevations@
High#elevation interior forests contain !a# mix |of| deciduous and+
coniferous species@ East#facing forests {are] predominantly deciduous
hardwoods* with!a#large Quercus component@
In*the^Middle Alps**the^north#facing foothills{are]forested with
Quercus petraea *and% Carpinus betulus* w h i c h {are] replaced {by] Fagus
sylvatica *and% Acer pseudoplatanus {at] higher elevations* Abies alba and+
Picea abies *in= *the^ interior* Fagus sylvatica on upper south#facing slopes
{and} Cas#tanea sativa*and%Quercus petraea on*the^south#facing foothills@
*the^ Eastern Alps (Verona* Italy {to] *the^ Dinara mountains |of| *the^
former Yugoslavia) {are] occupied {by] !a# variety |of| hardwoods* with *an&
increasing abundance |of| conifers{at]higher elevations@ Similar species
occur on*the^south#facing slopes* with*theâddition |of| Fraxinus ornus*
Ostrya carpinifolia *and% Quercus spp@*in=*the^l o w foothills*and%foothill#
plains transition@
The Carpathian Mountains extend*in=*anârc {from] Slovakia east
through south#west Ukraine*and%into central Romania@ *the^ forests
|of| *the^ foothills *and% submontane zone (up {to] about 600 m) |of| *the^
western Carpathians {are] predominantly mixed hardwood forests*
with!a#minor c o m p o n e n t |of| Fagus sylvatica@ O n*theêastern side* forest
{and} steppe alternate{at]*the^lowest elevations**and%{are]progressively
replaced {by] m i x e d hardwoods* *and% then coniferous forests* as
elevation increases@
Submediterranean@ *the^ Submediterranean region[is]characterized
^by*!a#preponderance |of| deciduous oaks (Quercus spp@)*and%represents
*the^ southern distribution |of| many |of| *the^ species common {to] *the^
mixed forests |of| *the^ Middle European region {to] *the^ north@ {to] the
south*{where}summer droughts {are] more extended* grow *the^

evergreen Mediterranean forests@ *the^ vegetation [is] quite variable
{and} complex throughout*and%[is]sensitive{to]climatic*and%site factors
*in& this region* w h i c h borders temperate*and%Mediterranean climatic
zones@ Deciduous species|of|*the^Submediterranean region include
Carpinus orien#talis* Fagus sylvatica* Fagus moesica* Fagus orientalis*
Fraxinus ornus* Ostrya carpinifolia* Quercus cerris* Quercus faginea*
Quercus frainetto* Quercus pubescens *and% Quercus pyren#aica@ Various
species|of|Acer*and%Sorbus {are] also present@ Fagus spp@{are]characteristic
|of| montane regions*and%co#occur with Abies spp@*and%Juni#perus spp@@
Pinus spp@{are]present* with Pinus nigra growing with Quercus cerris*
Quercus faginea* Quercus pubescens *and% Quercus pyrenaica *in^
submontane environments* Pinus sylvestris common *in= montane zones*
{and} Pinus peuce* Pinus heldreichii *and% Pinus mugo growing {at] high
elevations@
South American
The South A m e r i c a n temperate forests{are]*the^smallest*in=extent*
confined primarily {to] Chile within *and% between *the^ coastal and+
Andean mountain ranges* with !a# small extension into Argentina@
Both broadleaf evergreen*and%deciduous species{are]present* often
*in& mixture* although evergreen species {are] dominant@ Nothofagus
spp@{are]probably*the^m o s t abundant trees~!a#total |of| 10 species grow
*in&*the^region* |of| which seven{are]deciduous (N@ obliqua* N@ alpina* N@
pumilio* N@ antarctica* N@ glauca* N@ leoni *and% N@ alessandri) *and% three
evergreen (N@ betu#loides* N@ dombeyi andN@ nitida)@ *the^ only other
deciduous species present [is] Acacia cavens* w h i c h grows*in=!a#more
Mediterranean climate*in=*the^northern part|of|*the^temperate region*
b e t w e e n about 31*and%38° S@
Nothofagus glauca *and% N@ obliqua grow *in= *the^ wetter climate {to] *the^
south |of| *the^ Acacia forests *in= central Chile* *the^ former on eastern and+
northern slopes *and% *the^ latter on lowland sites@ Nothofagus alessandri
mixes with N@ glauca on moister sites |of| *the^ coastal mountains@
Nothofagus obliqua dominates m u c h|of|*the^lowlands*and%valleys south
|of| 36#38° S* depending on proximity{from]*theôcean@{it][is]often found
with N@ alpina *and% N@ dombeyi* *the^ latter |of| which often forms pure
stands*in=cool wet gorges@
The conifer Libocedrus chilensis [is] often present on dry slopes
opposite N@ obliqua* *and% Laurelia sempervirens *and% Persea lingue are
common* though lower#stature* associates |of| N@ obliqua@ {at] higher

elevations*in=*theÂndes* N@ dombeyi replaces N@ obliqua@ Nothofagus
alpina forests occur*in=n a r r o w elevational b a n d s *in= *the^ northern
Chilean Andes *and% *the^ species [is] widespread *in= mixed forests |of| *the^
coastal range* often found with N@ dombeyi *and% *the^ associates |of| N@
obliqua@ Auracaria araucana occurs over small areas |of| *the^ coastal
range*and%[is]more widespread*in=*theÂ n d e s (37#41° S) above*the^N@
alpina forests (600#900m)@ Nothofagus pumilo occupies cold snowy
sites*{at]elevations |of| 1500#1800 m{at]about 37° S d o w n{to]sea level
ât* Cape Horn@ Nothofagus antarctica[is]!a#high#elevation krummholz#
forming species that also colonizes primary successional habitats
(e@g@ volcanic deposits)*and%other harsh or exposed sites@ Nothofagus
nitida* Podocarpus nubigenus *and% Weinmannia trichosperma occupy
h u m i d wetter sites b e t w e e n 600*and%900 m elevation south |of| about
40° S@ Fitzroya cupres#soides[is]!a#large#sized tree occurring on wetter
sites b e t w e e n about 40°*and%4 3 ° 30@S*in=b o t h*theÂ n d e a n*and%coastal
ranges**and%{at]elevations {from] about 7 0 0 m{to]*the^timberline@
Plantation Substitutes{for}Natural Forest Products

W i t h growing concerns about *the^ status*and%loss |of| natural
forests* *the^ rapid expansion |of| protected areas *and% large areas |of|
forest unavailable {for} wood supply* plantations {are] increasingly
expected {to] provide substitutes{for}products {from] natural forests*
particularly*in=Asia*and%*the^Pacific@
In Asia*and%*the^Pacific{it][is]estimated that 52 per cent |of| natural
forests{are]not available{for}w o o d harvest because they{are]inaccessible
or uneconomic {to] exploit@ |of| *the^ unavailable forest *in= *the^ region* *it^
*is] estimated that about 38 per cent [is] legally reserved@ *in= addition*
logging b a n s {have] b e e n i m p o s e d on large areas |of| natural forest
covering about 10 million hectares@ *the^ reasons{for}these b a n s vary
b u t {were] related {to] deforestation*and%forest degradation causing
environmental problems *in= Thailand* *the^ Philippines *and% China and+
^to* conservation requirements *in= Sri Lanka *and% New Zealand@
As !a# result |of| *the^ net effect |of| deforestation *and% removal |of|
natural forests {from] wood production* some areas *in= *the^ Asia and+
*the^ Pacific region {have] wood deficits *and% roundwood harvesting *is$
exceeding sustainable levels |of| cut@ *the^ worst affected areas *are^
South Asia *and% insular Southeast Asia* with continental Southeast
A s i a also u n d e r strain@ *in= contrast* N e w Z e a l a n d {has] surplus

plantation w o o d available{for}export@
Of six examples studied*in=*theÂsia*and%*the^Pacific region* N e w
Zealand [is] m o r e than self#sufficient*in=w o o d production b a s e d on
plantations@*in=China*and%Viet Nam**theîmportance |of| plantations
^will* increase as planted resources mature@ There {have] b e e n serious
problems with i m p l e m e n t i n g plantation development p r o g r a m m e s
*in& Sri Lanka* *the^ Philippines *and% Thailand@ *in= Sri Lanka* India and+
elsewhere *in= *the^ tropics* trees outside *the^ forest {are] playing !a# critical
role*in=r o u n d w o o d*and%woodfuel supply@
M o s t countries*in=*the^region{are]b e c o m i n g importers |of| wood*
with imports expected{to]rise@ S o m e t i m e s logging b a n s {have] shifted
*the^ p r o b l e m{to]other countries@ Problems with acquiring large areas
|of| land*in=s o m e countries m a k e{it]difficult{to]i m p l e m e n t industrial
plantations@ *in= *the^ Philippines* Thailand *and% Viet Nam there *have^
been social conflicts with local indigenous people or between
traditional forest use*and%development* as well as b e t w e e n*the^rich
{and}*the^poor@ S o m e t i m e s incentives*and%*the^development |of| social
forestry p r o g r a m m e s{are]b e i n g u s e d{to]help resolve such problems@
W h i l e {it] [is] clear that plantations {will] {have] *an^ i n c r e a s i n g l y
significant role *in= substituting products {from] natural forests* *the^
impact {will] be felt on !a# case#by#case basis as governments and+
investors determine{where}*and% how plantations can be technically*
economically*and%socially feasible as well as environmentally friendly@
*in& *the^ near term* plantations *in= Asia *and% *the^ Pacific can make !a#
contribution but cannot replace harvests {from] natural forests@ {it] *is$
likely that both *in= *the^ region *and% globally *the^ current pace |of| industrial
plantation development {will] barely keep pace with losses *from^
deforestation *and% transfer |of| natural forests {to] protected status@ While
ît* would be theoretically possible* actual plantation development *is$
ât* present not sufficient {to] offset both growing consumption and+
declining harvest {from] natural forests@
Plantations*and%Carbon Sequestration
In*the^past ten years**the^development |of| forest plantations as
carbon offsets{has]evolved towards!a#market mechanism* although
*an& organized market with carbon prices defined according{to]supply
{and} d e m a n d forces[is]still!a#long w a y off@*theâdoption|of|*the^K y o t o
P r o t o c o l *in= 1 9 9 7 t r i g g e r e d !a# s t r o n g i n c r e a s e *in= i n v e s t m e n t in
plantations as carbon sinks* although*the^legal*and%policy instruments

{and} guidelines{for}m a n a g e m e n t {are] still debated@
A number |of| countries {have] already prepared themselves {for} *the^
additional funding {for} *the^ establishment |of| human#made forests@ *the^
1997 C o s t a Rica national p r o g r a m m e w a s *the^ first {to] establish
tradeable securities |of| carbon sinks that could b e used {to] offset
emissions*and%*the^first{to]utilize independent certification insurance@
To date* greenhouse gas mitigation funding covers about 4 million
hectares |of| forest plantations worldwide@ *the^ recognition |of|
afforestation *and% reforestation as *the^ only eligible land use* land use
c h a n g e *and% f o r e s t r y a c t i v i t i e s u n d e r *the^ C l e a n D e v e l o p m e n t
Mechanism |of| *the^ Kyoto Protocol* as agreed *in= Bonn during *the^
second part |of| *the^ Sixth Conference |of| *the^ Parties {to] UNFCCC *in= July
2001* {will] lead{to]!a#steep increase*in=forest plantation establishment
*in& developing countries@
The sink decision|of|*the^B o n n A g r e e m e n t[is]expected {to] funnel
additional funds into forest activities *in= developing countries and+
thus {to] strengthen *the^ international efforts *in= this field@
However*{it]{will]also require!a#monitoring*and%verification system
^to* ensure that these plantations {will] not b e established{at]*theêxpense
|of|*the^local population or efforts {to] conserve biological diversity@
Thus*the^decisions taken*in=B o n n{to]m a k e*the^Kyoto Protocol ratifiable
^will* also bear n e w challenges{for}forest plantation development@
Trees Outside *the^ Foresi
The significance|of|trees outside*the^forest (TOF) can b e observed
*in& several contexts@*in=countries with l o w forest cover* T O F resources
constitute*the^m a i n source|of|w o o d*and%non#wood $forest$ products*
even though trees may be so scattered that *the^ maps produced *by^
FRA 2000 indicate that no forests exist@
Trees{are]found on agricultural lands**in=densely populated areas*
*in& fruit#tree plantations *and% *in= home gardens* which often cover !a#
large proportion |of| *the^ land@ *in= urban areas trees provide important
aesthetic*and%environmental services*in=addition{to]providing shade
{and} greatly increasing*the^livability |of| cities@ Communities* farmers
{and} h e r d e r s w h o do n o t {have] access {to] forests diversify their
production*and%protect their land{by]maintaining various tree systems
on their farms@ Deforestation{has]b e e n m a p p e d*and%quantified* b u t
very little [is] k n o w n about *the^ fate |of| land formerly u n d e r forest~
forest clearing[is]often followed{by]*theêstablishment |of| production

systems|of|w h i c h trees{are]*anîntegral part@ N o t m u c h[is]k n o w n about
*the^ d y n a m i c s |of| t r e e s o n f a r m l a n d s *and% t h e i r corresponding
contribution {to] *the^ production |of| wood *and% other products and+
services@ Similarly* little [is] known about changes *in= tree cover *in^
fields *and% urban systems@ Knowledge |of| trees outside *the^ forest
c o m e s mostly {from] local studies on agroforestry* sylvipastoralism
{and} urban* social* c o m m u n i t y or rural forestry@
This w i d e s p r e a d*and%multipurpose resource* familiar{to]farmers
b u t poorly defined {by] m a n a g e r s*and%m o s t l y absent {from] official
statistics *and% development policies* needs {to] be better assessed and+
known@
Growing populations* shrinking forests*and%degraded ecosystems
all suggest that trees outside*the^forest{are]destined{to]play!a#larger
l o c a l *and% g l o b a l r o l e *in= m e e t i n g *the^ c h a l l e n g e s |of| r e s o u r c e
sustainability* poverty reduction *and% food security@ Trees outside *the^
forest relieve *the^ pressure on forest resources* conserve farmland*
b o o s t agricultural productivity* blunt*the^harmful impact |of| u r b a n
growth o n*theênvironment* increase food supplies* provide i n c o m e
{and}*in=general m a k e valuable contributions {to] food security@
F R A 2000 did n o t undertake!a#global assessment |of| trees outside
*the^ forest* m a i n l y b e c a u s e |of| resource limitations~ n o r{has]there ever
b e e n!a#c o m p r e h e n s i v e global assessment |of| trees outside*the^forest
{and} their products@ However*!a#n u m b e r |of| studies {have] b e e n carried
out{for}specific sectors or geographic areas* often with*anê m p h a s i s
on their e c o n o m i c contributions@ This chapter provides !a# s u m m a r y
|of| s e l e c t e d studies *and% d i s c u s s e s *the^ practical *and% c o n c e p t u a l
difficulties related{to]!a#c o m p r e h e n s i v e global assessment@
T h e chapter responds{to]*the^concern expressed{by]*theÊxpert
Consultation on Forest Resources Assessment 2000 regarding *the^
lack |of| information on TOF@
Forest Plantations{to]Wood Supply

T h e continuing increase*in=*theârea |of| forest plantations w h i c h
^have* b e e n established{for}industrial w o o d supply {has] b e e n{to]m e e t
*the^ reduction |of| outturn foreseen {from] natural forests arising *from^
deforestation *and% changes *in= land use (largely *in= *the^ tropics and+
subtropics) or {from] natural forest b e i n g taken out |of| production a n d
devoted{to]service functions such as conservation@{it]{has]b e e n believed

that*theôutputs{from]forest plantations can help{to]reduce*the^pressure
on natural forests as sources |of| industrial wood supply~ while *the^
logging |of| tropical natural forests [is] not *the^ prime cause |of|
deforestation* logging roads often provide *the^ means {for} farmers *to^
gain access {to] forests@ *the^ reduction |of| logging* combined with
effective protection* m a y thus help{to]reduce deforestation*in=certain
locations until land use*and%ownership{are]clarified@ However* none
|of| these palliatives{will]remove*theûnderlying causes|of|deforestation*
high rates |of| population growth* poverty* hunger *and% !a# shortage |of|
fertile land {to] cultivate@ *the^ potential |of| forest plantations {to] meet
d e m a n d {for} industrial r o u n d w o o d [is] considerable~ {it] {has] b e e n
estimated that*the^present global d e m a n d{for}paper pulp could b e
m e t{from]*anârea equivalent{to]only 1@5%|of|*the^world@s closed forest
area@ N o global estimates |of| current output |of| timber {from] forest
plantations{are]available* although FAO@s global fibre supply m o d e l
(GFSM) estimated that *the^ potential annual growth |of| industrial
w o o d {from] forest plantations*in=developing countries w a s about 5 %
|of|*theîncrement |of| natural forests*in=1995@
In s o m e countries* plantation production already m a k e s!a#highly
significant contribution{to]*theîndustrial w o o d supply*{for}e x a m p l e
*in& N e w Zealand 9 9 % |of| industrial r o u n d w o o d *in= 1997 w a s g r o w n
*in& plantations* while*in=Chile*theêquivalent figure w a s 95%**in=Brazil
{and} Argentina 60%**and%*in=Z a m b i a*and%Z i m b a b w e 50%@
Estimating*the^future contribution |of| forest plantations{to]w o o d
supply[is]{at]present imprecise*and%[is]b a s e d on m a n y m o r e or less
unreliable assumptions* particularly concerning*the^rate {at] w h i c h
afforestation {will] continue@{by]*the^year 2010*the^G F S M (op@ cit@)
estimated that*the^potential increment {from] forest plantations w o u l d
be about 4 0 % |of| that {from] natural forests*in=Asia* Oceania*and%Latin
America *and% about 15% *in= Africa* under rates |of| deforestation and+
afforestation largely *the^ same as today@
Forest Vertebrate Resources* Diversity*and%Distribution
Vegetational diversity*and%structural complexity{have]long b e e n
correlated with animal diversity (MacArthur & M a c A r t h u r 1961~
Karr & R o t h 1971~ U r b a n & Smith 1989~ H a n s e n & H o u n i h a n 1996)@
Vertical habitat complexity*and%heterogeneity|of|regeneration phases
*in& old#growth forests* c o m p a r e d with structurally simpler early
successional forests* provide!a#variety|of|foraging* nesting*and%roosting

sites*and%diverse microclimatic conditions that support high vertebrate
diversity{by]niche segregation@
In northern temperate old#growth forests* elevated light levels
*in& canopy gaps provide vertebrates with highly productive forage
patches c o m p a r e d with y o u n g e r forests that {have] continuous dense
canopies@ Large standing*and%fallen dead trees{are]far m o r e c o m m o n
*in& old#growth than young regenerating forest *and% also provide !a#
range |of| foraging *and% nesting opportunities@ Foliage volume may be
related{to]avian diversity{by]affecting*theâbundance |of| food resources
or nest sites@ However* correlation |of| forest structural complexity
with bird species diversity{has]proved{to]b e highly variable a m o n g
regions*and%causal m e c h a n i s m s linking forest structural complexity
with bird diversity r e m a i n{to]b e found@
Mobility allows vertebrates{to]exploit temporally variable food
resources*and%many* particularly mammals*{are]relatively generalist
*in& their food requirements@
Consequently* vertebrates {are] able {to] respond behaviourally *to^
changes *in= *the^ distribution |of| ephemeral resources {by] localized habitat
shifts * expansion|of|*the^h o m e range or switching{to]alternative food
sources@ B e h a v i o u r a l r e s p o n s e s {to] regional c h a n g e s *in= resource
availability can affect local abundance |of| migratory birds and+
mammals@
H i g h mobility buffers forest vertebrates (with s o m e exceptions)
^from* resource#associated breeding failure*and%extreme fluctuations
|of| population size@ However* extensive*and%prolonged anthropogenic
or natural disturbances can affect vertebrate population dynamics *by^
reducing clutch size or causing temporary suspension |of| breeding@
S o m e r e s o u r c e s {have] i m p o r t a n c e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e {to] their
abundance* often b e c a u s e they{are]available{at]times|of|food scarcity*
{and} these may be particularly relevant {to] breeding success and+
population viability@ Fig trees provide such @keystone@ resources *to^
frugivorous birds *and% mammals *in= some tropical forests* *and% loss
|of| fig trees[is]predicted{to]{have]wide#ranging impacts on*the^vertebrate
communities |of| these forests@
Issues |of| Scale
Vertebrates{are]highly mobile*and%use resources on m u c h larger
spatial scales t h a n plants or invertebrates@ F o r a g i n g r a n g e s of
vertebrates may encompass several hundred hectares or more* and+

habitat requirements {for} nesting *and% feeding may be *in= quite different
locations@ Local disturbances m a y therefore b e less important than
l a r g e # s c a l e d i s t u r b a n c e p h e n o m e n a *in= a f f e c t i n g v e r t e b r a t e
communities**and%habitat patterns across landscapes should b e more
relevant{to]m a n a g e m e n t strategies directed {to] forest vertebrates@
T h u s v e r t e b r a t e s {are] m o r e l i k e l y {to] r e s p o n d {to] h a b i t a t
fragmentation *and% *the^ heterogeneity *and% relative abundance |of|
different habitat types than {to] forest structure or local complexity@
M a n y vertebrates use resources{from]!a#variety |of| habitat types that
occur*in=natural forested landscapes@
These habitat types include!a#range |of| successional stages that
âre* t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y * e d a p h i c a l l y *and% h y d r o l o g i c a l l y d i s t i n c t
vegetation zones@ H u m a n land uses tend{to]simplify or h o m o g e n i z e
landscapes@ Forest fragmentation leads{to]habitat isolation* reduced
patch size*and%increased importance |of| edge effects as well as* more
obviously* habitat loss@ Single forest patches *in= anthropogenically
fragmented landscapes{are]unlikely{to]contain*the^variety |of| habitat
types*and%resources previously represented*in=*the^continuous forest
landscape@
Vertebrates that use resources {from] several forest habitat types
âre* therefore susceptible {to] changes *in= resource availability {at] *the^
landscape scale@
Single species operate{at]!a#variety |of| spatial scales during their
life history@ Thus m a n y small birds defend nesting territories measured
*in& square metres* use foraging ranges extending{to]several hectares*
yet cover m a n y kilometres during seasonal migrations@ E v e n non#
migratory species use resources* with varying strengths|of|interaction*
ât* !a# range |of| spatial scales* *and% incorporating habitat features *at^
multiple scales {has] been *an^ important planning requirement *for^
conservation|of|vertebrates such as*the^spotted owl Strix occi#dentalis
*in&*the^forests|of|*the^Pacific North#West|of|*theÛSA@
In fragmented landscapes*theêxtent |of| disruption depends on
*the^ scale |of| fragmentation relative{to]*the^mobility|of|*theôrganisms
{and} on *the^ nature |of| *the^ habitat matrix *in= which *the^ fragments *are^
located@ Vertebrates that feed on unpredictable patchy *and% ephemeral
resources* such as nectarivores*and%frugivores* operate on large
spatial scales*and%tend{to]b e more mobile than folivores or insectivores
of similar size@ Mobility facilitates movement between patches and+

consequently offers !a# degree |of| protection {from] *the^ effects |of| habitat
fragmentation* provided *the^ matrix *in= which resource patches *are^
located [is] favourable {for} movement *and% relatively risk#free@ *the^
nature |of| *the^ habitat matrix *and% persistence |of| *the^ resource *is$
particularly important {for} vertebrates that use temporally and+
spatially predictable b u t ephemeral resources that require seasonal
migrations between habitat zones@ Seasonal habitat shifts *are^
widespread among birds *and% mammals *in= response {to] climate* *the^
availability|of|food resources**and%nesting requirements@{for}example*
bears*in=North A m e r i c a feed on berries*in=forest habitats but m o v e
^to* streams {to] feed on salmon during *the^ annual spawning runs@
Sparse b e r r y crops can increase*the^m o v e m e n t |of| b e a r s{to]streams*
while!a#good fruit crop reduces*the^size |of| their h o m e range@
Forest patches surrounded{by]!a#hostile habitat matrix (or internal
f r a g m e n t a t i o n features s u c h as fences*and%r o a d s ) c a n i m p e d e
vertebrate m o v e m e n t that**in=addition{to]limiting access{to]resources*
isolates subpopulations*and%prevents genetic mixing@
By isolating subpopulations fragmentation increases local
extinction probabilities {by] reducing *the^ size |of| effective breeding
population b e l o w thresholds |of| genetic*and%demographic viability@
Provision |of| habitat corridors*and%careful planning|of|*the^land#
use regime can increase landscape connectivity*and%facilitate greater
m o v e m e n t |of| vertebrates b e t w e e n patches@ Recent years {have] seen
*an& increase *in= studies describing *the^ responses |of| vertebrates *to^
habitat fragmentation@ These {have] been accompanied {by] theoretical
developments* m o s t notably describing thresholds |of| fragmentation
b e y o n d w h i c h*theêffects |of| isolation*and%small patch size increase
rapidly@
The concepts |of| scale*and%heterogeneity*in=natural ecosystems
âre* highly relevant{to]*theîntegration |of| ecological principles with
land management@*the^size*and%distribution |of| habitat patches n e e d
^to* be considered relative{to]*the^m a n a g e m e n t objectives* b e they
conservation |of| particular species* continued sustainability |of|
ecological processes* or both@ Land managers {will] be aided {by] remote
sensing techniques *and% geographic information systems (GIS) *in= *the^
assessment |of| *the^ suitability |of| landscapes {to] support high
biodiversity* although these approaches n e e d{to]b e c o m b i n e d with
studies |of| life history traits *and% species requirements@ Variation *in^
*the^ frequency *and% size |of| natural disturbance events should be
accounted{for}*in=management planning{by]incorporating or mimicking
natural disturbance regimes{at]several spatial*and%temporal scales@
Such planning needs {to] take !a# hierarchical perspective {to] match *the^
mobility *and% requirements |of| biological entities that vary *in= size *from^
small arthropods {to] herds |of| large mammals@
Plantations*and%Wood Energy
Woodfuels {from] plantations or natural or semi#natural forests
âre* particularly important*in=developing countries* providing about
15 per cent |of| their total e n e r g y demand@ Woodfuel provides about
7 per cent |of| energy demand {for} *the^ world as !a# whole *and% *in^
industrialized countries only 2 per cent@ Woodfuel provides more
than 70 per cent|of|energy n e e d s*in=3 4 developing countries*and%more
than 90 per cent*in=13 countries@ Woodfuel m a k e s u p about 80 per
cent |of| total w o o d use*in=developing countries*and%about 89 per cent
*in& Africa
The prediction |of| !a# woodfuel crisis *in= developing countries *in= *the^
1980s was based largely on looking {at] supply *and% demand *from^
forest plantations *and% natural forests@ *the^ reaction {to] *the^ expected
woodfuel crisis w a s{to]plant trees{for}this purpose* often*in=*the^form
|of| traditional plantations@
Many programme failures resulted {from] lack |of| appreciation *for^
*the^ complexities |of| bioenergy supply *and% demand* failure {to] take
into account social aspects*and%people@s n e e d s*and%p o o r p r o g r a m m e
structures@ *the^ importance |of| planted trees o n farmland**in=villages
{and} homesteads *and% along roads *and% waterways as !a# source |of|
woodfuel supply was underestimated@
Rural communities harvest stems* branches* stumps* twigs* leaves
{and} litter{for}woodfuels*in=chronic woodfuel supply areas@*in=these
instances *the^ nutrient recycling process [is] broken* resulting *in^
degradation |of| forest plantation sites@ *in= many rural communities *in^
developing countries* woodfuel [is] considered !a# public free good* *to^
be foraged {from] public natural *and% plantation forests@ Often women
{and} children collect *the^ woodfuel {at] little or no cost@ As !a# result* *the^
growing |of| private forest plantations specifically {for} woodfuel* *in^
which development costs *and% rotation cycles {are] involved* can be
a foreign concept@ Asian studies show that forest#based supply can

range {from] 13 per cent*in=*the^Philippines{to]as high as 73 per cent
*in& Nepal@ *in= many countries less than 50 per cent |of| fuelwood [is] *from^
forests@
Globally* non#industrial forest plantations*in=1995{were]estimated
^to* cover about 20 million hectares@ This was almost 17 per cent |of|
*the^ world@s total plantation area *in= 1995@ !a# significant proportion |of|
these plantations {were] planted {for} woodfuel *and% 98 per cent *were^
*in& developing countries@ These plantation figures do not account *for^
trees planted outside*the^forest on farms or*in=villages* etc@* n o r do
t h e y c o n s i d e r p l a n t a t i o n s t h a t {were] c o n s i d e r e d a g r i c u l t u r a l
plantations* such as Hevea or p a l m plantations@
In developing countries about one#third|of|*the^total plantation
estate was grown primarily {for} woodfuel *in= 1995@ Three#quarters |of|
these plantations {were] *in= Asia*{where}they accounted {for} 60 per cent
|of| total plantation production@ *in= Latin America more than half |of|
plantation production went {to] woodfuel~ *in= Africa *and% Oceania !a#
larger proportion |of| plantation production w a s as industrial wood@
However* plantations**in=general* provided only!a#small proportion
|of| total woodfuel used@ U r u g u a y[is]*anînteresting exception@
Production |of| woodfuel {from] plantations currently m a k e s only
!a# small contribution {to] energy requirements* although {it] [is] very
important *in= s o m e localities*and%countries@ Plantations currently
supply 5 per cent|of|woodfuel@ Production {from] these non#industrial
plantations[is]likely{to]double over*the^next 20 years* even with little
e x p a n s i o n *in= area* b e c a u s e *the^ age class distribution [is] heavily
concentrated *in= young plantations@ *in= *an^ optimistic scenario *where^
planting continues {at] *the^ same rate as *in= *the^ past ten years *and% then
gradually declines*!a#350 per cent increase*in=woodfuel production
w o u l d b e a n t i c i p a t e d {by] 2020@ B y # p r o d u c t s {from] w o o d # u s i n g
industries {will] also contribute {to] increased fuelwood supply@ *the^
situation [is] less positive *in= Africa*{where}for !a# few countries declines
âre* projected*in=plantation#based woodfuel production@
New Sources |of| Fibre
Since FRA 1990* advances *in= wood utilization technology *have^
resulted *in= increasing importance |of| new sources |of| fibre # rubber
(Hevea brasiliensis)* coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) *and% African oil
p a l m (Elaeis guineensis) # especially*in=*the^Southeast Asian subregion@
These species account {for} 9@7* 12@0 *and% 6@0 million hectares |of|
plantations* respectively@ All grow *in= *the^ humid tropics@ *in= terms |of|
plantation area* Asia {has] 92 per cent|of|*the^world@s rubber* 86 per
cent |of| *the^ world@s coconut p a l m*and%78 per cent |of| *the^ world@s
African oil palm@ Indonesia*
Thailand*and%Malaysia {have] almost three#quarters|of|*the^rubber
plantations~ Indonesia*and%*the^Philippines {have] about half*the^coconut
resources~*and%Malaysia{has]55 per cent|of|*theôil p a l m resource@ All
three species {are] g r o w n principally {for} other products rather than
wood* so w h e n o v e r m a t u r e t h e y {are] available {for} fibre#based
industries {at] minimal cost@
Rubberwood [is] harvested when latex productivity declines and+
3
yields 100 m per hectare |of| roundwood* but recovery {for} lumber
*is] only 25{to]4 5 per cent because |of| poor form*and%small size@ M o s t
|of|*the^planted stands*in=Southeast Asia{are]o w n e d {by] smallholders
{and}{are]geographically dispersed* with poor accessibility*and%poor#
quality stems@ Currently*the^major proportion |of| industrially utilized
r u b b e r w o o d comes {from] large#scale plantations@ Quality furniture*
parquet* panelling* reconstituted panels* general utility timber and+
woodfuel* including charcoal* {are] made {from] rubberwood@
However* *the^ rubberwood must be processed within days |of|
harvesting {to] minimize sapstain attack@ *the^ most developed
downstream industries {are] *in= Malaysia*{where}*the^ production |of|
3 3
sawn rubberwood timber rose {from] 88 000 m *in= 1990 {to] 137 000 m
*in&
1997 *and% medium density fibreboard (MDF) production *from^
rubberwood reached 1@16 million cubic metres per annum {by] 1999@
Exports |of| r u b b e r w o o d furniture {have] grown {from] about U S $ 7 4
million*in=1991{to]U S $ 6 8 3 million*in=1998@ R u b b e r w o o d {has] b e c o m e
!a# substitute {for} light tropical forest hardwoods@ {its] acceptance as !a#
sustainable plantation#grown* environmentally friendly timber *has^
given {it] wide appeal@
Coconut palms{are]harvested as*the^copra yields decline (beyond
3
60 years)*and%yield 90 m per hectare |of| coconut wood@ Coconut p a l m
^has* variable properties*and%[is]intrinsically difficult {for} conversion
but can yield !a# relatively low#cost* general#utility timber *for^
construction* panelling* stairs* door jambs* furniture* flooring and+
power poles@ *in= 1993 Indonesia {had] 65 million cubic metres |of|
overmature coconut stems which needed disposal before replanting@
There [is] increasing interest *in= this raw material *in= European and+
North American markets@ {it] [is] unlikely {to] replace conventional timber*
b u t likely{to]find{its]w a y into niche markets@{it]{will]continue{to]b e
used as!a#low#cost construction timber@
Oil p a l m plantations{are]harvested{for}fibre b e y o n d*the^25{to]30
3
year rotations*and%yield about 235 m per hectare@{it][is]estimated that
over 1@6 billion cubic metres |of| fibre {will] b e available*in=*the^years
^to* come {from] established resources *in= Southeast Asia@ {from] 1996 *to^
1999 *the^ area increased {by] 18 per cent@ *in= Malaysia *the^ area *has^
increased {by] 3 million hectares *in= *the^ past 30 years@
Most oil palm plantations (unlike rubber *and% coconut) *in= *the^
main growing countries* Malaysia *and% Indonesia* {are] managed *by^
plantation companies or cooperatives@ Oil palm by#products such as
kernel shells* pressed fibres*and%e m p t y fruit b u n c h e s {are] currently
used*in=heat generation{at]*theêxtraction plants@ W a t e r*in=*the^stems
can reach five times*the^weight |of| dry matter@
The high moisture content as well as *the^ high amounts |of|
parenchyma tissue rich *in= sugar *and% starches make conversion into
quality forest products !a# challenge@ *an^ MDF plant *in= Malaysia *is$
currently being planned {to] utilize oil palm stems@
Selected Forest Plantation Topics

O n a v e r a g e Eucalyptus *and% Pinus species* w h i c h d o m i n a t e
industrial plantations *in= developing countries* {have] similar MAIs |of|
10 {to] 20m per hectare per year@ However* many |of| *the^ popular
species |of| b o t h genera frequently achieve m u c h faster growth rates@
T h u s Eucalyptus grandis* w h i c h[is]*the^most widely planted Eucalyptus
3
species* can achieve 4 0{to]50 m per hectare per year*and%*in=very
3
exceptional conditions with advanced tree i m p r o v e m e n t 1 0 0 m per
hectare per year@ Other widely planted tropical h a r d w o o d s including
Casuarina equisetifolia* Casuarina junghuhniana* Tectona grandis and+
3
Dalbergia sissoo {have] MAIs |of| less than 15m per hectare per year and+
3
frequently u n d e r 10 m per hectare per year@
Climate *and% site {have] !a# very large impact on growth rates@ *the^
humid tropics *and% more fertile sites {are] more conducive {to] higher
growth rates than locations with long dry seasons or infertile or
degraded soil@ Teak on m a n y sites*in=India*{for}example* frequently
3
^has**an^M A I |of| 4 {to] 8 m per hectare per year* partly because of
drought c o m b i n e d with poor soils@ S o m e species such as Gmelina

arborea *and% s o m e|of|*theÊucalyptus species {are] very site sensitive@
Pinus spp@**in=contrast* generally tolerate adverse conditions better
{and} {are] more flexible with respect {to] site@ Both tree breeding and+
silviculture {have] improved growth rates@ Good examples *are^
Eucalyptus grandis *and% E@ urophylla *in= Brazil *and% Pinus radiata *in= some
countries|of|*the^Southern Hemisphere@
Advanced silviculture typically includes improved nursery and+
establishment techniques such as good site preparation* weed control
{and} judicious use |of| fertilizer@ {it] {has] been suggested that growth |of|
teak* {for} example* could be doubled *in= Kerala* India *and% Bangladesh
{and} increased sixfold*in=Indonesia{by]adopting these practices@
W i t h coppice species productivity varies with rotation**the^first
{and} second coppice rotations usually being more productive than
*the^ seedling one@ *the^ growth patterns vary among species@ *for^
example* very fast growing species such as Gmelina arborea can reach
!a# peak M A I*in=less than 10 years* while Pinus caribaea var@ hondurensis
g r o w n*in=Trinidad reaches m a x i m u m M A I{at]about 25 years*and%P@
radiata {at] over 40 years@ With Cupressus lusitanica *in= Costa Rica* *the^
MAI maximum [is] reached {at] about 30 years@
Rotation lengths can reflect b o t h end#use*and%economics@ M a n y
fast#growing Eucalyptus* Acacia *and% Casuarina species *and% Gmelina
arborea {are] grown on short rotations |of| under 15 years as they *are^
used primarily {for} pulp or woodfuel@ Usual rotations *in= Kenya *for^
E@ grandis {are] 6 years{for}domestic woodfuel* 7{to]8 years{for}telephone
poles*and%10{to]12 years{for}industrial woodfuel@*in=Brazil this species
*is] largely g r o w n {for} pulp or charcoal on 5 {to] 10 year rotations@
Species being g r o w n {for} high#value sawlogs usually {have] longer
rotations~ teak (Tectona grandis) [is] g r o w n on 50{to]70 year rotations
{and} high#value conifers such as Araucaria angustifolia on 4 0 year
rotations@ Generally pines {are] grown on medium#length rotations |of|
20 {to] 30 years* unless grown solely {for} pulpwood* when shorter
rotations m a y b e adopted@
Modelling |of| growth* rotations* harvest yields*and%product m i x
^by* species[is]important{for}decision#making*in=forest management@
One |of| *the^ major obstacles {to] model development {for} planners and+
managers [is] !a# lack |of| suitable data@ Data can come {from] !a# range |of|
sources* including temporary *and% permanent sample plots and
experiments@ Experiments *and% protocols {for} obtaining data need *to^

be carefully designed so that reliable information [is] obtained over
*the^ complete range|of|conditions{to]which*the^model[is]{to]apply@ Tree
Growth*and%Permanent Plot Information System (TROPIS)* sponsored
^by* *the^ Centre {for} International Forestry Research (CIFOR)* seeks *to^
coordinate *and% improve access {to] tree growth information@
A growth*and%yield model developed{for}Pinus elliottii plantations
*in& coastal Zululand* South Africa* predicts height* basal area* total
stem*and%merchantable volume*and%stocking* with age o n!a#stand
level{for}harvest planning@*in=N e w Zealand several simulation models
^have* b e e n developed{for}P@ radiata which predict similar variables
but also include w o o d quality* harvesting*and%marketing aspects*
w h i c h m a k e{it]possible{to]link*the^silvicultural options{to]industrial
use@
Valuable Hardwood Plantations
Table@ Characteristics |of| Valuable Hardwoods used*in=Tropical Areas
Use Desirable Main end# Matching valuable Comments

categories wood uses hardwood species
properties
Decorative Appearance* Quality Tieghemella spp@~ Highest
timbers consistent furniture Entandophragma value*
quality* and cylindricum* competitio
dimensional interior Chorophora spp@* n from
stability* joinery Aucoumea temperate
durability* klaineana* hardwoods
good Afrormosia spp@* and MDF
machining* Entandophragma
staining and utile* Mansonia
finishing spp@* Lovoa spp@*
properties Khaya spp@*
Swietenia spp@*
Dalbergia spp@*
Aningeria spp@
High to Appearance* Principall Dipterocarpus Small share
very high# strength* y in spp@* Lophira spp@* of total
density high natural constructi Chlorophora spp@* tropical
timbers durability* on Ocotea rodiaei timber use
availability
*in& large
sizes
Low to Appearance* External Shorea spp* Hevea Most
medium# clear grain* joinery* brasiliensis* commonly
density natural shop Terminalia spp@* used* prone
utility durability* fittings* Heritiera spp@ to
timbers good medium# competitio
machining priced n from
properties furniture substitutes
Long#rotation* slow#growing but valuable hardwood species *have^

special technical properties* such as strength* natural durability*
hardness*and%easy machining*and%appearance that make them suitable
^for* high#value end#uses such as furniture@
These high#grade h a r d w o o d s contrast with short#rotation* fast#
growing* lesser#quality w o o d s u s e d {for} woodfuel* p u l p w o o d or
reconstituted products *and% less demanding building timbers@ *in^
tropical countries teak (Tectona grandis)* mahogany (Swietenia spp@)
{and} r o s e w o o d (Dalbergia spp@){are]*the^m a i n h a r d w o o d plantation
species* while*in=temperate countries oak (Quercus spp@)* ash (Fraxinus
spp@)* cherry (Prunus spp@)* walnut (Juglans spp@)* tulipwood (Jacaranda
spp@)*and%hard maple (Acer spp@) predominate@
Because m a n y valuable hardwood species{are]difficult{to]establish
b e c a u s e |of| t h e i r e c o l o g i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s or d i s e a s e or i n s e c t
susceptibility* focus{has]b e e n on*theêasier species{to]grow* including
teak (Tectona grandis)* Indian rosewood (Dalbergia sissoo) and+
mahogany@
In 1995*the^global areas |of| these species {were] 2 254 000* 626 000
{and} 151 000 ha* respectively@
T h e y a c c o u n t e d {for} a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t |of| total h a r d w o o d
plantations*in=*the^tropics@ M o r e than 90 per cent |of| teak plantations
^were* located*in=Asia* mainly*in=Indonesia* India* Thailand* Bangladesh*
M y a n m a r*and%Sri Lanka@ A b o u t 95 per cent|of|r o s e w o o d plantations
âre* located*in=India*and%Pakistan@
The largest mahogany plantations {are] located *in= Indonesia and+
Fiji* which together make up about 80 per cent |of| *the^ established
area@
The market preference {for} large piece sizes* slow growth and+
very long rotation lengths combine {to] reduce *the^ attractiveness *for^
commercial investment *in= these species@
This[is]only partially counteracted{by]their value@*the^l o w return
on capital investment* coupled with *the^ long wait period {for} this
return* {has] m a d e {it] difficult {to] interest private investors without
supportive* secure*and%stable government policies@
As markets demand !a# continuity |of| supply* plantations need *to^
be on !a# sustainable scale within !a# region@ Some |of| *the^ less common
species {are] not k n o w n*in=*the^marketplace@ Other potential market
problems{are]that*the^timber m a y be wrongly associated with tropical
deforestation*and%changing fashions that often occur with decorative

timbers@ Niche marketing [is] important{for}valuable hardwoods@
P r o j e c t i o n s {for} s u p p l i e s |of| t i m b e r {from] e x i s t i n g v a l u a b l e
h a r d w o o d p l a n t a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t b e c a u s e |of| *the^ a g e c l a s s
distribution*and%long rotations there{will]not b e!a#significant increase
*in& supply*in=*the^next 20 years@ Future p r o m o t i o n |of| quality h a r d w o o d
plantations n e e d s{to]emphasize choice|of|species with versatile end#
uses* market research*and%development{to]hold on{to]niche markets
{and} maintained high standards {from] production{to]marketing@
Careful site selection* use |of| high#quality planting materials |of|
superior genetic origin *and% good silviculture {are] important@ Planting
p r o g r a m m e s s h o u l d b e e c o n o m i c a l l y viable* e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y
appropriate*and%socially desirable@ Incentives m a y also b e necessary
^to* stimulate private investment because|of|*the^long rotations@
E v e n though valuable h a r d w o o d plantations{have]*the^potential
^to* reduce *the^ pressure on natural forests* they {will] not prevent
deforestation resulting {from] agricultural encroachment@
The supply |of| large quantities|of|high#value timber could perhaps
u n d e r m i n e *the^ value |of| natural forest stands*and%so lead {to] m o r e
rapid destruction@ H e n c e{it][is]advisable*{where}possible*{to]m a n a g e
plantations *and% forest resources *and% forest products *in= !a#
complementary manner@
Sustaining Productivity
It[is]possible not only{to]sustain but also{to]increase productivity
*in& successive rotations@ This requires clear definition|of|*theênd#use
objective {for} forest plantation development *and% !a# holistic view *in^
their management@ There [is] !a# need {to] integrate strategies {for} genetic
i m p r o v e m e n t programmes* n u r s e r y practices* site*and%species/
p r o v e n a n c e matching* appropriate silviculture (site preparation*
establishment* weeding* fertilizing* pruning* thinning)* forest
protection*and%harvesting practices with prudent management@ N e w
Zealand*and%*the^southern United States{have]s h o w n that substantial
gains can b e m a d e {by] adopting this holistic approach@
In developing c o u n t r i e s { w h e r e } r e s o u r c e s m a y b e constrained*
highly technical solutions m a y not b e essential b u t{it][is]critical{to]get
*the^ fundamentals correct* careful species*and%provenance choice*
g o o d nursery stock* site preparation* planting techniques* w e e d
control and* less frequently* fertilizer inputs@ O n c e fast#growing*
uniform plantations {have] b e e n established* later silvicultural tending

m a y b e c o m e increasingly important* depending on *the^ end#use
objective@
Current evidence suggests that plantation production can b e
sustainable if foresters i m p l e m e n t prudent genetic*and%silvicultural
tree i m p r o v e m e n t p r o g r a m m e s*and%sound m a n a g e m e n t practices@
There{has]been* however* limited long#term research on*the^subject~
there {are] few definitive studies* limited{to]few species@
In one |of| *the^ most promising studies* with Pinus patula *in^
Swaziland grown intensively on about 15 year rotations* site
productivity was maintained or increased over three rotations@ *the^
question |of| declining growth *in= teak (Tectona grandis) plantations *in^
Indonesia *and% India remains unclear@ How forest plantations *are^
managed affects *the^ chemical *and% physical properties |of| *the^ soils and+
site@ However* only recently{have]long#term studies b e e n undertaken
^to* evaluate these critical factors or processes@
The methods adopted{for}site preparation (ripping* ploughing*
scarifying* bedding* windrowing* controlled burning)* establishment
(manual* mechanical)* w e e d i n g (manual* chemical* mechanical)*
fertilizer application* pruning*and%thinning (manual*and%mechanical*
^for* commercial{to]waste)* forest protection*and%harvesting (manual*
mechanical* clear#fell or selection) all affect *the^ pool |of| nutrients *in^
*the^ ecosystem@ Interference with *the^ drainage* litter *and% recycling |of|
organic matter *and% change *in= *the^ physical conditions |of| soils during
these operations {are] critical {to] long#term sustainability@ Because |of|
litter recycling *and% *the^ rapid development |of| tree roots* plantations
âre* used{for}rehabilitation|of|fragile*and%degraded lands prone{to]soil
erosion*and%excessive water runoff@
Tree plantations often {have] higher evapotranspiration rates than
grassland or agricultural crops *and% thus change *the^ hydrology |of| *the^
site@ This can be either beneficial (for example {by] reducing salinity
problems*in=s o m e dryland conditions) or detrimental (if{it]reduces
water required{for}other uses)@
The rare studies |of| changes |of| productivity b e t w e e n rotations
^have* concluded that negative changes {have] primarily been due *to^
inappropriate or inadequate management practices or weed invasions
rather than !a# result |of| *the^ plantations themselves@\ Burning and+
excessive cultivation *in= site preparation* soil compaction from
mechanical operations* inappropriate harvesting techniques*and%poor

forest protection can contribute{to]loss |of| nutrients*and%soil erosion*
with!a#resultant loss*in=productivity |of| forest plantation sites@ This
cannot b e addressed solely{by]addition|of|fertilizer* but{by]*theâdoption
|of| *the^ whole range |of| tree improvement* silviculture* protection and+
harvesting techniques *in= *an^ integrated forest management strategy@
Impacts|of|*the^Forest Plantation Estate

The potential {for} forest plantations {to] partially meet demand *for^
wood *and% fibre {for} industrial uses [is] increasing@ According {to] FRA
2000**the^global forest plantation area accounts{for}only 5 per cent
|of| global forest cover *and% *the^ industrial forest plantation estate *for^
less than 3 per cent@ However* as *an^ indication only* forest plantations
^were* estimated*in=*the^y e a r 2000{to]supply about 35 per cent|of|global
r o u n d w o o d*and%*anîncrease{to]4 4 per cent anticipated {by] 2020@ If
plantation development[is]targeted{at]*the^m o s t appropriate ecological
zones*and%if sustainable forest m a n a g e m e n t principles {are] applied*
forest plantations can provide!a#critical substitute{for}natural forest
r a w material supply@*in=several countries industrial w o o d production
^from* forest plantations{has]significantly substituted{for}w o o d supply
^from* natural forest resources@ Forest plantations*in=N e w Z e a l a n d
met 99 per cent |of| *the^ country@s needs {for} industrial roundwood *in^
1997~ *the^ corresponding figure *in= Chile was 84 per cent* Brazil 62 per
cent*and%Z a m b i a*and%Z i m b a b w e 50 per cent each@ This substitution
^by* forest plantations m a y help reduce logging pressure on natural
forests*in=areas*in=w h i c h unsustainable harvesting |of| w o o d[is]!a#major
cause|of|forest degradation *and%{where}logging roads facilitate access
that m a y lead {to] deforestation@
Forest p l a n t a t i o n s also p r o v i d e additional n o n # w o o d forest
products* {from] *the^ trees planted or {from] other elements |of| *the^
ecosystem that they help {to] create@ They contribute environmental*
social*and%economic benefits@ Forest plantations{are]used*in=combating
desertification* absorbing carbon{to]offset carbon emissions* protecting
soil*and%water* rehabilitating lands exhausted {from] other land uses*
providing rural e m p l o y m e n t and* if p l a n n e d effectively* diversifying
*the^ rural landscape*and%maintaining biodiversity@
N o t all forest plantation d e v e l o p m e n t {has] positive economic*
environmental* social or cultural impacts@ Without adequate planning
{and} without appropriate management* forest plantations m a y b e
grown *in= *the^ wrong sites* with *the^ wrong species/provenances* *by^
*the^ wrong growers* {for} *the^ wrong reasons@
Examples exist{where}natural forests{have]been cleared{to]establish
forest plantation development or{where}customary owners |of|
traditional lands may {have] been alienated {from] their sources |of| food*
medicine*and%livelihoods@
In s o m e instances p o o r site/species matching *and% inadequate
silviculture {have] resulted*in=p o o r growth* hygiene* v o l u m e yields
{and} e c o n o m i c returns@*in=other instances* changes*in=soil*and%water
status {have] caused problems{for}local communities@ L a n d use conflicts
can occur b e t w e e n forest plantation d e v e l o p m e n t*and%other sectors*
particularly *the^ agricultural sector@
The negative impacts |of| forest plantations can d r a w *the^ focus
a w a y {from] *the^ fact that forest p l a n t a t i o n r e s o u r c e s {are] totally
renewable *and% can be economically* socially* culturally and+
environmentally sustainable with prudent planning* management*
utilization*and%marketing@
Special Forest Plantations

Of particular interest*in=m a n y arid regions|of|*the^w o r l d{are]forest
plantations that {are] established as windbreaks *and% shelterbelts* *for^
sand dune stabilization* canal side *and% riverside plantations* *and% as
amenity plantations@
Windbreaks *and% Shelterbelts

In arid zones**the^harsh conditions |of| climate*and%*the^shortage
|of| water {are] intensified {by] *the^ strong winds@ Living conditions and+
agricultural production can often be improved {by] planting trees and+
shrubs*in=protective w i n d b r e a k s*and%shelterbelts w h i c h reduce w i n d
velocity *and% provide shade@ Windbreaks *and% shelterbelts* which *are^
considered synonymous *in= this manual* {are] barriers |of| trees or shrubs
that {are] planted {to] reduce w i n d velocities and* as!a#result* reduce
evapotranspiration*and%prevent wind erosion~ they frequently provide
direct benefits {to] agricultural crops* resulting *in= higher yields* and+
provide shelter {to] livestock* grazing lands* *and% farms@
A main objective |of| windbreaks *and% shelterbelts [is] {to] protect *the^
agricultural crops {from] physical damage {by] wind@
Other benefits include*
• Preventing* or{at]least reducing* wind erosion~
• Reducing evaporation{from]*the^soil~
• Reducing transpiration{from]plants~
• Moderating extreme temperatures@
Quite often* protection can be combined with production *by^
choosing tree *and% shrub species that* apart {from] furnishing *the^ desired
sheltering effect* yield needed wood products@
Design |of| Windbreaks *and% Shelterbelts
When considering windbreak or shelterbelt planting* three zones
can be recognized**the^windward zone (from which*the^wind blows)~
*the^ leeward zone (on *the^ side{where}*the^ wind passes)~ *and% *the^
protected zone (that *in= which *the^ effect |of| *the^ windbreak or shelterbelt
is felt)@
Fig@ Functioning|of|!a#Windbreak
The effectiveness|of|*the^windbreak or shelterbelt[is]influenced
^by* {its] permeability@ If {it] [is] dense* like !a# solid wall* *the^ airflow *will^
pass over *the^ top |of| {it] *and% cause turbulence on *the^ leeward side due
^to**the^lower pressure on that side~ this gives!a#comparatively limited
zone |of| effective shelter on*the^leeward side compared{to]*the^zone
that!a#moderately permeable shelter creates@ Optimum permeability
*is] 40{to]50 per cent|of|open space* corresponding{to]!a#density |of| 50
^to* 60 per cent*in=vegetation@ Gaps*in=*the^barriers should be avoided@
Permeability|of|dense shelterbelt can be improved{by]pruning lower
branches{at]0@50#0@8 m{from]*the^soil level@
It[is]generally accepted that!a#windbreak or shelterbelt protects
*an& area over!a#distance up{to]{its]own height on*the^windward side
{and} up {to] 20 times {its] height on *the^ leeward side* depending on *the^
strength |of| *the^ wind@ *in= reducing wind speeds* narrow barriers can
be as effective as wide ones@ Furthermore*!a#narrow shelterbelt has
the advantage |of| occupying less land@*the^shape|of|*the^cross#section

|of| !a# windbreak or shelterbelt determines* {to] !a# great extent* *the^
sheltering effect@ {to] !a# large extent* *the^ choice |of| tree or shrub species
^to* plant* along with their planting arrangement* dictates*the^cross#
sectional shape@*in=general**anînclined slope facing*the^w i n d should
b e avoided* as{it]only deflects*the^windflow upward@ Barriers with
!a# clear vertical side provide best w i n g s p r e a d reduction@ W h e n
designing!a#windbreak or shelterbelt**the^direction|of|*the^w i n d m u s t
b e considered@
A barrier should be established perpendicular{to]*the^direction
|of|*the^prevailing w i n d{for}m a x i m u m effect@ {to] protect large areas*
!a# n u m b e r |of| separate barriers can b e created as parts|of|*anôverall
system@ When *the^ prevailing winds {are] mainly *in= one direction* !a#
series |of| parallel shelterbelts perpendicular {to] that direction should
b e established~!a#checkerboard pattern [is] required w h e n *the^ winds
originate {from] different directions@ Before establishing windbreaks
or shelterbelts*{it][is]important{to]m a k e!a#thorough study|of|*the^local
winds*and%{to]plot on!a#m a p*the^direction*and%strength|of|*the^winds@
Selection |of| Tree*and%Shrub Species
In*the^selection |of| tree or shrub species {for} windbreaks or shelterbelts*
*the^ following characteristics should be sought*
• Rapid growth~
• Straight stems~
• Wind firmness~
• Good crown formation~
• Deep root system* which does not spread into nearby fields~
• Resistance{to]drought~
• Desired phonological characteristics (leaves all year long or only
part|of|*the^year)@
Planting Techniques
Planting techniques{for}windbreaks*and%shelterbelts{are]identical
^to* those*in=other tree*and%shrub planting programmes@ However* as
windbreaks*and%shelterbelts require!a#h i g h plant survival rate* as
well as uniform*and%rapid growth* supplementary irrigation m a y b e
required during*theêstablishment phase@ G a p s cannot b e tolerated
and* w h e n plants {are] lost* replacement m u s t b e prompt@ Although
*in& theory* one#row barriers should suffice* experience{has]s h o w n that
the m o s t effective windbreaks*and%shelterbelts{are]those consisting

|of| several rows |of| trees@ Quite often* initial spacing [is] 3 meters
b e t w e e n*the^rows* with trees 2 meters apart*in=*the^rows@{where}trees
or shrubs {have] long roots that could extend into agricultural fields*
vertical root pruning m a y b e recommended~ this can b e done with
special e q u i p m e n t or{by]digging trenches@!a#triangular arrangement
|of| plants [is] frequently prescribed@
Management Practices
O n c e established**theêffectiveness*and%longevity|of|!a#windbreak
or shelterbelt d e p e n d s on{its]maintenance@ As*the^trees*and%shrubs
mature* they change*in=shape*and%appearance* w h i c h necessitates
s o m e level |of| maintenance {to] ensure !a# continuing shelter effect@
Pruning m a y b e required{to]stimulate height growth* while thinning
can b o o s t diameter growth@ {to] keep!a#barrier{at]*the^desired density
{and} permeability* occasional pruning or removal |of| plants m a y b e
necessary@ If trees or shrubs {are] d a m a g e d {by] w i n d or pest attacks*
!a# control[is]also needed@*in=all|of|these cases**the^management practices
depend on*the^desired composition|of|*the^barrier*and%*the^species
used@ Since these management practices can involve *the^ removal |of|
woody parts* *the^ use |of| tree or shrub species that make fuelwood
or fodder available on!a#continuous basis [is] desirable@
A windbreak or shelterbelt {has] !a# life that [is] dependent on *the^
trees or shrubs |of| which {it] [is] composed@ Therefore* {to] be able *to^
furnish permanent shelter* !a# renewal plan should be adopted@ *to^
r e n e w!a#barrier consisting |of| m a n y rows* felling*the^rows on *the^
leeward side*and%then replanting t h e m[is]often recommended@ If *the^
windbreak or shelterbelt consists |of| one row*!a#n e w r o w m a y b e
planted parallel{to]the*theôld one~ w h e n*the^n e w r o w {has] matured*
*the^ old one[is]removed@{to]r e n e w n a r r o w windbreaks or shelterbelts
arranged into!a#system* n e w belts can b e planted m i d w a y b e t w e e n
*the^ existing barriers which**in=turn*{are]{to]b e r e m o v e d w h e n*the^n e w
ones b e c o m e effective@
W h e n windbreaks or shelterbelts{are]established on grasslands
or other areas{where}animals{are]allowed{to]graze* special attention
must be paid {to] *the^ protection |of| *the^ barrier~ this can be done *by^
planting thorny vegetation or {by] using !a# barbed#wire fence along *the^
edges|of|*the^barrier@
Sand Dune Stabilization

Sand dunes result {from] w i n d erosion@ T h e y{are]formed*in=m a n y
arid lands w h e n w i n d s regularly b l o w over poorly#vegetated areas@
Sand dunes that {are] not covered with vegetation (because |of|
overcropping or overgrazing) move *in= *the^ direction |of| *the^ wind *at^
!a# speed which can approach 10 meters !a# year* endangering agricultural
crops* forest plantations* irrigation canals**and%roads@{to]prevent this
encroachment* *the^ sand dunes must be stabilized~ one method |of|
sand dune stabilization [is] {to] establish !a# vegetative cover@
In general* t w o types |of| sand dunes {are] recognized* coastal
dunes*and%inland dunes@ Techniques |of| stabilizing these t w o types
|of| sand dunes through *the^ establishment|of|!a#vegetative cover@
Stabilization |of| Coastal Dunes
Coastal dunes originate {from] sand thrown up onto *the^ shore *by^
waves@ {at] low tide* *the^ sand dries *and% [is] blown away {by] *the^ wind@
W h e n protective vegetation b e y o n d*the^b e a c h e s[is]destroyed* coastal
dunes move inland@ {to] stop *the^ advancement |of| coastal dunes* *an&
artificial foredune should be constructed about 50 meters {from] *the^
floodline@ Normally* this initial barrier [is] built one year before !a#
planting p r o g r a m m e begins@
One method |of| building !a# foredune [is] {by] mechanical fixation |of|
*the^ sand {by] fences or palisades* 0@5 {to] 1 meter high@ *the^ materials
used{for}*the^fences or palisades m a y include twigs {from] trees or
shrubs* brushwood* grass sheaves* reeds* bushes* p a l m leaves* old
railroad ties* used oil drums**and%earth@ W h e n*the^prevailing w i n d
^has*!a#prevailing direction* parallel lines |of| palisading {are] sufficient~
however*!a#checkerboard system[is]advisable{where}fluctuating winds
âre* common@ Sand piles u p behind*the^palisade and* w h e n*theârtificial
dune that[is]formed reaches!a#height |of| 0@5{to]0@75 meter*!a#second
palisade[is]built on top |of| it@ Sometimes**theôriginal barriers can b e
raised* w h e n necessary* instead |of| building!a#n e w palisade@
Once *the^ foredune [is] established* {it] [is] possible {to] stabilize *the^
sand behind {it] {by] seeding or planting !a# vegetative species that provides
good ground cover*and%[is]able{to]withstand (at least partially) covering
^by* sand@
Sand dune fixation also can b e done {by] mechanical mulching~
that is**the^spreading |of| solid material on*the^surface|of|*the^sand@
Chemical fixation can also b e employed@ Chemical fixation consists
of stabilizing*the^sand surface{by]covering{it]with!a#continuous crust

|of| sprayed chemical substances* such as petroleum derivatives or
latex mixtures@ Vegetative establishment [is] usually !a# follow#up or !a#
concurrent operation@ Chemical fixation [is] advisable when *the^ cost
|of| labour [is] h i g h*and%*the^chemicals{are]readily available@
Sand dune stabilization with plant species[is]m o r e permanent
than mechanical mulching*and%chemical fixation techniques w h i c h
are**in=m o s t cases* only temporary measures@
Stabilization |of| Inland Dunes
Inland dunes originate {from] sand produced{by]*the^weathering
|of| rocks* mainly sandstone@*the^fine fraction can b e b l o w n far away*
while*the^heavier fraction[is]b l o w n short distances*and%forms dunes@
Such dunes can pose serious stabilization problems* especially w h e n
*the^ dunes {are] large *and% active@ One way {to] combat this problem *is$
^by* creating *an^ artificial dune {at] *the^ windward end |of| *the^ dune@ *the^
m e t h o d followed [is] similar{to]*theône used {to] create *the^ foredune
*in&*the^stabilization |of| coastal sand dunes@*the^stabilization |of| inland
dunes also follows*the^same general lines@
W h e n!a#specific area|of|value (for example**anôasis)[is]threatened*
protective w o r k[is]initiated as close as possible{to]*theârea|of|concern*
with*the^w o r k gradually progressing towards*the^sand source area@
Planting Techniques
Planting |of| vegetation[is]*the^best*and%m o s t permanent m e t h o d
|of| coastal*and%inland sand dune stabilization~ b o t h direct*and%indirect
benefits can b e realised* including*
• Protection (of roads* canals* agricultural lands**and%industrial areas)~
• Wood production (fuel* lumber* etc@)~
• Protection |of| watershed areas*and%water supplies~
• Livestock grazing benefits (including fodder)~
• Wildlife benefits* recreation**and%other amenities~
• Public works{to]combat unemployment@
T h e choice|of|vegetative species{for}planting should b e b a s e d on
studies|of|*the^natural vegetation*in=*theârea*and%on*theênvironmental
conditions@ A s planting |of| vegetation on sand dunes frequently
consists |of| afforestation practices*{it][is]r e c o m m e n d e d that species
trials b e included*in=*the^planting p r o g r a m m e s{to]permit*anêvaluation
|of| tree*and%shrub species{for}long#term use@
In practice* {it] [is] often n e c e s s a r y {to] p l a n t r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e

containerized plants close together (1 * 1 meter) on *the^ w i n d w a r d
side* but they can be planted further apart (2 * 2 meters) on *the^
sheltered side@ Irrigation {for} initial establishment may be required
^to* help *the^ plants survive until they {have] sufficiently deep root
systems@ If water[is]not available*in=adequate quantities{for}irrigation
^to* take place on!a#long term basis*{it][is]advisable{to]irrigate (at least)
during*the^first two or three months after planting*{at]weekly intervals@
Concerning maintenance* h a n d w e e d i n g [is] preferred {to] avoid
p r o b l e m s |of| m a c h i n e r y traction*in=*the^sand@ A s!a#rule* all livestock
m o v e m e n t*and%other traffic should b e eliminated on*the^sand dunes~
w h e n necessary* delimited*and%protected passages{for}livestock can
b e established@
Canal#side Plantation
In may arid countries* wherever rivers {are] available* efforts *have^
been made {to] utilize *the^ water {for} irrigation purposes through *the^
construction|of|d a m s or using lift irrigation{for}*theâgricultural needs@
Several thousands |of| kilometers |of| irrigation canals {have] b e e n laid@
The banks |of| such canals {are] available {for} planting purposes and+
constitute !a# considerable area {for} production |of| timber *and% firewood
^for* *the^ rural population@ Full advantage [is] being taken |of| this *in^
many countries like China* Egypt* India *and% Pakistan@ !a# few rows
|of| trees* varying {from] 4 {to] 6* {are] generally planted on each bank |of|
*the^ canal with *an^ espacement depending on *the^ characteristics |of| *the^
species*and%*the^type |of| produce desired@
When designing !a# canal plantation* *the^ requirement may be *the^
same as {for} *the^ design |of| irrigated plantations with respect {to] climatic
{and} soil conditions*and%{to]supply*and%quality |of| water@ However*
ît* should be remembered that *the^ only water supply available {to] *the^
trees [is] seepage {from] *the^ canal into *the^ root zone@ *in= some places*
ît*[is]cheaper{to]g r o w trees*and%thus utilize*the^seepage water rather
than prevent seepage{by]canal linings |of| concrete* asphalt or other
material@
Choice |of| species{for}canal side plantations should take into
account both*the^particular character|of|*the^plantation*and%{its]purpose@
*the^ roots |of| *the^ trees should strengthen *the^ banks |of| *the^ canal and+
*the^ trees should keep *the^ canal *and% {its] banks well shaded *in= order
^to* suppress w e e d growth*and%reduce evaporation@ Species that tend
to increase water seepage through*the^sides*and%b o t t o m|of|*the^canal

should b e avoided@{where}canals{have]*anîntermittent flow* such as
flood discharge canals* only trees able{to]adjust {to] varying water
levels*in=*the^soil can b e used@
Species that reproduce{by]suckers such as Robinia p s e u d o acacia
should not b e planted along canals@ Plantation techniques should
favour deep planting*and%roots should b e planted*in=*the^moist layer@
River#bank Plantations
There {are] many areas{where}river lengths {are] considerable@ *the^
ground on either side |of| *the^ river [is] partly within *the^ reach |of| *the^
h i g h level|of|water during*the^period*the^rivers{are]*in=flood@ B e y o n d
this level $*and%on*the^fringes|of|*theâgricultural land* strip plantation
can b e established{to]produce wood* fuelwood*and%fodder@ Generally*
*the^ width |of| such strips [is] limited but does constitute !a# useful and+
productive linear plantation@ Underground water [is] available *at^
different levels@ *the^ species {to] be planted should be matched with
this water level variation@
Spacing within *and% between *the^ rows depends on *the^
characteristics |of| *the^ species *and% *the^ rotation planned {for} *the^ crop@
*in& *the^ more arid areas* trees with xerophytic habit constitute *the^
outermost rows while those close {to] *the^ river bank {are] *the^ ones with
higher water requirement@*in=such locations* phreatophyte species
such as P o p u l u s spp@* Acacia nilotica* Dalbergio sisso* Prosopis spp@
can b e planted@
Amenity Plantations
This type |of| plantation includes trees planted *in= gardens and+
parks* street planting* green belts around villages *and% cities* trees
planted along roadsides{to]reduce noise*and%beautify*the^h o m e s t e a d
or landscape@*in=arid zones $beautifying*the^landscape$ usually means
changing*the^countryside{from]{its]n o r m a l b r o w n colour{to]green* or
$greening$|of|*the^landscape@
Tree Planting *in= Gardens
Tree planting *in= gardens [is] usually regarded as !a# beautification |of|
*the^ home environment but {it] also {has] !a# profound effect on man@s
psychological attitude towards life@!a#house located*in=!a#barren landscape
without trees*and%shrubs lacks appeal*and%there[is]certainly!a#different
psychological attitude towards it* compared with!a#h o m e which has
been beautified*and%protected{by]wisely selected trees*and%shrubs@ Tree

planting*in=gardens also enhances self#esteem@*the^gardener identifies
with his garden*and%builds!a#personal relationship with it@
T h e g a r d e n b e c o m e s *an^ e x t e n s i o n |of| himself* !a# v i s i b l e
representation |of| his individuality@ W h e n{it]blooms* he{has]evidence
|of| his success@ H e also b e c o m e s aware that!a#n u m b e r |of| people he
does not k n o w pass{by]each day*and%enjoy his garden@ H e{has]given
them*anâ n o n y m o u s gift@ All|of|this enhances his self image* helping
^to* create self#esteem@*the^gardener* feeling better about himself* feels
better a b o u t { w h e r e } h e lives@
In selecting species {for} tree planting *in= gardens* *the^ following should
be considered*
• Trees{have]several functions{to]play*in=plantations around houses@
*the^ first point {to] be considered [is] therefore {to] decide on *the^
purpose {for} which planting [is] {to] be done* that is* shelter* shade*
ornament* hedges* scent*and%odours* as source|of|fruits or nesting
sites{for}birds@ Some plants {will] fill only one or two |of| these
objectives while others may fill more@
• Trees selected should be suitable{to]local climate*and%soil conditions@
• Adaptability{to]pruning@*the^degree{to]which trees*and%shrubs
^will* tolerate pruning*and%pollarding[is]*anîmportant consideration
^for* planting around*the^homestead@
• Evergreen or deciduous habit* most arid#zone species{are]evergreen
but many deciduous trees{are]also used{for}planting*in=gardens@
*in&*the^Mediterranean arid region* deciduous trees {have] certain
advantages*and%disadvantages when compared with evergreens@
*the^ most important advantage[is]their ability{to]provide shelter
*in& summer but allow sunlight{to]penetrate*in=winter@ *the^ most
important disadvantage [is] that*the^leaves need{to]be gathered
during*and%after leaf fall@
Planting *in= Parks
The first objective{for}planting*in=parks*in=arid zones[is]{for}shelter
^from**the^sun*and%dust@{where}trees{are]not growing naturally* shelter
m a y b e provided {by] planting trees*in=favourable sites@
A second objective [is] {to] enhance *the^ beauty |of| *the^ park *by^
planting trees |of| different colour* shape *and% size@
Planting formal layout patterns |of| trees*in=long straight r o w s
does not usually fit into*the^landscape pattern**and%planting*in=small
clumps or as individual dispersed trees [is] usually more suitable@
Choice |of| species should not be dictated {by] *the^ value |of| trees *for^
wood* nor planting expenses weighed against *the^ value |of| *the^ wood
produced@ Costs{for}planting*in=parks{for}recreation should take into
account aesthetic benefits *and% *the^ intangible gains *in= *the^ health and+
well#being |of| *the^ people@
Street Planting
Street plantings{are]often*the^responsibility|of|local municipalities
{and}{are]m a d e{to]beautify*the^cities* provide shade*and%control outdoor
noise *and% traffic pollution@ *in= recent years* many |of| *the^ towns and+
cities *in= *the^ world {have] learned through experience that paving
roadways* streets**and%sidewalks does not complete*the^job@*in=m o s t
communities{where}there {has] been *an^ increase *in= population and+
greater congestion |of| motorized traffic* {it] {has] become important that
*the^ city municipality assumes {its] responsibility |of| providing *the^
amenities which add much pleasure {to] life *in= *the^ city@
For use*in=street planting* trees should*
• Be easy{to]establish* preferably with*theâbility{to]be transplanted
as advanced nursery stock* *and% grow relatively quickly {to] *the^
stage that they provide some amenity value~
• Be healthy*in=*theênvironment* relatively long#lived*and%not subject
^to* wind#throw or*the^breakage |of| large limbs~
• Be as maintenance#free as possible@ Trees requiring permanent
pruning*and%removal|of|fallen leaves{will]{have]!a#high maintenance
cost@
• The form*and%height|of|*the^species must be suitable{for}*the^width
|of|*the^street*in=which they{are]{to]be planted~
• Whether {to] use !a# single variety or mix on *the^ same street [is] !a#
matter |of| taste@ !a# variety might be used depending on *the^
geographic section |of| *the^ country *and% *the^ width |of| *the^ street@
Greenbelt Planting
Several cities *in= arid zones {have] established *in= their municipal area
green belts with!a#number |of| purposes*
• To enhance*the^beauty|of|*the^site~
• To provide!a#recreation area{for}*theûrban dwellers~
• To reduce *the^ harmful effect |of| dry winds *and% dust storm and+
control sand encroachment@
There[is]!a#wide array |of| trees*and%shrubs{for}greenbelt planting@
A n y p r o g r a m m e |of| this sort* however* should be well designed in
advance* planned{for}!a#n u m b e r |of| years*and%carefully implemented@

Roadside Plantations
Roadside plantations {have] several objectives*
• Trees increase *the^ comfort |of| travellers {by] providing shade and+
attractive surroundings~
• Trees may protect*the^road itself against moving dunes or act as
!a# windbreak{for}adjacent fields@
• Trees may become *an^ important factor {by] alleviating timber and+
fuelwood shortage@ *in= fact* roadside trees {are] frequently considered
!a# part|of|*the^national forest planting programme@ Such trees may
produce edible fruit* yield pods{for}feeding animals* furnish food
{and} shelter{for}birds or* when*in=bloom* be valuable*in=beekeeping@
Species should be carefully chosen@ Among *the^ important factors which
should be considered *in= planning *the^ use |of| trees along highways*
• Selection |of| *the^ species {for} hardiness* longevity* freedom *from^
windthrow *and% breakage* attractive appearance *and% minimal
maintenance@*in=*theârid zone there{are]!a#large number |of| native
small trees*and%large shrubs which can be used* as well as some
exotic species@{where}*theênvironment [is] suitable* consideration
should be given{to]small patches|of|deciduous species with colourful
foliage@
• Suitability|of|*the^species{to]*the^climate* topography*and%soil@
• Location |of| *the^ trees *in= relation {to] road formation@ Firstly
consideration should be given{to]*theêxisting road formation so
that trees ar not planted close{to]*theînside |of| curves or near road
junctions{where}they could obscure vision*and%so create!a#driving
hazard@ Secondly* consideration should be given{to]*the^possibility
|of| *the^ future widening |of| roads* including *the^ development |of|
double traffic lanes@
Rail#side Plantations
A trend towards rail#side planting{for}*the^provision |of| greenery*
protection {from] dust*and%w i n d s*and%creation |of| additional tree
resources {has] developed *in= recent years *in= m a n y countries@ This
trend [is] likely {to] spread {to] other countries due{to]*the^favourable
results already achieved *in= certain countries@ Three {to] six rows |of|
trees on either side |of| *the^ track {are] considered useful@ *the^ planting
techniques {are] similar{to]those{for}roadside planting@ Species vary
{and} depend on*the^prevailing climatic conditions* mainly temperature*
soil*and%rainfall@
U n d e r very arid conditions**the^choice|of|species[is]rather limited@
Where water [is] available* several species can be selected@ Within *an&
area each row can be given over {to] one or more species@ Mixtures
âre* thus created*and%{are]considered better as they yield different
produce{to]m e e t local needs@
2
Forest**anÂrea|of|Density|of|Trees
Introduction
The forest[is]!a#c o m p l e x e c o s y s t e m consisting m a i n l y |of| trees that
buffer*theêarth*and%support!a#m y r i a d |of| life forms@ *the^ trees help
create !a# special environment which* *in= turn* affects *the^ kinds |of|
animals *and% plants that can exist *in= *the^ forest@ Trees {are] *an^ important
c o m p o n e n t |of| *the^ environment@ T h e y clean*theâir* cool{it]on h o t
days* conserve heat{at]night**and%act as excellent sound absorbers@
Plants provide !a# protective canopy that lessens *the^ impact |of|
raindrops on *the^ soil* thereby reducing soil erosion@ *the^ layer |of|
leaves that fall around*the^tree prevents runoff*and%allows*the^water
^to* percolate into*the^soil@ Roots help{to]h o l d*the^soil*in=place@ D e a d
plants decompose {to] form humus* organic matter that holds *the^
water *and% provides nutrients {to] *the^ soil@ Plants provide habitat *to^
different types |of| organisms@ Birds build their nests on *the^ branches
|of| trees* animals*and%birds live*in=*the^hollows* insects*and%other
organisms live*in=various parts |of| *the^ plant@ T h e y produce large
quantities |of| oxygen *and% take *in= carbon dioxide@ Transpiration *from^
*the^ forests affects *the^ relative humidity *and% precipitation *in= !a# place@
The F A O (Food*and%Agriculture Organization){has]defined forest
as land with tree c r o w n cover (or equivalent stocking level) |of| m o r e
than 1 0 %*and%area |of| m o r e than 0@5 hectare@*the^trees should b e able

^to* reach !a# minimum height |of| 5 m {at] maturity *in= situ@ Forests *are^
further subdivided into plantations *and% natural forests@ Natural forests
âre* forests c o m p o s e d mainly |of| indigenous trees not deliberately
planted@ Plantations {are] forest stands established {by] planting or
seeding* or both**in=*the^process |of| afforestation or reforestation@
Forests can develop wherever*theâverage temperature[is]greater
then 10 °C*in=*the^w a r m e s t m o n t h*and%rainfall exceeds 200 m m
annually@*in=any area having conditions above this range there exists
!a# variety |of| tree species grouped into!a#n u m b e r |of| forest types that
âre* determined{by]*the^specific conditions|of|*theênvironment there*
including*the^climate* soil* geology**and%biotic activity@ Forests can
b e broadly classified into types such as*the^taiga (consisting|of|pines*
spruce* etc@)* *the^ mixed temperate forests (with both coniferous and+
deciduous trees)* *the^ temperate forests* *the^ sub tropical forests* *the^
tropical forests**and%*theêquatorial rainforests@ *the^ six major groups
|of| forest*in=India{are]moist tropical* dry tropical* montane sub tropical*
m o n t a n e temperate* sub alpine**and%alpine@ These {are] subdivided
into 16 major types |of| forests@
India{has]!a#long history |of| traditional conservation*and%forest
management practices@ Under British rule* forest management systems
^were* set *in= place mainly {to] exploit forests@ Nonetheless* there *were^
some attempts {to] conserve forests *and% meet *the^ needs |of| local
communities@ *the^ Indian National Forest Policy |of| 1894 provided *the^
impetus {to] conserve India@s forests wealth with *the^ prime objectives
|of| maintaining environmental stability*and%meeting*the^basic n e e d s
|of|*the^fringe forests user#groups@ Consequently* forests{were]classified
into four broad categories* namely forests {for} preservation |of|
environmental stability* forests {for} providing timber supplies* forests
^for* m i n o r forest produce**and%pasture lands@ While*the^first two
categories {were] declared as reserve forests**the^rest {were] designated
as p r o t e c t e d forests*and%m a n a g e d *in= *the^ interests |of| *the^ local
communities
S o o n after independence* rapid development*and%progress saw
large forest tracts fragmented{by]roads* canals**and%townships@ There
was *an^ increase *in= *the^ exploitation |of| forest wealth@ *in= 1950 *the^
Government |of| India began *the^ annual festival |of| tree planting called
*the^ Vanamahotsava@ Gujarat w a s *the^ first state {to] i m p l e m e n t it@
However*{it]w a s only*in=*the^1970s that greater impetus w a s given

^to* *the^ conservation |of| India@s forests *and% wildlife@ India was one |of|
*the^ first countries *in= *the^ world {to] {have] introduced !a# social forestry
p r o g r a m m e{to]introduce trees*in=non#forested areas along road sides*
canals**and%railway lines@
A forest[is]*anârea with!a#high density |of| trees@ There {are] m a n y
definitions |of| !a# forest* b a s e d o n *the^ various criteria@ These plant
c o m m u n i t i e s presently cover a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9@4% |of| *the^ Earth@s
surface (or 30% |of| total land area) *and% function as habitats *for^
organisms* hydrologic flow modulators* *and% soil conservers*
constituting one|of|*the^most important aspects|of|*theÊarth@s biosphere@
Historically* $forest$ meant *an^ uncultivated area legally set aside *for^
hunting {by] feudal nobility* *and% these hunting forests {were] not
necessarily w o o d e d m u c h if{at]all@
However* as hunting forests did often include considerable areas
|of| woodland**the^w o r d forest eventually c a m e{to]m e a n w o o d e d land
m o r e generally@ !a# w o o d l a n d [is] ecologically distinct{from]!a#forest@
*the^ latitudes 10° north*and%south|of|*theÊquator{are]m o s t l y covered
*in& tropical rainforest*and%*the^latitudes b e t w e e n 5 3 ° N*and%67°N with
boreal forest@
Recent Estimates|of|Global Forest Area

T h e following section[is]b a s e d on 1990 baseline figures* u p d a t e d
^to* 1995* prepared{by]*the^F o o d*and%Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Forest Resource A s s e s s m e n t Programme* reported*in=*and%largely
d r a w n {from] State |of| *the^ World@s Forests 1997@
In 1995 forests {were] estimated{to]cover 3454 million ha* or 26@6%
|of|*the^total land area|of|*the^world (Greenland*and%Antarctic excepted)@
A l m o s t two#thirds |of| *the^ world@s forests {were] located *in= seven
countries* Russia* Brazil* Canada* USA* China* Indonesia*and%Zaire~
29 countries {had] more than half |of| their land covered {by] forest* |of|
which 21 {were] *in= *the^ tropical belt@ However 49 countries* *in= addition
^to**the^m a n y non#forested small island states*and%territories*{had]less
than 1 0 % |of| their land covered {by] forests@ Five entire subregions
^were**in=this category* N o r t h Africa (1@2%|of|*the^land area)* N e a r East
(1@9%)* Temperate Oceania (6@2%)* Non#tropical Southern Africa (6@8%)
{and} W e s t Sahelian Africa (7@5%)@
T h e latest information on*the^distribution |of| forest*and%|of|forest
cover change{by]ecological z o n e s w a s provided*in=1990~*the^results
of *the^ Forest Resources Assessment 2000 {were] released {by] FAO *in^
2000@ *in= 1990* temperate *and% boreal forests occupied 1@64 billion ha
{and} tropical forests 1@76 billion ha@!a#b r e a k d o w n{by]ecological zone
w a s available only{for}tropical forests@The figures on tropical forests
s h o w that m o s t (88%){are]*in=lowlands~ |of| these* tropical rain forests
accounted{for}4 7 %|of|all lowland tropical forests* followed{by]moist
deciduous forest (38%)*and%dry*and%very dry formations (15%)@
Natural Forests
The forest area estimates described above include undisturbed
forests* forests modified{by]h u m a n s through use*and%m a n a g e m e n t
(or @seminatural@ forests)*and%forests created artificially{by]humankind
(i@e@ forest plantations){by]afforestation or reforestation@ (Afforestation
*is] defined as*theêstablishment|of|!a#tree crop on*anârea {from] w h i c h
ît* {has] always* or {for} !a# very long time* been absent@ Reforestation *is$
defined as *the^ establishment |of| !a# tree crop on forest land@) *in= most
industrialized countries* particularly*in=continental Europe* forests
âre* being managed *in= such !a# way that {at] management#unit level !a#
continuum exists {from] low#intensity management* involving natural
regeneration* t h r o u g h m o r e intensive m e t h o d s i n v o l v i n g s o m e
artificial planting{to]highly intensive methods with complete planting
{and} cultivation~ this m a k e s{it]difficult{to]isolate figures{for}natural
forest*and%plantations@*the^distinction b e t w e e n natural or seminatural
forests*and%forest plantations can more easily be m a d e{for}developing
countries*and%some industrialized countries such as N e w Zealand
*in& which forest plantations {have] b e e n established using introduced
species@
Interest *in= natural forests* particularly their role *in= *the^
conservation |of| biological diversity* {has] led {to] efforts {to] compare
forests today with what [is] thought {to] be their original character and+
^to* give complete protection {to] areas |of| forests which {have] {had] no*
or minimal* human interference@ Although there {are] difficulties *in^
identifying *the^ extent |of| natural forest* compounded {by] problems |of|
definition* some information exists that can be used as *an^ indication
|of| broad patterns |of| natural forests*in=various regions@
A n attempt{has]b e e n m a d e{by]*the^W o r l d W i d e F u n d{for}Nature
(WWF) {to] quantify *the^ area |of| forests *in= western Europe that *has^
been relatively undisturbed {by] humans or which {has] retained much
|of|{its]natural character@ Their report distinguishes b e t w e e n @virgin
forest@* defined as @forest ecosystems whose characteristics *are^

determined exclusively {by] natural location *and% environmental
factors@@@ without human influences present or visible any more@* and+
@natural *and% ancient seminatural forests@* which @have not been planted
or sown {by] man {for} *the^ past two centuries@ *and% @which continue *to^
^have* !a# large number |of| *the^ natural elements@@ *the^ study found that
only !a# small proportion (probably < 1%) |of| *the^ total forest land *in^
northern *and% western Europe could be considered as virgin forest*
which {has] arisen since *the^ last glaciation@ Almost all was located *in^
Sweden* Finland *and% Norway* with small areas *in= Greece* Austria
{and} Switzerland *and% (according {to] another author) *in= France@ *in^
eastern Europe* Slovakia *and% Belarus {have] considerable areas |of|
virgin forest while Poland *and% Croatia {have] small areas@ *in= addition*
*in& northern*and%western Europe**the^W W F report identifies natural
{and} ancient seminatural forests representing 2@1%|of|*the^total forest
cover (1990) |of| *the^ 16 countries concerned@ There{are]!a#further 3
million h a |of| land*in=*the^region*in=national parks*and%other protected
areas *and% another 50 000 ha *in= small forest reserves (mostly *for^
nature conservation *and% scientific research)* whose use [is] tightly
restricted@
The situation*in=temperate*and%boreal North A m e r i c a [is] quite
different {from] that |of| densely populated Europe *and% Japan* *where^
use *and% management |of| forests {for} many centuries {have] left very
little|of|*theôriginal forest area untouched@ @Old growth forests@* as
they {are] called*in=North America* still cover extensive areas@
O n*the^lands m a n a g e d{by]*theÛ S National Park Service alone*
old#growth forests covered 1@97 million ha *in= 1988@ Although not !a#
direct measure |of| *the^ extent |of| old growth forest* {it] may be noted
that*theârea |of| forest included*in=national parks*and%other protected
areas*in=North A m e r i c a ( U S A*and%Canada) w a s reported{to]b e nearly
49 million h a*in=1990@
The F A O Forest Resource A s s e s s m e n t 1990 did not distinguish
b e t w e e n undisturbed*and%disturbed @natural@ forests*in=developing
countries@ However* *the^ Forest Resource A s s e s s m e n t 1980 m a d e
estimates|of|*theâreas |of| undisturbed closed forests (primary forests
{and} old secondary forests{where}there {had] been no logging {for} *the^
last 60#80 years) *and% |of| closed forests that {were] included *in= national
parks*and%other protected areas (thus relatively undisturbed*{at]least
in theory)@ {at] that time* these t w o categories together represented

6 0 %|of|*the^total closed forest area*in=*the^tropics*!a#proportion varying
^from* 39% *in= tropical Asia {to] 59% *in= tropical Africa *and% 69% *in^
tropical America@
T h e s e different p r o p o r t i o n s {by] r e g i o n r e f l e c t e d !a# s l o w e r
d e v e l o p m e n t |of| large#scale harvesting*in=tropical A m e r i c a c o m p a r e d
with tropical Africa*and%Asia**and%also *the^ fact that* *in= tropical
America* spontaneous colonization did not follow *in= *the^ wake |of|
logging as systematically as *in= *the^ two other regions due {to] lower
population pressure@ Although *the^ two categories do not match *the^
concept |of| @virgin forests@ |of| Europe *and% |of| @old growth forests@ |of|
North America* *the^ sum |of| *the^ two categories nevertheless gives *an&
indication |of| *the^ a m o u n t |of| forest disturbance (or management*
depending o n*the^point |of| v i e w|of|*theôbserver) that existed around
1980 *in= *the^ humid tropics@ Although corresponding estimates *for^
1990 *and% 1995 {are] not available* {it] [is] likely that *the^ share |of| undisturbed
forests remains higher*in=*the^three tropical regions than*in=Europe
{and} probably*in=N o r t h A m e r i c a too@
Diminishing Forest Area

It[is]!a#k n o w n fact that forests can b e*anêffective* natural w a y
^to* reduce*theêffects |of| greenhouse gases on*theêarth@ If*the^world
focused more on forests*and%reforestation*theêffects|of|climate change
on earth w o u l d b e minimised@ During*the^last few millennia*theârea
|of|*the^world@s forests{has]probably b e e n reduced{by]{at]least one third
{and} some people think {by] more than one half@ *the^ exact amount *is$
not so important as *the^ question |of| whether *the^ cause or causes |of|
*the^ reduction {are] still operating *and% can be expected {to] continue *in^
*the^ future@ D a t a obtained{by]archeology*and%pollen analysis indicate
that climatic fluctuations*in=*the^past {have] b e e n reflected*in=periodic
changes *in= *the^ species dominating some |of| *the^ forests* but there *is$
no clear evidence |of| !a# worldwide progressive desiccation |of| *the^
climate during *the^ last few thousand years which might account *for^
*the^ large reduction |of| *the^ forest area@
M i n o r parts |of| *the^ forest {have] b e e n lost b e c a u s e |of| volcanic
activity* e n c r o a c h m e n t {by] swamps* drifting sand* or other natural
causes *and% long#continued grazing *and% browsing {by] large herds |of|
wild animals must {have] {had] *an^ effect on *the^ margins |of| many
woodlands@*the^principal cause|of|*the^reduction* however*{has]b e e n

*the^ activity |of| man@*the^three m a i n reasons{for}*the^h u m a n pressure
on*the^forest {have] b e e n*and%continue{to]be**the^d e m a n d s {for} fuel
wood* construction material *and% space {for} farms *and% pasture *and% *in^
all |of| these demands there {are] significant regional differences@
The Demand {for} Fuel Wood
The first forest product used{by]m a n*in=quantity w a s obviously
firewood@*the^gathering |of| naturally dead*and%fallen w o o d n e e d not
reduce*theârea|of|*the^forest* b u t*the^practice |of| killing*and%felling
trees {by] girdling*and%*theûse |of| fire m u s t {have] b e e n invented or
discovered {at] !a# very early time@ *the^ method {has] been recorded *from^
so many peoples that {it] might almost be called universal@ Primitive
hunters *and% food gatherers annually set fire {to] *the^ vegetation* *for^
several reasons* {to] facilitate hunting {by] clearing away underbrush*
^to* attract game {by] *the^ salt content *in= *the^ ashes* {to] make {it] easier *to^
dig up roots *and% tubers or {to] find nuts fallen on *the^ ground and+
sometimes{to]drive game with fire*in=organized group hunts@ Besides*
trees *and% polewood killed {by] fire became more readily available *for^
fuel@ {it] must be assumed that regular burning* repeated {for} thousands
|of| years* destroyed trees over wide areas@
Henry Youle Hind* while exploring*the^Saskatchewan River valley
*in& 1858* observed that Indian fires {had] driven*the^forest b a c k 180
miles{from]{its]former limit@ O n their expedition through*the^northern
R o c k y M o u n t a i n s*in=1803* L e w i s*and%Clark found extensive prairies
*in& valleys{where}trees can grow very well@ A l e x a n d e r H e n r y*in=1814
{and} Charles Wilkes *in= 1841 described large open grasslands *in= *the^
Puget#Willamette valley |of| Washington *and% Oregon@ Wilkes* as did
Lewis *and% Clark* concluded that these prairies owed their origin *to^
Indian fires@ Evidence supporting *the^ conclusion [is] seen *in= *the^ fact
that*the^forest naturally b e g a n{to]encroach u p o n*the^prairies again
after *the^ A m e r i c a n settlers {had] occupied*the^land*and%*theÎndian
burning {had] ceased@ Similar evidence [is] k n o w n {from] m a n y other
parts |of| *the^ world@ *the^ full effect |of| *the^ ancient hunters on *the^
vegetation can probably never be measured exactly* but {it] [is] certain
that *the^ process |of| r e d u c i n g *the^ forest area b e g a n long before
agriculture w a s known@
The larger populations that became possible when farming *had^
been introduced increased *the^ demand {for} fuel wood~ *the^ inventions
of*the^pottery kiln* fired bricks* metallurgy*and%other industrial arts

made further heavy demands on *the^ forest~ *and% today *the^ need |of|
fuel wood continues unabated *in= many lands@
In some countries deforested regions{have]b e e n replanted because
|of|*the^demand{for}fuel wood@ U p{to]1941* according{to]B@ H@ Hunnicutt*
*the^ Paulista Railroad*in=southern Brazil{had]harvested m o r e than 70
million cubic feet |of| firewood {from] eucalyptus plantations started *in^
1904@ M@D@ Chaturvedi reminds us |of| *the^ present emphasis on fuel#
w o o d plantations *in= India* some |of| w h i c h {have] b e e n remarkably
successful@ Troup* average annual increments |of| 500 cubic feet per
acre {have] been obtained on plantations *in= southern India {by] *the^
coppice or sprout method* !a# rate |of| growth that can be called
phenomenal@ *the^ consensus |of| all reports [is] that destructive fuel#
w o o d cutting *in= *the^ tropical forests [is] far m o r e c o m m o n than
conservative use@ William V o g t says that{at]least 75 million people
*in& Latin America depend on*the^forest{to]provide firewood or charcoal
^for* all their cooking*and%heating #if heating can b e afforded##and that
large areas {have] b e e n so stripped that some people {are] practically
without w o o d*and%use anything that {will] burn@ Hunnicutt describes
clear#cutting on !a# large scale *in= parts |of| Brazil *and% *the^ necessity |of|
hauling wood {for} long distances {to] *the^ railroads because wide sections
along*the^tracks {have] b e e n deforested@
In *the^ A m a z i n g Amazon* Willard Price speaks |of| having seen
h u n d r e d s |of| cords |of| m a h o g a n y*and%r o s e w o o d brought aboard river
steamers{for}firewood@ H@ F@ M o o n e y informs us that charcoal burning
^has* b e e n*the^greatest single factor*in=forest destruction*in=southwestern
Asia*in=recent years@ Reports*in=!a#similar vein {from] other countries
indicate that*theôldest cause|of|forest reduction**the^d e m a n d{for}fuel
wood* [is] still operating@ {for} this reason alone *the^ area |of| many |of|
*the^ low#latitude forests continues {to] shrink steadily@
To my knowledge* no practical solution |of| *the^ fuel problem *in^
most |of| *the^ tropical countries [is] *in= sight* except perhaps *the^ coppice
method@{it][is]not likely that coal* petroleum* natural gas* or electricity
^will* b e c o m e economically available{to]m o s t|of|*the^people*{at]least
not*in=*the^near future@ But m a n y tropical*and%subtropical trees coppice
vigorously*and%if this m e t h o d could b e widely*and%systematically
applied {it] would not only tend {to] save *the^ forest but would help *to^
solve *the^ fuel problem{where}it [is] most pressing@
An anomalous situation {has] come about *in= some countries@ *the^

thinning |of| growing timber *and% *the^ removal |of| cull trees *and% other
undesirable wood [is] good forestry practice* but if !a# market {for} *the^
thinnings [is] lacking {it] may be economically impossible {to] perform
*the^ improvement operation@ Not all |of| this removed material *is$
suitable {for} industrial purposes* but practically all |of| {it] can be used
as fuel@ M u c h|of|*the^low#value fuel w o o d {from] *the^ French forests
*is] difficult {to] sell@
Thorsten Streyffert points out that one |of| *the^ serious forestry
problems*in=Scandinavia[is]*the^finding|of|!a#greater market{for}firewood
{and} !a# similar problem exists *in= *the^ United States* particularly *in= *the^
eastern hardwood forests@ *the^ Stanford Report *and% *the^ other forecasts
predict!a#sharp decline*in=*theûse |of| fuel wood* not b e c a u s e such
w o o d [is] lacking* nor{for}reasons |of| g o o d silviculture* b u t because
people increasingly prefer{to]cook their food*and%heat their h o u s e s
with other fuels@
The Demand {for} Construction Material
The second cause |of| deforestation**the^d e m a n d{for}construction
material or industrial w o o d*in=*the^widest m e a n i n g|of|*the^term* w a s
hardly!a#factor |of| great significance a m o n g*theâncient hunters* b u t
*in&*the^later history |of| settled regions this requirement put*anêven
greater pressure on*the^forest than did*the^cutting |of| fuel wood@ Old
London* w h i c h b u r n e d d o w n several times* w a s built |of| wood* as
^were* h u n d r e d s |of| other E u r o p e a n cities@ !a# large part|of|*the^forests
that {were] clear#cut*in=Michigan* W i s c o n s i n*and%M i n n e s o t a during
*the^ latter part|of|*the^nineteenth century w e n t into millions |of| h o m e s
built*in=*the^prairie states*and%*theôld logged#over areas*in=*the^Pacific
Northwest provided construction material{for}early Seattle* Tacoma*
Portland* San Francisco* L o s Angeles*and%m a n y other communities@
The d e m a n d{for}mine timber w a s one|of|*the^significant reasons
^for* *the^ early deforestation *in= southwestern Asia* on Cyprus* *in= *the^
Sierra Nevada *and% Sierra Morena |of| Spain* *in= *the^ Erzgebirge |of|
Germany *and% *in= many other mining regions@ *the^ need |of| wood *in^
*the^ mining industry w a s so critical that{it]led{to]s o m e|of|*theêarliest
forestry regulations~{for}example* v o l u m e allotments {were] instituted
during *the^ late Middle Ages *in= Germany *and% Austria *in= order *to^
assure *the^ supply |of| mine timber@ Deforestation near *the^ mines *in^
M e x i c o {had] b e c o m e so serious {by] 1550 that *the^ native people
petitioned{for}protection|of|their land*and%w o o d supply*and%!a#forestry

regulation* probably*theôldest*in=*the^N e w World* w a s promulgated
^by**the^Viceroy*in=1550@*theêffect |of| mining on*the^forest[is]strikingly
expressed{by]D a n DeQuille* w h o says*in=*the^Big B o n a n z a ## perhaps
with!a#trace|of|W e s t e r n overstatement ## that*the^C o m s t o c k L o d e can
*in& truth b e called*the^t o m b|of|*the^forest|of|*the^Sierras@
The demand {for} ship timber put another heavy pressure on *the^
ancient forests* particularly *in= western Europe *and% most |of| all around
*the^ M e d i t e r r a n e a n Sea@ *in= this region* b e c a u s e |of| steep slopes*
generally thin soil*and%!a#frequently violent type |of| rainfall*!a#single
clear#cutting may result *in= such serious soil denudation that *the^
forest cannot come back *and% !a# brushy vegetation takes *the^ land
instead@{it]m a y b e that*the^primary reason{for}deforestation*in=this
region was *the^ clearing |of| land {for} agriculture *and% *the^ effect |of|
grazing livestock* particularly *the^ browsing |of| free#ranging goats*
b u t surely*the^second most important cause w a s*the^cutting |of| ship
timber@
The forest was one |of| *the^ casualties *in= *the^ naval wars fought *by^
*the^ Phoenicians* Etruscans* Greeks* Romans* Carthaginians* Arabs*
Genoese* Venetians *and% all that followed after@ *the^ mountains |of|
Greece {were] nearly stripped |of| trees {by] *the^ fifth century B@C@
T h u c y d i d e s informs us that one |of| *the^ purposes |of| *the^ Sicilian
expedition |of| Athens*in=4 1 5 B@C@ w a s{to]gain control|of|*theâbundant
supply |of| ship timber*in=*the^forests |of| Italy@
A century later Theophrastus observed that ship timber w a s
scarce everywhere *in= *the^ eastern Mediterranean* but he praised *the^
fine forests |of| Italy *and% other lands around *the^ western Mediterranean@
These western forests did not last long@*in=*the^first century B@C@
Strabo w a s impressed{by]*the^superb timber*in=*theÂtlas Mountains*
b u t*in=*the^first century after Christ Pliny observed that s o m e |of| these
forests{were]already exhausted@*the^demand{for}ship timber continued
{and} spread northward@ *the^ D u t c h fleets|of|*theêarly seventeenth
century{were]built mostly with timber{from]*theôak forests |of| western
Germany* w h i c h {were] heavily logged{to]raise m o n e y{for}indemnities
after *the^ Thirty Years War@ *in= *the^ opinion |of| Henry Cavailles* *the^
three main reasons {for} *the^ greatly accelerated deforestation *in= *the^
F r e n c h P y r e n e e s d u r i n g *the^ s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y {were] *the^
consumption|of|w o o d{by]*the^Catalan forges**the^clearing*and%burning
of w o o d l a n d {to] m a k e pasture{for}sheep*and%goats*and%*the^cutting
|of| ship timber* particularly {for} *the^ construction *in= *the^ 1660@s |of| !a#
French navy consisting |of| 60 ships#of#the#line *and% 40 frigates@ *in^
Britain* as H@ C@ Darby says* *the^ naval wars with *the^ Dutch *in= *the^
seventeenth century*and%with*the^French*in=*theêighteenth*and%*the^
Napoleonic wars*in=*theêarly nineteenth put such!a#strain on *the^
English oak forests that they {have] never recovered@
W h e n $the far#flung navies melt away$ they take*the^forests with
them@ Ship timber[is]no longer one|of|*the^major requirements* although
wood *in= large amount [is] still needed *in= ships *and% shipping@ {it] *is$
estimated that 350*000 board feet |of| lumber {were] used *in= *the^
construction |of| every Liberty ship built*in=*theÛnited States during
W o r l d W a r II*and%*the^w o o d that goes into boxes* crating*and%d u n n a g e
on!a#m o d e r n general cargo ship runs into 100*000 b o a r d feet or more@
T o d a y *the^ heaviest d e m a n d {for} industrial w o o d products #¬
lumber* pulp* p l y w o o d*and%*the^like ##[is]on*the^midlatitude forests
|of| N o r t h A m e r i c a*and%Europe@ There[is]!a#chance* however* as far as
*the^ pressure |of| this d e m a n d [is] concerned* that i m p r o v e d forestry
m e t h o d s m a y check any further significant reduction |of| *the^ forest
area *in= these regions@ If *the^ area [is] reduced *in= *the^ coming years *the^
reason [is] more likely {to] be *the^ need |of| more agricultural land* or *the^
n e e d |of| space{for}industrial*and%u r b a n expansion@
T h e old n e e d{for}local construction material*and%*the^relatively
new demand {for} industrial products {are] also felt *in= *the^ tropical and+
subtropical forests *and% one |of| *the^ great uncertainties ahead [is] what
^will* happen {to] them if *and% when they become fully exploited *for^
industrial purposes@ If problems |of| tropical silviculture* management
{and} e c o n o m i c s ## i n c l u d i n g a b o r i g i n a l e c o n o m y ## s h o u l d b e
successfully solved* these forests m a y b e c o m e!a#very great source
|of| w o o d products* b u t if*the^p r o b l e m s{are]not solved*theêxploitation
m a y result*in=*anê n o r m o u s disaster@ O n e|of|*the^complicating factors
*is] that *the^ most potent pressure on *the^ tropical forest comes *from^
*the^ third |of| *the^ ancient demands* namely *the^ need |of| agricultural
land@
Changes*in=Forest Cover*and%Condition
A n analysis |of| changes*in=*the^cover*and%condition|of|*the^world@s
forests requires!a#differentiation between*
1 the increase*in=forest cover (by afforestation or natural colonization

|of| trees on non#forest land) or decrease (by deforestation)|of|forest
area~ and
2 changes*in=forest condition* either positive (recovery |of| degraded
stands* stand improvement treatments) or negative (decline*
defoliation or dieback* effects |of| forest fires* degradation through
unsustainable exploitation{for}wood* overgrazing* effects |of| pests
{and} diseases)@
Changes *in= Forest Cover
Between 1980*and%1995**theêxtent|of|*the^world@s forests decreased
^by* some 180 million ha* *an^ area about *the^ size |of| Indonesia or
Mexico@ This represents!a#global annual loss|of|12 million ha**anârea
equivalent{to]*the^size |of| Greece or Bangladesh@ D u r i n g this 15#year
period* developing countries lost nearly 200 million h a |of| natural
forests* mostly through clearing{for}agriculture (shifting cultivation*
other forms|of|subsistence agriculture**theêstablishment|of|cash crop
plantations such as oil palm**and%ranching)@ This w a s only very
partially c o m p e n s a t e d{for}{by]*theê s t a b l i s h m e n t |of| n e w forest
plantations@ O v e r*the^same period* forests*in=*the^developed w o r l d
expanded slowly (by some 20 million ha) through afforestation and+
reforestation* including natural regrowth on land abandoned *by^
agriculture@
F o r e s t p l a n t a t i o n *and% n a t u r a l r e g e n e r a t i o n o n a b a n d o n e d
agricultural land m o r e than compensated{for}clearing |of| forests due
^to* urbanization*and%infrastructure development*in=most industrialized
countries* outside*the^former USSR@ W h i l e*the^gain |of| forest cover
*in& developed countries w a s 20 million h a*in=*the^period 1980#95* 9
million h a |of| this increase occurred*in=*the^5 years {from] 1990{to]1995@
The situation [is] quite different *in= *the^ developing world* *where^
deforestation exceeded net afforestation/reforestation* particularly
*in& *the^ tropical zone@ As !a# whole* *the^ annual rate |of| deforestation *in^
*the^ developing world between 1990 *and% 1995 was 0@7%* equivalent
^to* 12@6 million ha* with *the^ highest rate*in=tropical Asia#Oceania*
closely correlated with population*and%i n c o m e growth@ *the^ l o w l a n d
forest formations{were]*the^m o s t affected{by]deforestation* although
*the^ proportional loss during this period w a s greater *in= upland
formations (1@1% c o m p a r e d with 0@8%*in=*the^lowland formations)@
There [is] some evidence that *the^ rate |of| loss |of| forest cover *in^
developing countries was slowing towards *the^ end |of| *the^ 15#year
period 1980#95@ *the^ annual rate |of| forest loss*in=*the^period 1980#90

w a s 15@5 million h a c o m p a r e d with 13@7 million h a b e t w e e n 1990 and
1995@
Conversion |of| Forests {to] other Land Cover
The Forest Resource Assessment 1990 carried out*anâssessment
|of| *the^ relative importance |of| *the^ various factors involved *in^
deforestation {at] regional *and% global levels between 1980 *and% 1990
*in& *the^ whole tropical belt@ Among *the^ most significant outputs |of| *the^
study {were] *the^ @area transition matrices@ |of| *the^ type* which indicate
transfers {from] one land cover class{to]another over*the^3068 million
h a|of|*the^tropical zone covered{by]*the^sample@{for}instance**the^first
r o w shows that 1275@9 million h a|of|*the^total area |of| 1368 million ha
|of| closed forest*in=1980 remained as closed forest up{to]1990*and%also
shows*the^fate|of|*the^92@1 million h a converted{to]other land cover
classes (open forest~ long fallow~ fragmented forest~ shrubs*and%short
fallow~ other* i@e@ non#wooded* land cover~*and%forestry or w o o d y
forest*and%agricultural tree plantations)@ All these transfers involved
changes |of| w o o d y b i o m a s s attempts {to] capture {by] replacing each
class along *the^ y#axis (average biomass per hectare) *and% showing *the^
importance |of| transfers along *the^ x#axis@
Changes *in= Forest Condition
Factors affecting *the^ health*and%vitality |of| all types |of| forests
^have* attracted increasing attention*in=recent years@ Outbreaks |of| fires
^have* m a d e headline n e w s*in=developed*and%developing countries
alike* while insect *and% disease attack *and% generalized declines *in^
forest condition {have] caused more localized concern@ Insects and+
disease*and%forest fires exist under @natural@ systems*and%conditions~
what {has] caused concern{has]b e e n their spread*in=artificial systems
{and} *in= conditions considerably modified {by] humankind* resulting *in^
direct economic loss@ Fire arising {from] natural causes (e@g@ lightning)
^has* been !a# major influence *and% [is] !a# driving evolutionary force *in^
several forest ecosystems* such as *the^ pine forests |of| Central America@
Fires{are]important{to]*the^health*and%maintenance|of|these ecosystems
{and}*the^total exclusion |of| fire {from] t h e m can lead{to]*the^build#up
|of| fuel*and%ultimately abnormally destructive fires that cause*the^loss
|of| *the^ ecosystem* as happened with *the^ fire exclusion policy |of| *the^
National Parks Service |of| *the^ USA *and% *the^ disastrous fires |of| 1988@
However* m a n y fires arising {from] h u m a n activities* whether

planned or unplanned* {have] damaged *and% destroyed large areas |of|
forests *and% woodlands@ Resource managers face !a# demanding public
often with conflicting needs *and% incomplete information* leading *to^
*the^ development |of| new policies that take into account public attitudes
towards fire management@
At*the^global level**anâgreement w a s signed{at]!a#meeting*in=1990
^to* initiate*theÎnternational Decade{for}Natural Disaster Reduction
{and}*the^target date|of|2000 was set{for}signatory countries{to]effectively
monitor*and%m a n a g e wildfires*in=their respective countries@*in=view
|of|*the^lack |of| information on causes* extent*and%*the^n u m b e r |of| fires
ât* present* *and% *the^ difficulties *in= collecting data* this target date *is$
unlikely {to] be met@
Developed Countries
Total forest area [is] slowly increasing*in=*the^developed world*
although *the^ need {for} protection {from] fire* insects *and% disease *has^
continued *and% some aspects |of| forest condition give cause {for} concern@
Although *the^ widespread decline*and%death |of| certain European
forests due{to]air pollution predicted{by]m a n y*in=*the^1980s did not
occur* deteriorating forest condition{has]remained!a#serious concern
*in& Europe *and% North America@ *the^ main causes |of| *the^ decline |of|
forest condition *in= Europe {have] been low soil moisture availability
due {to] drought**and%high temperatures@ These factors* c o m b i n e d
with airborne pollution *and% *the^ use |of| non#adapted seed sources *in^
forest plantation development* {have] predisposed forests {to] attack *by^
insects *and% disease *and% {to] decline@ Forest damage due {to] air pollution
*is] severe*in=some parts |of| central*and%eastern Europe*in=particular@
Air pollution [is] also said {to] {have] !a# role *in= *the^ decline observed *in^
certain species *in= other industrialized countries* such as sugar maple
(Acer saccharum) *in= eastern Canada**the^high#elevation forests |of| red
spruce (Picea) *in= eastern USA *and% Cryptomeria japonica stands *in^
Japan@
The exclusion|of|fire m a y {have] caused*the^decline|of|s o m e forest
ecosystems* such as oak stands*in=central U S A or natural eucalypt
forests *in= Australia{where}fire [is] *an^ integral part |of| *the^ ecology |of|
some plant communities *and% here {it] may be used {to] facilitate their
natural regeneration@ Despite *an^ overall increase *in= *the^ number |of|
fires (by some 40% *in= Europe* 8% *in= North America *and% 120% *in= the
former USSR)* wildfires over large areas |of| forest {have] b e c o m e less
frequent*in=*theîndustrialized countries@ Further**theâverage area
burned {by] wildfire decreased *in= most regions between 1983#90 and+
1991#94@ There {has] been !a# slight reduction *in= total areas burned *in^
*the^ developed world overall as !a# result |of| improved prevention*
detection*and%control systems* although there{has]b e e n*anîncrease
|of| 15% *in= *the^ former USSR@ *in= 1990* *the^ average area |of| forest and+
other wooded land affected annually {by] fires *in= Europe* North
A m e r i c a*and%*the^former U S S R together w a s about 4@26 million h a
or 0@22% |of| their total area |of| forest*and%other w o o d e d land@ Pests
{and} diseases remain constant threats* particularly{to]*the^semi#natural
forests*and%plantations*in=*theîndustrialized world@ Trees {are] m o r e
likely {to] b e attacked w h e n under stress* w h e t h e r {from] abnormal
weather conditions such as drought or h i g h temperatures* airborne
pollution* uncontrolled movement |of| germplasm or lack |of|
management@ Recent outbreaks |of| pests *and% diseases that may *have^
been related {to] stress include *the^ decline |of| various species |of| oaks
*in& m a n y parts|of|Europe*and%*in=central Russia**the^recurrent infestation
|of| forests*in=Poland{by]*the^n u n moth**theâttack on b e e c h{by]*the^b e e c h
scale*in=western*and%central Europe* b i r c h*and%ash diebacks*in=north¬
eastern USA**the^littleleaf disease |of| shortleaf pine*in=southern USA*
{and}*the^@x#disease@ |of| pines*in=southern California@
Forest Conditions*in=Developing Countries

Less attention {has] b e e n paid {to] forest condition *in= developing
countries because reduction*in=forest area{has]attracted more attention@
This reduction*in=density{has]often b e e n*the^result|of|over#exploitation
^for* timber *and% fuelwood@ Overgrazing *and% repeated bush fires *are^
other significant causes |of| decrease *in= density* especially *in= *the^ dry
tropical*and%non#tropical zones@
Every year* very large areas |of| s a v a n n a h w o o d l a n d*and%m i x e d
forest#grassland formations {are] affected {by] fires set {by] herders *to^
provide *an^ early flush |of| green grass when *the^ rains start* particularly
*in&*the^dry zones |of| Africa*and%South America* although n o reliable
data {are] available o n their extent@
Forests*in=*the^h u m i d tropics {have] also*{at]times* b e e n affected
^by* large fires**the^most serious*in=recent years h a v i n g b e e n those
associated with*the^dry weather conditions arising{from]*theÊl Nino
Southern Oscillation (ENSO)@ *in= 1997#98* these caused large#scale

destruction |of| logged*and%secondary forest*in=Indonesia (particularly
Kalimantan* Sumatra*and%Irian Jaya)* M e x i c o*and%Central A m e r i c a n
countries* as well as leading {to] s m o k e pollution over wide areas
beyond *the^ borders |of| these countries@ *the^ cause |of| these fires *has^
been burning {for} land clearance* but {it] should be noted that *the^ fires
âre* not necessarily*in=forest~ although described as @forest fires@ they
âre* frequently*in=grassland or on land that{has]b e e n cleared |of| forest@
ît*[is]estimated that|of|*the^2 million h a b u r n e d*in=Indonesia*in=1997*
150000#200 000 h a m a y {have] b e e n *in= forest@ Other serious fires
associated with E N S O effects {have] included that*in=East Kalimantan*
w h i c h b u r n e d 3@6 million h a*in=1983@
Coniferous forests*in=*the^h u m i d tropics {have] often b e e n affected
^by* fires* although{it]m u s t be noted that fire[is]frequently necessary
^to* maintain*and%regenerate them@*in=*the^1980s**theârea |of| pine forest
*in& H o n d u r a s*and%Nicaragua b u r n e d annually a m o u n t e d{to]s o m e 65
000ha (or about 3@5% |of| *the^ total pine forest area |of| these two
countries)**and%widespread fires*in=natural*and%artificial tropical pine
forests occur *in= other countries such as Guatemala* Mexico and+
Indonesia (northern Sumatra)@
In *the^ subtemperate *and% temperate zones |of| *the^ developing
world* fire [is] also!a#permanent threat{to]forests* particularly w h e n
they{are]n o longer used{by]local people{for}grazing*and%other purposes@
*in&*the^1980s* *the^ average area |of| forest*and%other w o o d e d land
b u r n e d annually w a s 140 000 h a*in=*the^temperate/ subtemperate
zones |of| South America (including southern Brazil)@ {from] 1950 *to^
1990* fires *in= China {are] reported {to] {have] affected *an^ average |of| 890
000 h a annually**the^m o s t damaging one having b e e n*the^@May 6@
fire* which b u r n e d s o m e 1@85 million h a*in=*the^north#eastern province
|of| Heilongjiang *in= 1987@*in=*theâbsence |of| !a# global statistical fire
database*{it][is]difficult{to]provide*anôverall estimate|of|*theânnual
extent |of| fires*in=forests*and%other w o o d e d lands@
A very crude estimate{for}*the^temperate/subtemperate*and%h u m i d
tropical zones|of|*the^developing world (leaving aside*the^significant
dry tropical zone*{for}which little reliable information exists) w o u l d
b e |of| *the^ order |of| 2 million h a |of| forest*and%other w o o d e d land
annually during *the^ 1980s@ Given *the^ lack |of| sufficient capacity *in^
fire prevention *and% control *in= most developing countries* no
significant reduction *in= wooded areas burned [is] likely {to] occur *in= *the^
near future@
Outbreaks |of| pests *and% diseases *in= developing countries *are^
generally reported {for} those plantations *and% planted trees{where}*the^
impact [is] m o s t apparent@ Introduced pests {are] usually extremely
destructive *and% several |of| them {have] {had] very damaging effects *in^
recent years *in= *the^ developing world@ Examples |of| introduced insects
affecting plantations*and%planted trees include*the^Leu#caena psyllid*
Heteropsylla cubana* which{has]spread into Asia*and%*the^Pacific islands
{and}[is]n o w extending across Africa~*the^cypress aphid* Cinara cupressi*
w h i c h[is]established*in=eight eastern*and%southern African countries
{and} [is] causing heavy mortality among !a# number |of| exotic and+
indigenous species but especially *the^ important plantation species
Cupressus lusitanica* threatening {its] future role *in= *the^ plantation
p r o g r a m m e s |of| these countries~*and%*theÊuropean woodwasp* Sirex
noctilio* w h i c h {has] spread into Argentina* U r u g u a y *and% southern
Brazil* affecting principally Pinus taeda but which may become !a#
threat {for} *the^ large Chilean plantation estate |of| Pinus radiata@
Strategies {to] control introduced insects {from] attacking forest
trees include r e g u l a t o r y measures* eradication* integrated pest
management**and%monitoring |of| population levels*and%occurrence
|of| potentially harmful species@
Effective monitoring |of| insect populations {will] b e especially
important*in=v i e w|of|*the^large plantation p r o g r a m m e s being carried
out {to] produce industrial roundwood* which often rely on one or !a#
few exotic species@ Such programmes may be able {to] afford *the^
investment that [is] necessary {for} control measures@ Smaller#scale
p r o g r a m m e s m a y{have]{to]insure against failure due {to] unexpected
attack {by] insects or diseases {by] diversifying into several species
adapted{to]*the^sites*and%end#uses@
There [is] also evidence |of| forest decline due {to] !a# combination |of|
biotic *and% abiotic factors *in= *the^ developing world* with air pollution
likely {to] play *an^ increasing role *in= some cases as industrial and+
transportation infrastructure develops@ Examples |of| such decline
include n e e m (Azadirachta indica)*in=*the^Sahel* framire (Terminalia
ivoren#sis) *in= I v o r y C o a s t *and% Ghana* *and% Eucalyptus globulus
plantations*in=Colombia*and%Peru* while airborne pollution[is]affecting
forests near large cities*and%industrial areas *in= China (e@g@ Pinus
massoniana stands near Nanshan)@ Despite *the^ overall significance |of|

*the^ corresponding damage *and% losses* surveys |of| forest decline and+
diebacks*in=developing countries r e m a i n all too rare@
Periodicity*and%Pattern*in=Individual Tree Growth

Tree growth [is] periodic over short time#spans *and% follows !a#
definite pattern *in= *the^ long term@ *in= temperate countries growth *is$
overwhelmingly determined {by] *the^ season* with growth confined *to^
!a# period |of| !a# few weeks {to] perhaps several months *in= any one year
while w a r m t h*and%moisture{are]adequate@ E v e n*in=*the^m o i s t tropics*
with year#round favourable g r o w i n g conditions* trees show
periodicity under !a# measure |of| genetic control as recorded* *for^
example* {from] measurements |of| multinodal tropical pines such as
Pinus caribaea *and% fast#growing h a r d w o o d s such as Cordia alliodora@
As well as periodicity *in= one year* trees exhibit !a# strong pattern |of|
growth during their life@ *in= relation {to] age *the^ pattern [is] typically
sigmoid* w h e t h e r recording total height* diameter or v o l u m e over
time@
Dynamics |of| Stand Growth

T h e d y n a m i c nature |of| stand g r o w t h[is]!a#little less obvious than
^for*!a#single tree* since superficially!a#stand seems{to]b e!a#collection
|of| individual trees*the^relations |of| w h i c h appear constant@ That this
*is] not so[is]seen{by]considering!a#small tree*in=!a#m a t u r e even#aged
stand@ {at] regeneration (or planting) this small tree {will] {have] b e e n
about *the^ same size as {its] neighbours but subsequently {will] *have^
competed less successfully {for} light* nutrients or moisture {to] become
inferior{to]{its]neighbours@ A s!a#stand develops any apparent uniformity
disappears* with some trees developing vigorously*and%n e i g h b o u r s
becoming suppressed* moribund *and% even dying@ Thus *the^ stand *is$
continually changing # {it] [is] dynamic@ {it] [is] not only !a# collection |of|
individual trees* each with {its] own genetic potential {for} using *the^ site*
b u t also!a#collection |of| trees that interact*and%c o m p e t e with one
another@
Seedlings *and% Regeneration

From *the^ outset trees appear {to] grow {at] different rates@ Even *in^
new plantations |of| well#spaced trees |of| one species* *and% long before
onset |of| between#tree competition* *the^ growth |of| individual trees *is$
not identical@ Moreover* there [is] often no correlation between initial
postgermina#tion vigour*and%subsequent growth rate@ Small seedlings*

or plants {from] *the^ forest nursery* do not necessarily lead {to] small
slow#growing trees@
Between#tree Competition
A s trees g r o w they eventually b e g i n {to] c o m p e t e w i t h their
neighbours@ This {has] b o t h *an^ above#ground component* mainly
competition{for}light**and%!a#below#ground element*in=terms |of| root
competition{for}nutrients*and%moisture@ S u c h competition [is] m o s t
readily seen *in= suppression |of| side branches on *the^ lower crown and+
!a# measurable impact on diameter increment@ *the^ timing |of| *the^ onset
|of| between#tree competition depends on distance b e t w e e n trees* b u t
*is] usually first measurable *in= forest stands {from] about *the^ time |of|
canopy closure@
The principal exception[is]*in=arid c l i m a t e s { w h e r e } c o m p e t i t i o n
between root systems {for} moisture greatly exceeds that {for} light* and+
trees *and% shrubs remain widely dispersed *and% rarely *in= contact
above ground@
Differentiation into Crown Classes
A s competition begins* growth |of| s o m e trees slows m o r e than
others@
These tend{to]b e*the^smaller trees{at]*the^time |of| canopy closure
{and}*the^competition reinforces their inferior status@ O n c e dominated*
few trees can recover unless !a# gap develops owing {to] death |of| !a#
neighbour@ Thus as !a# stand develops* !a# range |of| tree sizes emerges
and* traditionally* these {are] classified into different c r o w n classes
according{to]*the^tree@s relative position*in=*the^canopy@
Interventions *and% Manipulations
These empirical relationships |of| h o w trees{are]observed{to]grow
{and} how they develop *and% interact *in= !a# stand provide *the^ basis *for^
manipulating their behaviour@ Adjusting spacing between trees* both
when planted or through thinnings* or influencing *the^ balance |of| !a#
mix |of| species *in= !a# stand all impact on how !a# stand develops* on how
*the^ increment [is] distributed*and%h e n c e on*the^composition |of| tree
types* trees sizes*and%*the^total |of| w o o d y growth that {will] result@
In summary* densely stocked forest leads{to]h i g h v o l u m e s per
unit area b u t small m e a n tree size c o m p a r e d with less well#stocked
forest on!a#similar site*and%|of|*the^same age@*in=*the^latter case there
will be fewer but larger diameter trees* although total volume |of|
timber may be somewhat reduced@ This allows forests {to] be managed
*in& different ways {to] yield different assortments |of| products@ How *to^
model these relationships *and% outcomes *in= detail* beyond *the^ purely
empirical* forms*the^bulk |of| this chapter@
Growth Models
The history |of| forest growth m o d e l s[is]not simply characterized
^by**the^development |of| continuously i m p r o v e d m o d e l s replacing
former inferior ones@ Instead* different m o d e l types with diverse
objectives *and% concepts {were] developed simultaneously@ *the^
objectives *and% structure |of| !a# model reflect *the^ state |of| *the^ respective
research area{at]{its]time*and%d o c u m e n t*the^contemporary approach
^to* forest growth prediction@ *the^ history |of| growth modelling thus
also documents *the^ advancement |of| knowledge *in= *the^ science |of|
forest growth@
Beginning with yield tables{for}large regions as!a#basis{for}taxation
{and} planning* model development led {to] regional yield tables and+
site#specific yield tables *and% culminated *in= *the^ construction |of| growth
simulators{for}*theêvaluation |of| stand development under different
m a n a g e m e n t schemes@ Vanclay (1994) provided*anôverview about
growth*and%yield m a n a g e m e n t models*and%their application{to]m i x e d
tropical forests@*the^1980s brought!a#n e w trend with*the^development
|of| ecophysiological models* which give insight into *the^ complex
causal relationships*in=forest growth*and%predict growth processes
under various ecological conditions@*theêmphasis*in=m o d e l research
^has* shifted towards ecophysiological models*and%away {from] m o d e l s
aimed only {at] providing growth*and%yield information {for} forest
management@ These models attempt {to] simulate forest growth on *the^
basis |of| fundamental ecophysiological processes@ *the^ scientific value
|of| ecophysiological models cannot be overrated~ however* they *will^
not be applied *in= forest management {for} *the^ next few years as they
âre* *in= many ways not yet sufficiently validated@ Also* input and+
output variables do not yet meet *the^ demand |of| forest management
practice@
A major change {has] taken place *in= model conception* i@e@ *the^
understanding |of| forest growth on which *the^ model [is] based@ *the^
tables {by] Weise (1880)* Schwappach *and% Wiedemann resulted *from^
!a# purely descriptive analysis |of| sample area data *in= *the^ form |of| total
and m e a n values |of| observed processes|of|stand development@ These

descriptions {were] later c o m b i n e d with theoretical m o d e l concepts
that also considered natural growth relationships*and%causal relations
as far as they {were] known {at] *the^ time@ {for} example* yield tables *for^
mixed stands |of| pine *and% beech created {by] Bonnemann (1939)
characterize growth|of|b e e c h*in=*the^middle*and%lower storey{by]m e a n
values@ *the^ F O R E S T m o d e l |of| Ek*and%M o n s e r u d (1974) controls
increment behaviour|of|lower#storey trees{by]geometrical competition
indices**and%*theêcophysiological growth m o d e l s |of| Bossel (1994)*
M a k e l a *and% H a r i (1986) *and% M o h r e n (1987) d e r i v e i n c r e m e n t
behaviour |of| lower#storey trees {from] light availability and+
performance *in= terms |of| photosynthesis@
The change*in=m o d e l objectives*and%concepts[is]closely related
^to*!a#change*in=quality|of|*theînformation generated@ Pure m a n a g e m e n t
models aim {at] reliable prediction |of| forest yield values that *are^
crucial {for} planning *and% control *in= forest management* e@g@ height
{and} d i a m e t e r i n c r e m e n t *and% a s s o c i a t e d e c o n o m i c value@
Ecophysiological models aim{at]b i o m a s s development* nutrient input
{and} loss* etc@~ variables relevant {to] forest management {are] only |of|
secondary importance *in= these models@ {for} future planning *in= modern
forestry* m o d e l s meeting *the^ information d e m a n d s |of| ecology as
well as|of|e c o n o m y{will]gain*in=importance@ Ecophysiological m o d e l s
{and} stand m a n a g e m e n t m o d e l s can give specific decision support@
Ecological *and% socioeconomic conditions define *the^ framework and+
thus *the^ @foundations@ {for} management decisions@ Ecophysiological
models can support *the^ ecological elements |of| *the^ framework* *for^
example *the^ effect |of| site conditions* species mixture *and% thinning
variants on critical loads* w a t e r quality or acidification@ S t a n d
treatments |of| interest can b e j u d g e d *in= this w a y as ecologically
acceptable or unacceptable@ M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l s help {to] optimize
*the^ path {from] starting point{to]objective via*the^given framework*
^for* e x a m p l e they support*the^decision b e t w e e n different thinning
{and} pruning strategies@
W i t h*the^shift {from] tree*and%stand m a n a g e m e n t models with low
resolution{to]m o r e complex ecophysiological models* different source
data{are]n e e d e d{for}m o d e l construction*and%{for}*the^determination
|of| model parameters@ Standard datasets derived {from] research sample
plots (diameter* height* etc@){were]used{for}*the^development |of| stand
growth m o d e l s{for}applied forestry@{for}*the^construction |of| single

tree models* additional data {are] required (crown dimension* tree
position* etc@)@ *the^ transition {to] ecophysiological models requires *an&
additional database that can only be provided {by] broadening
experimental concepts*and%cooperation with neighbouring disciplines@
M o d e l s {are] always *an^ abstraction |of| reality*and%{are]greatly
influenced{by]*the^modeller@s k n o w l e d g e*and%perception |of| nature@
This applies{to]*the^construction |of| yield tables as well as{for}eco#
physiological models@
Stand Growth Models based on Mean Stand Variables
W i t h!a#history |of| over 250 years* yield tables{for}pure stands m a y
b e considered*theôldest growth m o d e l s*in=forestry science*and%forest
management@ They{are]representations|of|stand growth within defined
rotation periods *and% {are] based on !a# series |of| measurements |of|
diameter* height* biomass* etc@ reaching far back into *the^ past@ *from^
*the^ late eighteenth {to] *the^ middle |of| *the^ nineteenth century* German
scientists such as Paulsen (1795)* v o n Cotta (1821)* R@ Hartig (1868)*
Th@ Hartig (1847)* G@L@ Hartig (1795)* H e y e r (1852)* H u n d e s h a g e n
(1825)*and%Judeich (1871) created*the^first generation |of| yield tables
b a s e d on!a#restricted dataset@ These original yield tables soon revealed
great gaps *in= scientific knowledge@ !a# series |of| long#term data#
collection campaigns on experimental areas w a s therefore started@
This w a s*the^birth|of|!a#unique n e t w o r k |of| long#term experimental
plots*in=Europe that [is] still u n d e r survey@
The second generation |of| yield tables* initiated t o w a r d s*theê n d
|of|*the^nineteenth century*and%continued into *the^ 1950s* follows
uniform construction principles proposed {by] *the^ Association |of|
Forestry Research Stations (the predecessor organization |of| *the^
International Union |of| Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO))* *in^
1874 *and% 1888 *and% {has] !a# solid empirical basis@ *the^ list |of| protagonists
involved*in=this w o r k includes W e i s e (1880)* v o n Guttenberg (1915)*
Z i m m e r l e (1952)* V a n s e l o w (1951)* K r e n n (1946)* Grundner (1913)
and* *in= particular* Schwappach (1893)* Wiede#mann (1932) and+
Schober (1967)* who designed yield tables that {were] conceptually
related*and%[is]still b e i n g used{to]this day@!a#brilliant example |of| their
w o r k[is]*the^yield tables{for}E u r o p e a n beech@*in=*the^1930s*and%1940s
*the^ first m o d e l s|of|m i x e d stands {were] contructed u n d e r*the^direction
|of| Wiedemann@ D a t a {from] s o m e 200 experimental areas established
b y*the^Prussian Research Station led{to]*the^yield tables{for}even#aged

m i x e d stands |of| pine*and%beech* spruce*and%beech* pine*and%spruce*
{and} oak*and%beech@ *the^ Second W o r l d W a r prevented W i e d e m a n n
^from* bringing*the^development |of| yield tables{for}uneven#aged pure
{and} m i x e d stands{to]*anênd* but his studies initiated systematic
research on m i x e d stands@ Yield tables {for} m i x e d stands |of| this
generation {were] never consistently used*in=forestry practice as they
^were* restricted {to] specific site conditions* intermingling patterns and+
age structures@
Yield tables developed {by] Gehrhardt (1909* 1923)*in=*the^1920s
effected!a#transition {from] purely empirical models{to]models b a s e d
on theoretical principles*and%biometric formulae*and%led{to]!a#third
generation |of| yield tables@ These m o d e l s {were] designed by* a m o n g
others* A s s m a n n*and%Franz (1963)* H a m i l t o n*and%Christie (1973*
1974)* Vuokila (1966)* Schmidt (1971) *and% Lembcke et al@ (1975)* and+
ât* their core [is] !a# flexible system |of| functional equations@ These
functional equations{are]b a s e d as far as possible on natural growth
relationships*and%{are]generally parameterized{by]m e a n s |of| statistical
methods@*the^biometric models{are]usually transferred into computer
p r o g r a m m e s*and%predict expected stand development {for} different
spectra |of| yield *and% site classes@ !a# wealth |of| data {were] available *for^
*the^ construction |of| these models *and% processed with modern statistical
methods@
Since *the^ 1960s !a# fourth generation |of| yield table models *has^
been created* i@e@ *the^ stand growth simulations |of| Franz (1968)* Hoyer
(1975)* Hradetzky (1972)* Bruce et al@ (1977)*and%Curtis et al@ (1981*
1982)* w h i c h simulate expected stand development u n d e r given
growth conditions{for}different stem n u m b e r s{at]stand establishment
{and}{for}different tending regimes@ T h e y describe stand development
ât* different sites*and%{for}varying treatments*and%varying n u m b e r s
|of| trees{at]*the^time |of| establishment@ Expected stand development
u n d e r given growth conditions[is]simulated{by]m e a n s |of| computer
p r o g r a m m e s*and%controlled{by]systems|of|suitable functions forming
*the^ core|of|*the^growth simulator@ All information available on forest
growth[is]synthesized into!a#complex biometric m o d e l that simulates
stand d e v e l o p m e n t {for} !a# w i d e r a n g e |of| possible m a n a g e m e n t
alternatives *and% summarizes *the^ results *in= tabular form similar *to^
yield tables@ These yield tables reflect *the^ stand dynamic {for} !a# wide
range |of| imaginable m a n a g e m e n t scenarios@ While table*and%m o d e l

^were* identical{for}*the^yield tables |of| earlier generations* simulator#
created yield tables n o w describe just one |of| m a n y potentially
computable stand development courses@
Despite !a# number |of| drawbacks* yield tables still form *the^
backbone |of| sustainable forest management planning@ When
computing capacities*and%available data {for} m o d e l construction
increased*and%with*the^rising d e m a n d {for} information*in=forestry*
mean#value*and%sum#orientated growth m o d e l s*and%yield tables
^were* increasingly replaced {by] stand#orientated g r o w t h models*
predicting stem n u m b e r frequencies**and%{by]single#tree g r o w t h
models@ P r o d a n (1965* p@ 605) c o m m e n t e d on*the^significance|of|yield
tables*in=*the^context|of|silviculture*and%forest sciences* @Undoubtedly*
yield tables {are] still *the^ most colossal positive advance achieved *in^
forest science research@ *the^ realization that yield tables may no
longer b e used*in=*the^future except{for}m o r e or less comparative
purposes*in=n o w a y detracts {from] this achievement@@
Stand#orientated Management Models Predicting Stem Number Frequency
W i t h*the^transition towards n e w intensive treatment concepts*
*the^ d e m a n d{for}information*in=forestry {has] changed *the^ emphasis
^from* m e a n stand values towards single#tree dimensions |of| selected
parts |of| !a# stand@ This changed demand {for} information resulted *in^
*the^ 1960s *in= *the^ creation |of| *the^ first growth models* which enabled
prediction |of| m e a n stand values as well as frequencies |of| single#tree
dimensions@ Until then*!a#stand served as*theûsual information unit
on w h i c h all predictions {were] based~ these predictions {were] n o w
strengthened {by] statements about stem number frequencies *in^
diameter classes* which {are] needed {for} precise prediction |of| assortment
yield *and% value |of| !a# stand@ Depending on their concept and+
construction* stand#orientated growth models predicting stem number
frequency{are]classified into differential equation models* distribution
prediction models*and%stochastic evolution models@
M a n y natural processes *in= various disciplines |of| *the^ natural
sciences can be described {by] differential equations@ Examples {are] *the^
differential equations formulating change |of| yield descriptors *for^
diameter classes |of| !a# stand* i@e@ change |of| stem number* basal area
{and} growing stock* depending on current yield state values@
Stand development then results{from]*the^numerical solution of
the differential equations@*in=*the^1960s*and%1970s* B u c k m a n (1962)*

Clutter (1963)* Leary (1970)* M o s e r (1972* 1974)*and%Pienaar and
Turn#bull (1973) developed stand#orientated growth models based
on differential equations@
In *the^ mid 1960s* Clutter *and% Bennett (1965) proposed !a#
completely new approach {to] stand growth modelling@ They
characterized *the^ condition |of| !a# tree population {by] {its] diameter and+
height distribution *and% described stand development {by] extrapolation
|of| these frequency distributions@ *the^ precision |of| such models *is$
decisively determined {by] *the^ flexibility |of| *the^ distribution type on
which {it] [is] based@ *the^ suitability |of| different distribution types* *for^
example beta* gamma* lognormal* Weibull or Johnson* {has] {to] be
assessed individually@ Compared with those reviewed earlier* *in^
these models stand development [is] not controlled {by] *the^ age function
|of| *the^ individual yield descriptors but {by] *the^ parameters |of| *the^
underlying frequency distribution@ Models |of| this type {were] initially
constructed{by]Clutter*and%Bennett{for}North American spruce stands
{and} further developed{by]M c G e e*and%Della#Bianca (1967)* Burkhart
and Strub (1974)* Bailey (1973)*and%Feduccia et al@ (1979)@
The term @evolution models@ {for} stochastic growth models *is$
derived {from] *the^ fact that *in= these models stand development evolves
^from**anînitial frequency distribution*{for}example{from]!a#diameter
distribution k n o w n {from] forest inventory@ T h u s these models* like
distribution prediction models* predict frequencies |of| single#stem
dimensions@
However* *the^ mechanism accounting {for} *the^ extrapolation *is$
based on !a# Markov process* giving *the^ transition probability {for} *the^
shift between *the^ diameter classes@ Stochastic growth models *were^
introduced {to] forestry science with *the^ pioneering investigations *by^
Suzuki**and%they continue{to]b e linked{to]his n a m e today@
His growth models* {for} Japanese Chamaecyparis pure stands *for^
example* {have] been consistently developed {by] Sloboda (1976) and+
his team since*the^m i d 1970s~ they{are]mainly interested*in=adapting
*the^ models* which{are]orientated{to]Japanese conditions*{to]*theîssues
|of| G e r m a n forestry*and%*in=m o d e l validation based on permanent test
plot data@ Stand#orientated g r o w t h m o d e l s b a s e d on stochastic
processes {have] been developed {by] Bruner *and% Moser (1973) and+
Stephens *and% Waggoner (1970) also {for} mixed stands@
Single#tree Orientated Management Models

Single#tree m o d e l s describe*the^stand as!a#mosaic |of| single trees
{and} m o d e l individual growth *and% interactions with or without
consideration |of| tree position@ This{has]paved*the^w a y{for}*the^design
|of| models |of| pure *and% mixed stands |of| all age structures and+
intermingling patterns@ *an^ equation system that controls growth
behaviour |of| single trees depending on their constellation within *the^
stand [is] *the^ central module |of| all single#tree models@
Position#independent or position#dependent competition indices
âre* used {to] quantify *the^ spatial growth constellation |of| each tree and+
^to* predict {its] increment |of| height* diameter* etc@ *in= *the^ following
period@ C o m p a r e d with stand#orientated growth models b a s e d on
m e a n stand descriptors*and%those predicting stem number frequencies*
single#tree m o d e l s w o r k on higher resolution@ *the^ information unit
*in& singletree m o d e l s[is]*theîndividual tree@ However* results|of|lower#
resolution models*{for}e x a m p l e m e a n tree development or diameter
frequency distributions* can also b e derived {from] single#tree m o d e l
results{by]integration@ Information about stand growth then results
^from* s u m m a r i z i n g *and% aggregating e a c h individual single#tree
development{for}!a#given growth period@ Recent single#tree m o d e l s
âre* p r o g r a m m e d {to] enable*theûser {to] influence!a#simulation run
interactively@ This allows stand development {to] be followed step *by^
step during *the^ simulation *and% permits *the^ user {to] specify other
factors (e@g@ thinning or influence |of| disturbance){at]any time during
*the^ simulation process* thus influencing or diverting *the^ current
course |of| stand development@
After parameters {for} *the^ control |of| *the^ singletree model *have^
been set* tree characteristics {at] *the^ beginning |of| *the^ prediction phase
^for**the^test area{to]b e investigated{are]fed into*the^computer as initial
values{for}*the^simulation@ This tree list can contain data on tree
species* stem dimensions* crown morphology* stem position and+
other data about *the^ stand individuals@ These data usually originate
^from* single#tree#based inventories |of| indicator plots@ Starting with
these initial values* change (e@g@ mortality or development |of| diameter*
height or crowns){for}all stand m e m b e r s depending on individual
growth conditions[is]predicted using*anâppropriate control function~
this [is] done {for} !a# first growth period* {for} example 5 years@ Once *the^
tree list {has] been processed* change |of| growth conditions (e@g@ due
to thinning or disturbance) can be specified prior {to] continuing *to^

*the^ next increment period@ This {will] now influence single#tree growth
*in&*the^following period@*the^modified state values|of|all trees resulting
ât**theênd|of|*the^first growth period also represent*theînitial values
^for**the^s e c o n d g r o w t h period@ T h e s e v a l u e s {are] r e p e a t e d l y
extrapolated*in=every simulation cycle*and%interim results{are]given@
*the^ simulation continues until *the^ envisaged prediction period *has^
been completed step {by] step@ *in= most models* time steps {are] 5 years*
sometimes only 1 or 2 years@ {by] removing single trees during !a#
simulation run* *the^ growth constellation *and% growth behaviour |of|
*the^ remaining individuals change *in= *the^ next growth period@ Growth
reaction|of|*the^stand[is]thus explained{by]*the^reactions |of| all single
trees {to] this intervention@ {by] relating stand development back *to^
growth behaviour |of| single trees *and% {by] modelling single#tree
dynamics depending on growth constellation within*the^stand* single¬
tree models* after being initialized accordingly* enable evaluation |of|
!a# wide range |of| treatment programmes@
The first single#tree m o d e l w a s developed{for}pure D o u g l a s fir
stands {by] Newnham (1964)@ {it] was followed {by] *the^ development |of|
models {for} pure stands {by] Arney (1972)* Bella (1970) *and% Mitchell
(1969* 1975)*and%colleagues@*in=*the^m i d 1970s* Ek*and%M o n s e r u d
applied*the^construction principles{for}single#tree orientated growth
m o d e l s{for}pure stands{to]uneven#aged pure*and%m i x e d stands (Ek
& M o n s e r u d 1974~ M o n s e r u d 1975)@ M u n r o (1974) distinguished
distance#dependent*and%distance#independent single#tree models*
*the^ former being able{to]refer{to]data about stem position*and%stem
distance {for} *the^ control |of| single#tree growth@ *the^ w o r l d w i d e
bibliography|of|single#tree growth models compiled{by]Ek*and%D u d e k
(1980) lists more than 40 different single#tree models* which *are^
grouped into 20 distance#dependent *and% 20 distance#independent
models@ Single#tree m o d e l s developed since*the^1980s*in=m a n y w a y s
go b a c k{to]*the^methodological bases |of| their predecessors~ however*
o w i n g{to]*the^rapidly improving technology |of| m o d e r n computers
they {are] far m o r e user#friendly than older single#tree models@
Ecophysiological Growth Models

All*the^m o d e l s m e n t i o n e d above rely on growth*and%yield data
^from* long#term observation plots *and% hence {have] *the^ advantage |of|
being validated empirically@ However* there [is] !a# drawback to
historically deduced data*in=as m u c h as growth conditions u n d e r g o

changes**and%reaction patterns {from] *the^ past cannot simply b e
projected into*the^future@*in=*the^1970s* m o d e l research w a s pointed
*in&!a#n e w direction with*the^creation|of|high#resolution ecophysiological
process models* w h i c h account{for}metabolism* organ formation*
assimilation*and%respiration as well as biochemical*and%soil chemistry
reactions@ Pioneers|of|*theêcophysiological process m o d e l{for}forest
stands{are]Bossel (1994)* M a k e l a & Hari (1986)*and%M o h r e n (1987)@
*the^ term @process model@[is]slightly misleading*in=*the^sense that all
forest growth models describe processes@ Only *the^ temporal and+
spatial scales |of| modelled processes become more detailed and+
accurate*in=*the^transition {from] yield table m o d e l s via single#tree
m a n a g e m e n t models*and%succession m o d e l s{to]growth models b a s e d
on ecophysiological data@
The development|of|modern process models begins with!a#systems
analysis *and% *the^ selection |of| characteristic system components@ !a#
system {to] be analysed *and% modelled [is] first described using methods
|of| systems analysis@ Results|of|this description can be transferred into
!a# system diagram@ *the^ description breaks *the^ system d o w n into
system components characteristic {for} all biological systems and+
identified {by] different symbols *in= *the^ system diagram@
By system parameters we m e a n those that remain constant during
*the^ lifetime|of|*the^system@ E x o g e n o u s parameters{are]variables that
control*the^system b u t w h i c h cannot b e influenced{by]*the^system*
e@g@ stress caused {by] air pollutants@ State variables{are]*theâctual
output value|of|*the^model~ their current values reflect*the^system@s
state@ Important state variables*in=stand m o d e l s {are] accumulated
carbon quantities*in=needles* branches* stem*and%roots@ *the^ initial
values |of| *the^ state variables give *the^ starting values |of| !a# system and+
thus crucially influence {its] further development@ *in= !a# growth model
^for* example* stem n u m b e r*and%initial stand structure {have] {to] b e
specified as initial values@ *the^ rate |of| change|of|*the^state variables
controls change* i@e@ input*and%output |of| state variables@ Examples
âre* mortality rates or respiration rates* which control *the^ change |of|
*the^ carbon quantities accumulated *in= *the^ different components@
Intermediary variables change simultaneously with*the^state variables
{and} feed b a c k into*the^system@*the^system c o m p o n e n t s{are]indicated
*in&*the^system diagram with different symbols*and%their interrelations
are identified {by] arrows@

The model thus outlined[is]transferred into!a#mathematical model
{and} subsequently into!a#computer programme@{for}this**the^system
c o m p o n e n t s*and%links {are] described {by] mathematical or logical
relationships@ O n c e*the^complete m o d e l [is] constructed* *the^ causal
relations i m p l e m e n t e d{are]parameterized@*the^system behaviour can
be simulated with*the^developed computer programmes@ All suitable
information known about *the^ system [is] therefore consolidated *in= *the^
system components *and% *the^ system structure@ *the^ process |of| system
analysis *and% model development concludes *in= *the^ validation |of| *the^
final model@ {for} validation* i@e@ testing if *the^ causal relations assumed
*in&*the^m o d e l realistically reflect growth |of| stands or single trees*
empirical yield data can b e used@ If necessary* individual m o d e l
assumptions {are] corrected or m o d e l parts revised@
A vastly i m p r o v e d understanding |of| ecophysiological processes
*in& forest ecosystems paved *the^ way {for} this model approach *and% *it^
was *the^ actual modelling |of| these processes that provided *an^ idea
|of|*the^functioning|of|*theôverall system@!a#further impetus{to]process
model development was *the^ need {to] understand *and% predict *the^
reactions |of| forest ecosystems {to] *an^ increasing number |of| adverse
effects* such as industrial emissions* rise *in= atmospheric CO and+ 2
climate change@ *in= *the^ context |of| environmental instability* high#

resolution *and% accurately detailed process models {are] certainly *the^
ideal approach {for} understanding *and% predicting forest ecosystem
behaviour@ However* there{are]particular constraints*in=developing
{and} applying process m o d e l s due {to] considerable gaps *in= our
k n o w l e d g e |of| part processes*in=assimilation organs*and%*in=*the^soil@
Also* *the^ scaling#up |of| part processes {to] *the^ behaviour |of| *the^
overall system [is] still largely unresolved@ Moreover* *the^ introduction
|of| process m o d e l s still requires intensive research*and%extremely
high#powered computers that{are]only rarely available*in=practice@
^to* date* process m o d e l s{are]therefore primarily research instruments
rather than forest m a n a g e m e n t planning tools@
Gap Models *and% Biome Shift Models
In*the^view |of| m o d e r n theoretical ecology*!a#spatially extensive
system [is] composed |of| mosaiclike subunits *and% can be studied *by^
analysing these subunits@ Watt (1925* 1947)* Bormann *and% Likens
(1979)*and%others transferred this v i e w |of| extensive ecosystems to
the study*and%m o d e l representation|of|*the^growth dynamics |of| pure

{and} m i x e d stands@ This laid*the^foundations{for}*the^concept |of| gap
models suitable {to] predict succession@ According {to] this concept* !a#
forest stand [is] *an^ aggregation |of| gaps@ *the^ size |of| these gaps
corresponds{to]*theêxtent|of|!a#potential c r o w n area |of| !a# dominant
tree or tree group (areas |of| 0@04#0@08 ha)@*theâctual information unit
*is]*the^tree group*in=*the^gap~ stand development results as*the^s u m
|of|*the^total spectrum |of| contributing gaps@ Gap m o d e l s imply that
forest development*in=!a#gap occurs*in=!a#fixed cycle* !a# gap results
^from* exploitation or death|of|!a#dominant tree**and%thus*the^growth
conditions |of| under#storey trees improve*and%natural regeneration
occurs@ Growing trees successively close*the^gap*and%!a#n e w overstorey
develops@*the^cycle[is]repeated with further losses|of|dominant trees@
G r o w t h m o d e l s using this approach {were] predominantly e m p l o y e d
^for* investigations |of| competition*and%succession *in= semi#natural
stands@
Gap models* such as those designed {by] Shugart (1984)* Pastor
{and} Post (1985)* A b e r*and%Melillo (1982)*and%L e e m a n s*and%Prentice
(1989)* {are] primarily aimed {at] m i x e d stands@ While*in=*the^models
described above increment#determining factors{have]effects on stands
or individuals respectively* gap m o d e l s describe tree growth that
depends on growth conditions*in=*theîndividual gap@ Gap m o d e l s
simulate growth dynamics{for}single trees or tree classes*in=!a#gap~
ît*[is]therefore possible{to]generate information about*the^development
|of| diameter* height*and%v o l u m e |of| single trees as well as stands@
However* regarding input*and%output variables they {are] less
dependent on information available from* or required by* forestry
practice~ rather* they aim{at]predicting long#term succession*in=natural
forest stands *and% *the^ effects |of| altered growth conditions@ *the^
FORMIX2 model {for} virgin *and% logged Malaysian lowland
dipterocarp forests[is]*anê x a m p l e|of|*anêcophysiological#based gap
model with output variables that [is] useful as decision support *in^
forest management@
B i o m e shift models* such as those |of| B o x*and%M e e n t e m e y e r
(1991)*and%Prentice et al@ (1992)* establish statistical relationships
b e t w e e n regional climate*and%vegetation type@ Based on relevant
climatic conditions**the^nature |of| potential biomes* i@e@ communities*
m a y be predicted on!a#regional*and%even global scale@ |of| all the
m o d e l s u n d e r discussion* these{are]*theônes that provide*the^highest

aggregation |of| data on vegetation development*and%forest growth@
T h e y {have] therefore gained increasing importance*in=research on
global change@
Hybrid Models {for} Forest Management
The transfer |of| specific c o m p o n e n t s |of| ecophysio#logical models
( b a s e d on solid p r o c e s s k n o w l e d g e ) i n t o s t a n d or single#tree
management models (based on long#term experimental plots and+
increment series) leads {to] what Kimmins called @hybrid growth
models@@ M o d e l s |of| this type {were] constructed by* a m o n g others*
Botkin et al@ (1972)*and%K i m m i n s (1993)@ Their objective[is]{to]m a k e
*the^ best possible use |of| *the^ newly acquired knowledge |of|
ecophysiological processes combined with historical increment
observations{to]assist*in=forest planning*and%management@ O n account
|of|*theî m p l e m e n t e d relationship b e t w e e n site conditions*and%species#
specific growth* they can be used {for} pure *and% mixed stands@ *in= *the^
past 100 years mixed stands {have] gradually become *the^ focus |of|
forest research* particularly on account |of| studies {by] Gayer (1886)*
W i e d e m a n n (1939b)*and%A s s m a n n (1961)* but {to] this day growth
m o d e l s{for}m i x e d stands{are]scarcely u s e d as quantitative planning
tools@
O n l y very recently {have] m o d e l s created {by] K o l s t r o m (1993)*
Nagel (1996)* Pretzsch (1992)* Pukkala (1987)*and%Sterba et al@ (1995)
found use*in=forestry practice{for}planning w o r k*in=pure*and%m i x e d
stands@ These{are]*in=effect site#sensitive single#tree models constructed
^from*!a#b r o a d b a s e |of| ecophysiological*and%growth*and%yield data@
Version 2@2 |of| *the^ SILVA model* developed *in= Germany {for} pure and+
mixed stands* belongs {to] *the^ category |of| hybrid models *and% may be
used as*anê x a m p l e{to]explain*the^functional principles underlying
this approach@
Management Model SILVA 2@2{for}Pure*and%Mixed Stands
S I L V A reflects*the^spatial*and%d y n a m i c character |of| mixed#stand
systems*in=as m u c h as{it]models spatial stand structures{at]5#year
intervals@ T h i s p e r m i t s *the^ r e c o r d i n g |of| *the^ individual g r o w t h
constellation|of|every tree*and%*the^control|of|tree increment*in=relation
^to* growth constellation *and% *the^ original dimensions |of| *the^ tree@ *the^
external variables determining tree increment *and% stand structure
are treatment* risk*and%site factors@ *the^ m o d e l simulates*theêffects

that tending* thinning* regeneration*and%natural hazards such as
storms*and%w i n d {have] on*the^stand dynamic@
The feedback loop* stand structure $> tree growth $> state |of|
tree $> stand structure* forms *the^ backbone |of| *the^ model@ *the^ step#
by#step modelling|of|*the^growth |of| all individual trees via differential
equation systems provides information about *the^ development |of|
assortment yield* financial yield* stand structure* stability *and% diversity
|of|*the^stand over*and%above*the^data* required*in=yield calculations*
on height* diameter{at]breast height* n u m b e r |of| stems* etc@
Input*and%output data used*in=*the^m o d e l correspond{to]*the^data
available from* or required in* forestry practice*{for}e x a m p l e only site
variables available on !a# large scale {are] considered@ With models |of|
this type !a# weighting between yield#related* socioeconomic and+
ecological aspects |of| stand development*in=pure*and%m i x e d stands
b e c o m e s possible@ P a r a m e t r i z a t i o n r e l i e s o n y i e l d *and% s i t e
characteristics |of| pure*and%m i x e d stands that {have] b e e n under
observation{for}over 100 years@
The position#dependent individual tree m o d e l S I L V A 2@2 breaks
d o w n forest stands into!a#mosaic|of|individual trees*and%reproduces
their interactions as !a# space#time system@ {it] can therefore be used *for^
pure *and% mixed stands |of| all age combinations@ Primarily {it] [is] designed
^to* assist*in=*the^decision#making processes*in=forest management@
Based on scenario calculations S I L V A 2@2[is]able{to]predict*theêffects
|of| site conditions* silvicultural treatment*and%stand structure on
stand development**and%therefore also serves as!a#research instrument@
A first m o d e l element reflects *the^ relationship b e t w e e n site
conditions*and%growth potential*and%aims{at]adapting*theîncrement
functions *in= *the^ model {to] actual observed site conditions@ With *the^
aid |of| nine site factors reflecting nutritional* water *and% temperature
conditions**the^parameters|of|*the^growth functions {are] determined
*in&!a#two#stage process@ *the^ stand structure generator S T R U G E N
facilitates*the^large#scale use{for}position#dependent individual tree
growth models@ *the^ generator converts verbal characterizations as
c o m m o n l y used*in=forestry practice (e@g@ mixture*in=small clusters*
single tree mixture* row mixture) into!a#concrete initial stand structure
with which *the^ growth model can subsequently commence *its^
forecasting run@
The three#dimensional structure m o d u l e uses tree attributes such

as stem position* tree height* diameter* crown length* c r o w n diameter
{and} species#related crown form {to] construct !a# spatial model |of| *the^
stand *in= question@ *the^ thinning model [is] also based on individual
trees *and% can model !a# wide spectrum |of| treatment programmes@ *the^
core |of| *the^ thinning model [is] !a# fuzzy logic controller@ *in= *the^ simulation
studies described b e l o w*the^thinning model simulates various thinning
m e t h o d s (thinning {from] b e l o w*and%selective thinning)*and%thinning
intensities (slight* moderate*and%heavy)@ *the^ competition m o d e l
e m p l o y s*the^light#cone m e t h o d*and%calculates!a#competition index
^for* every tree on *the^ basis |of| *the^ three#dimensional stand model@ *the^
allocation model controls *the^ development |of| individual stand
elements@ Tree diameter{at]height 1@3 m* tree height* c r o w n diameter*
height|of|c r o w n base* c r o w n shape*and%survival status{are]controlled*
ât* 5#year intervals* *in= relation {to] site conditions *and% interspecific and+
intraspecific competition@ Finally classical yield information on stand
{and} single#tree level{for}*the^prognosis period{are]compiled*in=listings
{and} graphs@ Additional information on stem quality* assortment and+
financial yield complete *the^ growth *and% yield characteristic@ {at] every
stage |of| *the^ simulation run*!a#p r o g r a m m e routine {for} structural
analysis calculates!a#vector|of|structural indices that serve as indicators
^for* habitat*and%species diversity*and%form!a#link{to]*theêcological
assessment |of| forest stands@
The algorithmic sequence {for} predicting forest d e v e l o p m e n t
comprises*the^following steps@ Step 1[is]*theînput|of|data on*theînitial
structure *and% site conditions |of| *the^ monitored stand@ *in= step 2* *the^
parameters |of| *the^ growth functions {are] adapted {to] actual site
conditions@ Once *the^ starting values {for} *the^ prognostic run *are^
complete* monitoring can begin@ If there {are] no initial values* *for^
e x a m p l e stem positions {are] unknown* *the^ m i s s i n g data can b e
realistically c o m p l e m e n t e d w i t h *the^ help |of| *the^ stand structure
generator (step 3)@
O n c e*the^spatial m o d e l{has]b e e n constructed (step 4)*the^silvicul#
tural treatment p r o g r a m m e [is] specified*in=step 5@ *the^ competition
index calculated{for}each tree t h r o u g h*the^three#dimensional m o d e l
*in& step 6[is]used**in=step 7*{to]control individual tree development@
Steps 4#7 {are] repeated until *the^ entire prognostication period *has^
been run through *in= 5#year steps@
To date* model research {has] {had] little success *in= substituting *the^
yield tables {for} pure stands {by] *an^ improved information system *for^
pure *and% mixed stands@ This can *in= no way be attributed {to] !a# deficit
*in& methodological principles* data or technical equipment@ Rather*
*the^ causes lie*in=*the^fact that n e w models{are]not properly adapted
^to* practical requirements@ *the^ recent introduction |of| *the^ growth
model SILVA 2@2 {for} forest management use led {to] !a# range |of|
operational requirements *and% outputs demanded {from] *the^
m a n a g e m e n t models that {will] b e used*in=decision#making processes
ât* stand*and%forest enterprise levels@
1@ The natural management |of| forests [is] currently making great
headway@ *in= *the^ long run only those growth models capable |of|
simulating *the^ growth |of| pure *and% mixed stands |of| all age
compositions*and%structural patterns {will] find approval@
2@ Models need{to]be operable{at]stand*and%forest enterprise levels
{and} able{to]simulate growth behaviour under different thinning
regimes *and% different processes |of| artificial *and% n a t u r a l
regeneration@
3@ Flexibility |of| *the^ model [is] essential so as {to] permit simulation |of|
growth reactions {to] site alterations *and% interference factors on !a#
large regional scale@
4@ Apart {from] tree*and%stand characteristics such as volume
production* assortment yield* wood quality*and%financial yield
should also include structural parameters determining *the^
recreational *and% protective functions |of| forests as well as indicators
showing*theîmpact |of| hazards or ecological instability@
5@ Forestry practice[is]interested* first*and%foremost**in=calculating
scenarios{at]stand*and%forest enterprise levels@ This can only be
achieved if input*and%output data|of|*the^model consider what
information [is] available*and%which data{are]needed *in= forestry
practice@ Furthermore* achieving this goal also depends on whether
*the^ model forms part|of|!a#comprehensive forestry information
system and* lastly* whether hardware specifications{are]acceptable
*in& practice@
For decades forestry practice {has] b e e n hoping {for} i m p r o v e d
growth models {to] assist with research* planning* operations and+
control *in= forest management@ *the^ general acceptance |of| new models
^by* practitioners calls{for}close cooperation b e t w e e n forest science
{and} forest practice*{from]*the^design*and%development|of|*the^m o d e l
^to*{its]actual introduction*in=forest management@
Likewise*theônly capital equipment required[is]!a#weaving needle*

which [is] !a# very cheap item {to] buy@ Similarly* wood [is] often used *to^
make !a# variety |of| household implements *and% agricultural tools* or
*is] carved{to]m a k e products aimed{at]*the^tourist market@ O n c e again*
interviews with resource makers stress that*the^skills used{to]m a k e
these objects can b e acquired*in=!a#very short time*and%*the^capital
equipment required [is] minimal@ Finally*{where}NTFP foods *are^
processed {to] make commercial products* such as fruit wines* palm
wines* dried meats* dried fish *and% dried insects* again *the^ skills and+
capital equipment required {are] low* {it] [is] essentially !a# matter |of|
allocating sufficient household labour {to] complete *the^ task@ Due *to^
*the^ difficulties that rural households face *in= capital accumulation*
because formal credit markets generally fail*in=rural areas*and%because
education levels{are]low* rural households{are]usually e n d o w e d with
unskilled labour but poorly e n d o w e d with capital@ So another reason
^for**theêxtensive use |of| N T F P s{by]rural households[is]that*the^factor
inputs required{to]collect*and%process N T F P s (unskilled labour* little
capital equipment) m a t c h closely*the^factor e n d o w m e n t s|of|*the^classic
rural household@ (These required factor inputs* c o m b i n e d with open
access{to]*the^N T F P resource* m e a n s that N T F P activities {have] very
low entry barriers@*in=such circumstances w e w o u l d therefore expect
*the^ returns {to] N T F P activities{to]b e correspondingly low@)
Fourth* households also use N T F P s*in=response{to]*the^general
riskiness |of| rural e c o n o m i c activities@*theûse |of| NTFPs* particularly
w h a t {have] b e e n classified as @minor forest products@* during times
|of| h o u s e h o l d stress[is]*anôbservation c o m m o n{to]m u c h|of|*the^N T F P
case study literature@ N T F P s display!a#certain degree|of|non#covariance
with respect{to]agricultural output@ W h e n crops fail due{to]drought
or disease* or w h e n shocks hit*the^h o u s e h o l d such as unemployment*
death or disease* s o m e N T F P s{will]still b e available{for}*the^h o u s e h o l d
^to* either consume or use {to] generate cash income {to] purchase *its^
essential needs@ Thus {it] [is] economically rational {for} risk#averse rural
h o u s e h o l d s {to] hold !a# portfolio |of| production opportunities that
exploits this non#covariance@*in=this sense* c o m m o n l y held forests
{and} w o o d l a n d s can b e regarded as providing !a# set |of| back#stop
resources that insure households against*the^failure |of| other* higher
return production activities@ Thus* even if *the^ returns per hectare |of|
woodland {were] systematically below that |of| agricultural land* rural
villages w o u l d still retain c o m m o n lands{for}this purpose@

Finally**theâ r g u m e n t c o m e s full circle@ O n e|of|*the^reasons that
rural h o u s e h o l d s u s e N T F P s so extensively[is]precisely b e c a u s e they
âre* open#access resources@ There {are] !a# number |of| reasons {for} *the^
survival |of| communally held resources* {for} example *the^ insurance
element~ however*!a#major reason{for}*the^survival |of| such resources
*is]*the^v e r y l o w i n c o m e l e v e l s |of| r u r a l households@ R e s o u r c e
privatization [is] *an^ expensive business* households taking charge |of|
privatized resources usually need {to] spend time *and% money on
creating exclusion (e@g@{by]building fences)* on enforcement (e@g@
employing guards{to]monitor incursions)*and%on punishing infractions
(by going through *the^ courts)@ Particularly{where}!a# resource *has^
previously been held *in= common* privatization [is] often strongly
contested *and% consequently these various costs can be expected *to^
be high@{where}households {are] generally poor* *the^ private costs |of|
resource privatization {are] likely{to]b e far higher than *the^ potential
private gains {from] control |of| *the^ resource@ Thus *the^ low incomes |of|
rural areas underpin *the^ existence |of| commonly held resources*
w h i c h*in=turn underpins *the^ extensive use |of| N T F P s{by]those very
same low#income h o u s e h o l d s (on*the^relationship b e t w e e n efficient
property rights regimes*and%transactions costs@
Trees*in=*theÛrban Environment
Trees*in=*theûrban e n v i r o n m e n t{are]often referred{to]as*theûrban
forest* comprising trees*in=civic woodlands* parks*and%*the^street@
Earlier* urban trees {were] mainly regarded as aesthetic elements*
w h e r e a s today they {are] recognized as h a v i n g!a#positive impact on
*the^ e n v i r o n m e n t as well as providing e c o n o m i c*and%social benefits@
Monetary evaluations reflect *the^ various benefits arising {from] *the^
urban forest* covering such aspects as reduction |of| pollution and+
energy use* environmental amelioration* savings *in= public health
care *and% increase *in= economic investment@ Hence* *the^ value |of| *the^
urban forest [is] being increasingly recognized as !a# vital component
*in&*the^m a i n t e n a n c e |of| !a# sustainable urban e n v i r o n m e n t *in= cities
around*the^world@ Meanwhile**the^population living*in=urban areas
^has* increased rapidly since*the^1950s*and%*the^lack |of| space m a k e s
ît* tempting {to] use green areas{for}infrastructure*and%buildings@
Collins (1997) e m p h a s i z e s that u r b a n forestry* *the^ planning*
m a n a g e m e n t*and%maintenance|of|*theû r b a n forest*[is]m o r e closely

aligned{to]traditional forestry than might b e immediately apparent@
A s implicit*in=*the^term**the^principle |of| sustained yield {has] b e e n
adapted{to]*theû r b a n environment* applying rural land#use forestry
^to**the^m a n a g e m e n t|of|*theûrban forest@ Hence**theôverall objective
*in& urban forestry [is] not that |of| timber production but* through !a#
balanced structure |of| age *and% species* !a# sustained production |of|
environmental* social *and% economic benefits@ These social benefits
also accrue if local communities{are]e n c o u r a g e d{to]contribute{to]their
o w n e n v i r o n m e n t {by] promoting projects*and%activities involving
local residents@ These kinds |of| projects often prove effective *in^
promoting social interaction *and% lead {to] increased local involvement
*in& other aspects as well@
The planning*and%m a n a g e m e n t|of|!a#healthy urban forest requires
that coordinated strategies{are]agreed b e t w e e n*the^professions m o r e
or less directly involved* such as planners* landscape architects*
arboriculturists* foresters* engineers* legislators* developers*and%utility
managers@ M a n a g e m e n t |of| *the^ u r b a n forest resource [is] m o v i n g
towards*theâchievement|of|!a#healthy* well#distributed urban forest*
which [is] increasingly becoming *an^ essential *and% integral part |of| *the^
urban infrastructure@
Definitions
Trees*in=*theû r b a n environment {have] b e e n defined *in= several
ways* although @urban forestry *and% arboriculture@ [is] probably *the^
most used term *in= relation {to] trees *in= or near *the^ urban environment@
Many different research disciplines {are] involved *in= *the^ fields |of|
arboriculture *and% urban forestry@ Harris (1992) defines arboriculture
as being @primarily concerned with *the^ planting *and% care |of| trees and+
more peripherally concerned with shrubs *and% woody vines and+
groundcover plants@@ However* m a n y people consider urban forestry
^to* consist primarily|of|t w o types|of|planting* u r b a n forests*and%u r b a n
trees@ Also* definitions |of| u r b a n green areas*and%urban forestry vary
significantly throughout*the^world@ There seem{to]b e different opinions
as{to]what urban forestry covers* depending on whether professionals
^have* !a# background within or outside forestry or {have] experience |of|
working *in= *the^ USA or other parts |of| *the^ world such as Europe@
In m a n y cases foresters {have] argued that u r b a n forestry concerns
@forestry*in=urban areas@@ Volk (1986) stated that*
Green areas such as tree lined streets* cemeteries**and%parks*

w h i c h{are]not predominated{by]trees*and%as such do not c o m e under
forestry influence should be excluded {from] consideration [of being
considered urban forestry]@ O n*theôther hand* park forests which
c o m e u n d e r f o r e s t r y supervision* s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d *in= o u r
considerations@*the^fear|of|involvement|of|foresters*in=urban plantings
^has* been described {by] Chambers (1987)* @Misguided resistance {to] *the^
concept [of urban forestry] [is] still often mistakenly assumed {to] imply
*the^ take over |of| public open space *and% existing amenity trees *for^
timber production@@ Americans tends {to] look {at] urban forestry as *the^
@management |of| trees*in=urban areas on larger than *an^ individual
basis@@*in=Europe this b r o a d concept n o w seems{to]b e accepted on
!a# wider basis@ U r b a n forest stands {are] n o w often considered as
resources{where}*anêconomic yield[is]not required**and%traditional
forestry practices{are]c o m b i n e d with b o t h aesthetic*and%recreational
considerations@
Costello (1993) suggested that urban forestry b e defined as @the
m a n a g e m e n t |of| trees*in=urban areas@* including single trees@*in=this
definition* @management@ [is] described as *the^ planning* planting and+
care |of| trees~ @trees@ as individuals* small groups* larger stands (e@g@
green belts)*and%r e m n a n t forests~*and%@urban areas@ as those areas
^where* people live*and%work@ *the^ location |of| urban forests can b e
anywhere* {from] urban settings{to]*the^countryside* as long as there
âre* human structures on *the^ site~ these structures can be related *to^
ecological functions* protection* merchandise or tourism and+
recreation@
Using this concept* w e categorize trees*in=*theûrban environment
as b o t h urban forests*and%urban trees@ U r b a n forests can be defined
^by* their placement*in=or near urban areas*and%{by]their multifunctional
aspects* giving shade* amenity values* etc@ Therefore* we define urban
forestry as *the^ establishment* management* planning *and% design |of|
trees *and% forest stands with amenity values* situated *in= or near urban
areas@
Trees*in=*theûrban environment m a y be divided into three different
types* trees*in=urban woodlands* park trees*and%street trees@ These
t y p e s |of| p l a n t i n g s differ d i s t i n c t i v e l y *in= s e v e r a l ways@ M o s t
importantly* they {have] significantly different growing conditions*
w h i c h m e a n s that they {have] different needs with regard{to]planning*
m a n a g e m e n t*and%maintenance@ *the^ m e t h o d s used*and%*the^research

problems related {to] urban green areas {are] common throughout *the^
world due {to] *the^ fact that urban @greening@ concerns not only natural
spheres (such as trees* growing conditions* etc@) but also *the^
environment *in= close proximity {to] human populations@
Urban Growing Conditions
Urban growing conditions differ significantly {from] those *in= *the^
rural landscape* *and% produce difficulties as !a# result |of| both above#
{and} below#ground influences@
Stress Factors
The harsh soil *and% air conditions that exist *in= urban planting *are^
problems that do not play *the^ same role *in= landscape planting@
G r o w i n g conditions m a y also b e difficult due {to] shading effects*
recreational users* etc@@ *the^ modified urban mesoclimate affects *the^
quantity |of| contaminants *in= urban areas* which [is] raised {by] !a# factor
|of| around 25@*in=general**theâverage lifespan|of|!a#n e w l y planted
street tree m a y be as l o w as 10#15 years@
During*the^last 30#40 years**the^vitality |of| street trees {has] fallen
drastically@ Heavier traffic patterns {have] increased d e m a n d s{for}road
construction* which consequently{has]changed*the^growing conditions
|of| m a n y roadside trees@ Also* pollution {from] traffic{has]!a#highly
detrimental impact on street trees@ *the^ fact that 5 0 %|of|*the^trees
planted*in=*anû r b a n environment die within*the^first year emphasizes
this point@ N o w a k et al@ (1990) found that 3 4 % |of| 4 8 0 trees died within
2 years |of| planting* while Miller *and% Miller (1991) found that *the^
mortality rate was 25#50% {for} !a# number |of| species planted *in^
Wisconsin* USA@
Temperature extremes can occur* especially{where}trees *are^
widely spaced *and%{where}heat [is] reflected {from] hard surfaces@ Harris
(1992) described that* occasionally* tree limbs u p{to]0@6 m*and%trunks
up {to] 1@2 m *in= diameter break *and% fall during hot calm summer and+
autumn afternoons *and% subsequent evenings@ Roots {are] more sensitive
^to* temperature extremes than *the^ tops |of| plants@ Wind speed *will^
vary according {to] *the^ shape *and% height |of| buildings@ Areas with tall
buildings {will] usually b e relatively cool*in=s u m m e r due {to] shading
effects* *and% warmer *in= winter due {to] wind#protection effects@ On *the^
other hand* winds {are] more variable *and% more extreme {at] exposed
corners |of| tall isolated buildings@ Buildings deflect strong winds

downwards *and% concentrate their force {at] *the^ base *and% corners |of|
buildings* forming @wind tunnels@@ Trees planted *in= these exposed
gaps m a y suffer scorched leaves*and%shoots* which lead{to]!a#stunted
canopy* especially on *the^ windward side@ Newly planted trees *will^
transpire more rapidly *in= windy situations* which can lead {to] *the^
death |of| !a# tree already severely stressed {by] drought@ *the^ w i n d
stability|of|trees[is]determined{by]tree species* stand structure* spacing*
thinning regimes* soil classes* breeding *and% tree age {at] *the^ time |of|
anchorage@
The presence |of| airborne pollutants*in=*theâtmosphere {has] b e e n
!a# characteristic feature|of|*theûrban environment since*the^beginning
|of| *the^ Industrial Revolution@ Air pollution can occur *in= !a# variety |of|
forms but *the^ principal ones {are] dust* SO *and% NO @ Leaves {are] *the^
2 x
plant parts m o s t likely{to]s h o w s y m p t o m s |of| air pollution injury@ O n

broadleaved plants* leaves m a y develop interveinal necrotic areas*
marginal or tip necrosis* stippling|of|*theûpper surface* or silvering
|of|*the^lower surface@
However* trees *in= *the^ urban environment also play !a# role *in= *the^
quest {for} cleaner air *in= *the^ cities@ Scott et al@ (1998) showed that daily
uptake |of| NO *and% particulate matter represented 1#2% |of|
2
anthropogenic emissions {for} *the^ county |of| Sacramento* California@

In areas with winter temperatures b e l o w 0°C**theûse |of| de#icing
salt [is] !a# well#known problem@ De#icing salt [is] applied {to] *the^
surrounding environment {by] surface run#off* wet spraying and+
airborne drifting@
The initial*and%m o s t c o m m o n s y m p t o m |of| de#icing salt d a m a g e
on trees *and% shrubs [is] reduced growth@ This [is] often difficult *to^
recognize or may be confused with other stress factors@ Reduced
growth[is]usually followed{by]early a u t u m n colours*and%premature
leaf fall@ De#icing salt[is]usually accumulated on*the^w i n d w a r d side
|of| trees@ *the^ d a m a g e [is] easily recognized because{it]faces *the^ road
{and}[is]normally regarded as*the^best indication |of| de#icing spray
damage@*the^majority |of| trees*and%shrubs subjected{to]either soil salt
or salt spray typically s h o w necroses{at]*theêdges|of|*the^leaves or
needles@ Wounds* often related {to] pruning* {are] !a# common place *for^
spray salt {to] infect *the^ plants@ *the^ damage may cause lack |of| sprouting
{and} eventually dieback@ Conifers{are]very susceptible{to]de#icing salt
s p r a y d a m a g e b e c a u s e t h e y {are] g r e e n all t h r o u g h *the^ w i n t e r

maintenance season@ Trees *and% shrubs damaged {by] de#icing salt and+
showing dieback {are] difficult {to] cure@
Characteristics *and% Restriction |of| Rooting*in=*the^Built Environment
Urban soils as !a# growing medium {are] poorly understood and+
often misunderstood@ Therefore plantings {are] carried out with little
appreciation or attention{to]*the^character*and%quality|of|*the^material
that lies beneath*the^surface@ One major problem*in=relation{to]planting
*in&*theûrban situation[is]soil compaction* w h i c h m a y occur*in=small
as well as large u r b a n sites@
Soil compaction can b e divided into t w o types* (i) intentional soil
compaction* which occurs when soil [is] deliberately compacted *for^
site stabilization under roads* houses* etc@ *and% (ii) unintentional soil
compaction* which occurs when traffic uses areas intended *for^
planting (Randrup 1997)@ *in= *the^ urban situation* unintentional soil
compaction[is]primarily found along roadsides*and%on construction
sites@
W h e n soil[is]compacted*{its]bulk density increases*and%{its]porosity
decreases@ These effects inhibit plant growth because*the^soil b e c o m e s
impenetrable {to] root growth and* furthermore* restricts *the^ water
{and} o x y g e n available{to]*the^roots@{for}example* root growth |of| most
plants [is] i m p e d e d once soil b u l k density rises a b o v e 1@6@ O n e
consequence |of| compacted soil[is]waterlogging* w h i c h can kill roots
around existing trees@ Soil loosening {has] proved {to] be effective *in^
alleviating compacted soil@ However* there [is] no doubt that *the^ best
t r e a t m e n t {for} c o m p a c t e d soil [is] {to] protect *the^ soil {from] b e i n g
compacted*in=*the^first place@ Florgard (1987) suggested protecting
trees growing on construction sites{by]dividing*the^site into zones
*in& which different types |of| construction traffic {are] permitted@ *the^
principle |of| construction site zoning was adapted {by] Randrup and+
Dralle (1997) {to] protect *the^ soil {from] being compacted@ They suggested
that *the^ entire construction site be divided into !a# building zone* !a#
working zone *and% !a# protection zone@
Urban Characteristics/Environment Analysed

The city[is]characterized{by]paving*and%buildings* which variously
results *in= decreased w i n d speed* b u t *an^ increase *in= windthrow*
raised temperatures*and%precipitation* lowered humidity*and%shading
in street canyons@*theêxtent|of|*theînfluences|of|these factors depends

on *the^ structure *and% amount |of| vegetation* as well as on *the^ size |of|
*the^ city@ Green areas *in= *the^ city accessible {to] *the^ public include areas
ât* schools* public libraries*and%social institutions* as well as parks
{and} churchyards@ These{are]areas that{are]typically relatively small
{and} geographically widespread* w h i c h[is]w h y they often suffer great
recreational pressure* most often due {to] *the^ overall proportion |of|
green areas *in= *the^ city@
T h r o u g h o u t Europe*the^proportion |of| urban green areas varies
greatly*{from]over 6 0 %|of|*theârea|of|Bratislava**the^capital|of|Slovakia*
^to* about 5 %*in=Madrid**the^capital|of|Spain@*in=comparison**the^figure
^for* M e x i c o City[is]only 2@2%~*in=relation{to]*the^n u m b e r |of| inhabitants*
2
this only provides 1@94 m per inhabitant* w h i c h[is]far b e l o w*the^9
2
m r e c o m m e n d e d{by]*the^W o r l d Health Organization@!a#suggested
measure |of| urban environmental quality[is]*the^location |of| green
areas within!a#walking distance |of| 15 m i n or less {from] all housing
areas@ This criterion[is]m e t{for}all citizens*in=Brussels* Copenhagen*
Glasgow* Gothenburg* Madrid* Milan *and% Paris and* *in= general* *for^
more than 50% |of| *the^ population *in= most European cities@
The quality |of| urban green areas{are]increasingly recognized as
being important{to]*theôverall quality |of| h u m a n life*in=*the^cities@
B e y o n d this**theûrban forests*and%trees{are]important as ecosystems
*in& relation{to]*the^conservation |of| biological diversity@
T h o u g h *the^ urban population benefits {from] *the^ urban green
areas**theîncrease*in=population places great pressure on*theêxisting
green areas as !a# result |of| urban *and% infrastructural development@ *the^
importance |of| *the^ urban green space* |of| which urban forestry [is] *an&
integral part* increases as population increases@
The growing urban population needs *the^ environmental and+
social benefits associated with urban forests* as shown {by] Ulrich
(1984) *and% Grahn (1989)@ *in= developing countries* urbanization *has^
^had* !a# dramatic influence on creating environments practically without
any amenities* as [is] *the^ case *in= Mexico City*{where}*the^ growth *in^
population {has] not been matched {by] *an^ increase *in= green space@ *it^
*is] *an^ accepted reality that *the^ growth |of| *the^ cities cannot be stopped@
Instead**the^challenge[is]{to]control urban growth so that {it] results
*in& e c o n o m i c growth*and%!a#satisfactory environment@
As m o r e than two#thirds |of| *the^ population |of| Europe live in
u r b a n areas**the^quality|of|*theû r b a n environment* including green

areas*[is]b e c o m i n g increasingly recognized as one key{to]*theêconomic
reconstruction |of| E u r o p e a n cities ( C o m m i s s i o n |of| *the^ E u r o p e a n
C o m m u n i t y 1990)@ U r b a n areas constitute*theêveryday environment
|of|*the^greater part|of|*the^population and**in=recent years* this topic
^has* received considerable attention*in=*theÊ u r o p e a n Union* United
Nations *and% *the^ Organization {for} Economic Cooperation and+
Development* which {will] hopefully lead {to] *an^ improvement *in= our
k n o w l e d g e |of| urban environments@
3
Forest * Botanical Relationships
Introduction
Trees represent m a n y different families within *the^ t w o major
divisions |of| *the^ spermatophytes or seed#bearing plants $ *the^
gymnosperms *and% *the^ angiosperms@ Trees |of| *the^ gymnosperm group
âre* more commonly known as conifers or softwoods* while those |of|
*the^ angiosperm group {are] often called broadleaf trees or hardwoods@
T h e s e n a m e s do n o t a p p l y u n i v e r s a l l y $ *the^ w o o d |of| s o m e
gymnosperms*{for}example*[is]considerably harder than that|of|certain
angiosperms@ {for} most practical purposes* however* *the^ forests |of|
*the^ world {are] classified as softwoods* temperate hardwoods and+
tropical hardwoods@
The dominance|of|*the^softwoods*in=*the^northern temperate forests
*is]|of|special e c o n o m i c significance* b e c a u s e m a n{has]found that these
w o o d s {are] particularly useful@ T h u s *the^ s a w timber that [is] u s e d
throughout*the^w o r l d*in=general building*and%construction[is]75 per
cent softwood*and%*anê v e n larger proportion |of| w o o d pulp c o m e s
^from* this class |of| trees@
Bole or trunk@ T h r o u g h o u t*the^life|of|*the^tree there{are]alternate
periods|of|growth*and%d o r m a n c y*and%*in=general* owing{to]differences
*in&*the^structure|of|*the^w o o d p r o d u c e d{at]*the^b e g i n n i n g*and%{at]the
end |of| !a# growing season* *the^ successive layers appear as !a# series |of|
concentric circles when *the^ tree [is] cut transversely@{where}climatic
conditions{are]such that!a#period |of| growth alternates with!a#period
|of| d o r m a n c y within *the^ year* these w o o d y layers {are] k n o w n as
annual rings@*the^yearly increase*in=w o o d v o l u m e depends primarily
on diameter growth@ {for} *the^ first few years after {its] formation *the^
wood* then known as $sapwood*$ contains some living cells which
store food substances*and%conduct water*and%solutions |of| mineral
nutrients{from]*the^roots{to]*the^c r o w n|of|*the^tree@ Later*the^cells die*
other physiological changes take place*and%*the^wood*{at]this stage
known as $heartwood*$ ceases {to] function except *in= support |of| *the^
crown@ Quite commonly *the^ heartwood [is] darker *in= colour* more
durable*and%{has]better timber properties than*the^sapwood@
The physical structure*and%consequently*the^density*and%technical
properties|of|*the^w o o d laid d o w n{by]*the^cambium* vary considerably
^from* one species{to]another@ *the^ rate |of| diameter growth m a y also
^have* diverse influences on *the^ strength*and%quality |of| *the^ wood*
while rapid growth increases *the^ strength |of| certain hardwoods* *it^
may produce soft* spongy* Jow#grade timber *in= some |of| *the^ softwoods@
The form|of|*the^bole generally varies according{to]*the^strength
required{to]support*the^c r o w n*and%resist w i n d pressures**in=!a#closed
forest*the^bole approaches!a#cylindrical form* whereas*in=e x p o s e d
sites{it][is]m o r e conical owing{to]*the^n e e d{for}mechanical support@
There {are] also considerable differences b e t w e e n species* especially
between *the^ two major groups |of| hardwoods *and% softwoods* *in= *the^
form |of| *the^ crown *and% bole *and% *in= *the^ vigour |of| development and+
persistence |of| side branches@
Usually softwoods produce!a#well#defined bole with relatively
small branches* while *the^ branches |of| many |of| *the^ hardwoods *are^
larger *and% more widely spreading@ Since branches produce knots* *for^
*the^ production |of| clear timber{it][is]desirable{to]r e m o v e *the^ lower
dead*and%dying b r a n c h e s while they{are]fairly small@*in=general* trees
growing*in=!a#closed forest {have] fewer*and%smaller b r a n c h e s than
those growing*in=*theôpen@ However**the^rate{at]w h i c h lower branches
âre* killed{by]shade*and%subsequently drop{to]*the^ground varies with
*the^ species@
Important characteristics|of|*the^mature root system also vary
^from* one species{to]another@ S o m e species {have] deeply penetrating
tap roots@ Others {have] mainly shallow lateral roots* w h i c h{are]more

likely {to] be sensitive {to] drought *and% ground fires *and% {to] render *the^
trees more susceptible {to] wind throw@
Root modifications or adaptations that {are] related {to] *the^
nutritional efficiency |of| certain species include*
• The presence |of| nodules containing nitrogen#fixing bacteria *in= *the^
roots* particularly |of| alders *and% members |of| *the^ Leguminosae*
• A close association between *the^ root tips |of| many tree species and+
*the^ mycelia |of| certain fungi* this association [is] known as
$mycorrhiza@$
Nutritional*and%Ecological Requirements
For{its]g r o w t h*and%{for}other life processes**the^tree requires food
{and} like other green plants{it]builds u p{its]food materials {from] simple
substances@ *the^ chemical constituents|of|!a#tree {are] chiefly carbon*
h y d r o g e n *and% oxygen* together with s o m e nitrogen*and%certain
minerals such as potash* lime* iron *and% phosphorus@ *the^ carbon *is$
obtained {from] *the^ small amount |of| carbon dioxide gas that [is] always
present*in=*theâtmosphere*and%enters*the^plant through small openings
*in& *the^ leaf surface known as $stomata@$ Oxygen *and% hydrogen *are^
obtained {from] *the^ soil through *the^ root system *in= *the^ form |of| water
carrying nitrogen (nitrates) *and% mineral nutrients *in= solution@ *the^
synthesizing |of| these elements {to] form substances that *the^ tree requires
#in particular *the^ combination |of| carbon* hydrogen *and% oxygen *to^
form carbohydrates $ takes place mainly *in= *the^ leaves *in= *the^ presence
|of|*the^characteristically green matter (chlorophyll)*and%|of|sunlight*
which supplies *the^ necessary energy@ Air* water* chlorophyll and+
light {are] therefore essential {to] *the^ production |of| *the^ carbohydrates#
*in& particular cellulose*and%lignin #which form {by] far *the^ greater
portion|of|*the^tree@ Soil moisture[is]especially important* as!a#deficiency
|of| water inhibits photosynthesis@ Tree species differ markedly *in^
their optimum water requirements *and% also *in= their sensitivity *to^
departures {from] *the^ optimum@
Tree species also differ greatly*in=*theâ m o u n t|of|light they require*
or* alternatively* *in= *the^ degree |of| shade they {will] tolerate@ {it] *is$
customary {to] classify species as shade#enduring or tolerant (of shade)
{and} light#demanding or intolerant (of shade)* b u t{for}m o s t species
*the^ younger *the^ tree *and% *the^ better *the^ soil quality on which {it] *is$
growing* *the^ greater {its] tolerance |of| shade@
The environmental factors important *in= tree growth $ solar

radiation* air temperature* humidity* precipitation*and%*the^physical
{and} chemical nature|of|*the^soil $ {are] usually spoken |of| as*the^factors
|of| site or locality*and%their total effect with reference{to]!a#species as
*the^ site quality@ Site quality[is]evaluated either directly{by]examination
{and} classification|of|soil*and%other factors* or indirectly* as{for}example*
^by* using ground vegetation as *an^ indicator |of| soil conditions* or *by^
relating *the^ height |of| dominant trees {to] *the^ age |of| *the^ stand@
Since *the^ bulk |of| *the^ tree [is] derived {from] carbon dioxide and+
water* !a# relatively small demand [is] made on *the^ soil *in= growing !a#
crop |of| timber~ thus land too poor{for}profitable cultivation m a y b e
capable|of|growing!a#crop|of|timber satisfactorily@ D e e p l y penetrating
roots bring up {from] *the^ deeper soil strata mineral nutrients that
would not otherwise be available~ !a# relatively high proportion |of|
these minerals may be deposited annually on *the^ surface soil through
*the^ falling |of| leaves* twigs*and%other debris@
The leaves* w h i c h play such*anîmportant part*in=*the^nutrition
|of|*the^tree* function{for}only!a#limited time before dying@ D e c i d u o u s
trees lose all their leaves{at]*theênd|of|*the^growing season* w h e r e a s
evergreens lose only!a#portion|of|*theôlder leaves each year@
The growth*and%general well#being|of|!a#tree depend primarily
on soil*and%weather conditions@ Also|of|vital importance{to]*the^future
|of| each m e m b e r|of|*the^forest c o m m u n i t y[is]*theîntense competition
that d e v e l o p s {for} space*and%food requirements#a struggle that
inevitably kills m a n y|of|*the^competitors*and%brings about significant
changes*in=*theênvironment |of| *the^ survivors@
Longevity
U n d e r favorable conditions!a#tree usually grows vigorously until
ît* reaches maturity* after w h i c h *the^ growth rate gradually slows
down@ O v e r m a t u r e trees g r o w little*and%s h o w signs |of| decadence@
*the^ n o r m a l life expectancy |of| trees varies widely with*the^species*
s o m e temperate*and%tropical h a r d w o o d s reach maturity*in=less than
100 years*and%s o m e softwoods*in=100{to]200 years* b u t m a n y species
|of| b o t h softwoods*and%h a r d w o o d s require 200{to]500 years{to]mature@
On *the^ Pacific coast |of| North America* ages |of| 500 {to] 700 years *are^
common~ *the^ giant sequoia *in= California {has] been known {to] live *for^
over 3*000 years**anêxample |of| extreme longevity@
Resistance {to] Damage

Trees* like other organisms* {are] damaged *and% destroyed *by^
various agencies* including fire* insects* fungi* grazing animals*
industrial fumes*and%such climatic factors as wind* frost*and%snow@
*the^ capacity {to] resist such damage depends upon *the^ vitality and+
*the^ protective devices |of| *the^ species@ !a# knowledge |of| *the^ relative
r e s i s t a n c e |of| different tree s p e c i e s [is] |of| i m p o r t a n c e *in= forest
management@
Distribution
Apart{from]*the^chance results|of|geological history**the^continental
distribution |of| tree species *and% *the^ limits |of| tree growth* both *in^
altitude *and% latitude* depend primarily on heat~ *the^ east#west
distribution* on*theôther hand*[is]m o r e often determined{by]moisture
c o n d i t i o n s $ t h e rainfall*in=*theînterior|of|!a#continent m a y b e too
scanty{to]support tree growth@ T h u s each species|of|tree{has]!a#range
|of| natural distribution determined primarily{by]climate@ Obviously
there[is]!a#great deal |of| overlapping*and%m a n y species g r o w u n d e r
similar conditions $*in=fact{it][is]c o m m o n{to]{have]!a#n u m b e r |of| species
sharing*the^same area*in=!a#m i x e d stand@
Pure stands |of| !a# single species do not commonly occur *in= *the^
natural forest* though stands approaching this condition may be
found{where}!a# species [is] well adapted {to] extreme conditions |of|
climate or soil moisture* or{where}fire {has] brought about !a# situation
particularly favorable {to] one species@ *the^ most heterogeneous and+
complex forest communities {are] found *in= tropical regions |of| high
rainfall@ *the^ distribution |of| !a# species within {its] natural range *is$
determined mainly {by] soil* topography *and% competing vegetation*
as well as{by]local variations*in=climate* w h i c h also affect*the^long#
term development |of| m a n y species* climatic races or strains develop*
m o r e or less adapted{to]local variations |of| climate within*the^range
as!a#whole@ This fact accounts**in=part{at]least*{for}*the^wide variation
*in& results obtained {by] using seed |of| other than local origin *in^
establishing forests@
Scots pine*{for}example* {has] developed !a# n u m b e r |of| climatic
races*and%experience*in=b o t h Europe*and%N o r t h A m e r i c a s h o w s that
efforts{to]introduce!a#$foreign$ race |of| this species without!a#proper
correlation |of| climatic conditions {at] seed source *and% planting site *will^
almost certainly prove unsatisfactory* particularly *in= *the^ susceptibility
of*the^trees{to]d a m a g e{by]s n o w*and%sleet*and%*theîncidence|of|disease@

This* |of| course* also h o l d s true{for}attempts{to]establish a n y tree as
*an& exotic outside *the^ b o u n d a r i e s |of| {its] natural range@ However*
^where* *the^ climatic conditions |of| two regions {are] similar* *the^
introduction |of| tree species {from] *the^ one {to] *the^ other may be
undertaken successfully* as* {for} example* *in= *the^ introduction |of|
conifers {from] *the^ Pacific coast |of| North America into Great Britain@
A n understanding |of| *the^ various biological factors discussed
above[is]|of|fundamental importance*in=*the^d e v e l o p m e n t |of| forestry
practice* particularly *in= *the^ fields |of| silviculture *and% protection@ *it^
must be emphasized* however* that practical forest management
must depend also on*the^knowledge*and%application|of|sound business
principles*and%on*the^development|of|suitable methods*and%techniques
^to* be used *in= collecting* analyzing *and% organizing *the^ basic data *to^
be obtained {from] *the^ forest@
Branches |of| Forestry

As[is]implied{by]w h a t{has]b e e n said above* forestry{has]!a#n u m b e r
|of| subdivisions* e a c h |of| w h i c h [is] concerned with some particular
aspect or phase|of|*the^subject@ Hence**anûnderstanding |of| forestry
itself[is]dependent on k n o w l e d g e|of|{its]parts**theêxtent{to]w h i c h they
âre* interdependent*and%h o w best they m a y b e co#ordinated@
Forest Protection
A g e n c i e s that seriously d a m a g e*and%m a y destroy forests include
fire* insects* diseases* grazing animals *and% adverse conditions |of|
exposure *and% climate@ *the^ relative importance |of| these varies with
local conditions@
Fire[is]perhaps*the^m o s t spectacular@{it]frequently destroys not
only*the^forest growth* b u t also*the^surface organic layer beneath*
thus reducing soil fertility@ Fire [is] m o s t serious*in=*the^coniferous
forests |of| temperate regions *and% *in= *the^ dry forests |of| *the^ tropics and+
subtropics *and% [is] |of| course most difficult {to] control *in= heavily forested
regions with sparse populations*and%p o o r accessibility@
Protection against fire [is] usually one |of| *the^ first steps taken *in^
*the^ development |of| !a# forestry programme@ Appropriate legislation
*is] passed*and%organized staff*and%e q u i p m e n t *and% transportation
facilities {are] provided {to] detect*and%suppress fires as they occur@
^where**the^country[is]heavily*and%continuously wooded* strips m a y
be cut through *the^ forest {to] break *the^ continuity |of| tree growth and+
delay or prevent *the^ spread |of| fires@ Clear#cut strips |of| this nature
âre* known as $fireguards@$ Fire itself[is]sometimes used as!a#preventive
measure{where}*theânnual fall |of| litter*and%*the^dying b a c k |of| ground
vegetation produce large accumulations |of| inflammable debris@ *the^
$early burning$ |of| this material when moisture conditions {are] such
as{to]prevent too rapid spread |of| fire {will] reduce*the^danger during
!a# dry period later*in=*the^season@
Recent important advances*in=*the^field |of| fire protection include
*the^ use |of| aircraft* mainly{for}detection*and%|of|meteorological data
^to* appraise more precisely*theêxisting degree |of| fire hazard* so that
d a n g e r o u s conditions can b e quickly r e c o g n i z e d *and% adequate
preventive measures taken@
In some European countries forest fires{are]rare*and%such as do
occur cause negligible damage@ *in= Norway* {for} example* forest
properties m a y b e insured against fire{at]!a#low p r e m i u m rate@ There
âre*!a#n u m b e r |of| reasons{for}this* (a)*in=general*the^forests{are]easily
accessible*and%under intensive management* with annual fellings
well distributed*in=!a#large n u m b e r |of| small scattered holdings~ (b)
*the^ forest consciousness |of| *the^ people [is] highly developed~ (c) *the^
climatic conditions tend {to] be favorable* with well#distributed summer
rains*and%*anâbsence |of| prolonged hot* dry periods@
Despite*the^damage{it]causes* fire cannot be looked u p o n solely
as*anê n e m y|of|*the^forest@ Under certain conditions controlled burning
m a y prove !a# useful tool*in=securing *the^ regeneration |of| valuable
forest trees~{it]m a y prepare!a#suitable seedbed* eliminate competing
vegetation* or assist *in= *the^ distribution |of| seed@ Certain conifers* *for^
example* {have] serotinous cones *and% considerable heat [is] required
^to* open them*and%release *the^ seed* these species m a y reproduce
abundantly after fire*and%*the^resulting stand [is] often referred {to] as
!a# $fire type@$ Extensive even#aged coniferous forests|of|*the^northern
t e m p e r a t e r e g i o n o w e their o r i g i n {to] fire* as d o m a n y o t h e r
commercially important forests*in=various parts|of|*the^world@
Insects that d a m a g e*and%destroy trees*and%*the^fungi*and%other
organisms that cause tree diseases* {are] present *in= all forests@ *in^
endemic proportions *and% *in= balance with their environment* they *are^
!a# necessary *and% sometimes innocuous feature |of| *the^ forest community@
Even under these normal conditions* however* some insects and
diseases m a y seriously d a m a g e commercially valuable trees@ While

*the^ damage caused {by] fungi [is] usually slow *in= developing *and% |of|
minor account *in= young trees* {it] [is] cumulative *and% may be so extensive
*in& overmature trees as{to]render t h e m valueless@
Destructive organisms may also reach epidemic proportions and+
destroy one or more tree species over wide areas@ This [is] particularly
likely {to] happen *in= overmature forests or when *an^ organism *is$
moved {from] {its] natural environment {to] new surroundings@ !a# classical
example[is]*the^chestnut blight (Endothia parasitica)* which was brought
^to* North America {from] Asia about 1900 *and% killed practically all |of|
*the^ sweet chestnut (Castanea dentata) *in= eastern America within !a# few
years@ Instances may also be cited |of| widespread destruction *by^
forest insects* such as *the^ spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana)
*in&*the^spruce*and%balsam#fir forests |of| northern*and%eastern Canada@
Methods used {to] control insects *and% disease include *the^ removal |of|
trees most susceptible {to] attack* *the^ establishment |of| new stands
containing !a# mixture |of| species rather than pure stands and+
discrimination against species susceptible {to] *an^ insect or disease
k n o w n{to]b e present*in=*the^locality@{for}example* white pine (Pinus
strobus)* which[is]often b a d l y attacked{by]*the^pine weevil (Pissodes
strobi)*and%*the^blister rust (Cronartium ribicola)* should not be
e n c o u r a g e d { w h e r e } t h e s e pests {are] c o m m o n l y found* unless some
effective m e a n s |of| control [is] available@
Other methods |of| controlling forest pests include*theîntroduction
|of| parasites *and% predators* *the^ use |of| chemical sprays *and% *the^
development through selection *and% crossbreeding |of| strains or hybrids
that {are] relatively i m m u n e {to] attack {by] specific pests@
Domestic animals grazing *in= forest areas* particularly cattle and+
goats* often cause much damage {by] killing seedlings *and% compacting
*the^ soil@*in=*theêastern Mediterranean region*{where}goats {have] b e e n
allowed{to]r o a m over*the^countryside* m u c h|of|*the^forest vegetation
^has* been completely destroyed@*in=m a n y cases*theônly control possible
*is]{to]exclude*theânimals~ elsewhere forest grazing m a y b e permitted
u n d e r carefully controlled conditions@
Forests {are] normally protected against *the^ adverse effects |of|
weather *and% exposure {by] some adjustment *in= *the^ methods |of| cutting
{and}{by]encouraging*the^development |of| species best suited{to]local
conditions@
Reproduction
A tree crop m a y be established{by]artificial or natural means* or
^by* !a# combination |of| *the^ two@ *in= artificial reproduction* seed *is$
sometimes sown* but more commonly young trees that {have] been
g r o w n*in=nurseries {are] planted on*the^site@*in=either case**the^seed
used [is] collected*in=*the^forest* preferably {from] trees |of| good form
{and} vigour@ When *the^ crop [is] established {by] natural means* *the^
young trees may originate vegetatively or {from] seed disseminated
either before felling takes place or {by] trees left standing {for} *the^
purpose {at] *the^ time |of| logging@ !a# new crop |of| young trees that
b e c o m e s established*in=*the^forest before cutting takes place[is]k n o w n
as $advance growth@$
There {are] t w o principal m e t h o d s |of| cutting *the^ mature forest*
each |of| which {has] advantages with respect {to] *the^ regeneration and+
establishment |of| individual tree species*
Clear#Cutting
B y this method* w h i c h results*in=*the^development |of| m o r e or less
even#aged stands**the^forest[is]cut*in=one operation or*in=!a#succession
|of| operations* each |of| w h i c h r e m o v e s either!a#portion |of| *the^ trees
scattered over *the^ whole area or all |of| *the^ trees {from] !a# part |of| *the^
area~ these operations {are] continued until *the^ original stand *is$
completely cleared@ Regeneration may be established {by] natural or
artificial means**the^former being provided {for} either {by] advance
growth* or{by]seed lying*in=*the^surface soil{at]*the^time |of| cutting or
m a d e available{from]*the^crowns |of| felled trees or {from] standing trees
surrounding*the^cutover area@
For species that require overhead protection *in= their youth !a#
$shelterwood cutting$ [is] made* *the^ stand [is] opened up gradually
over !a# period |of| years {by] m a k i n g three or four successive cuts
periodically over*the^whole area until*theôriginal stand[is]removed@
^for* other species* *the^ seed source may be *the^ critical factor *and% *the^
stand [is] clear#cut except {for} !a# few mature trees* evenly distributed
over*theârea* which{are]preserved{to]provide*the^seed{for}*the^next
crop@ This[is]k n o w n as $seed#tree cutting@$ Quite commonly* portions
|of|!a#stand {are] clear#cut periodically*in=*the^form |of| n a r r o w strips*
wedge#shaped blocks* or patches* until*the^stand{has]b e e n completely
felled@
The Douglas#fir forests on*the^Pacific coast|of|North America* for
example*{are]clear#cut*in=patches or b l o c k s|of|!a#size that {will] permit

natural regeneration{by]seeding#in{from]*the^surrounding uncut stand@
This type |of| cutting [is] particularly applicable {to] species like *the^
Douglas fir that {are] intolerant |of| shade@ *the^ intensity |of| cutting and+
*the^ size* form *and% arrangement |of| clearcut areas vary according *to^
local conditions *and% requirements* particularly stand density*
topography* logging methods *and% *the^ ecological characteristics |of|
*the^ desired species@
Selection Cutting
This m e t h o d distributes cutting*and%regeneration continuously
over*the^w h o l e area* producing!a#single uneven#aged stand or series
|of| such s t a n d s { w h e r e } t r e e s |of| all ages {from] seedlings {to] mature
timber occupy*theârea together@ Scattered single trees or small groups
|of| trees m a y b e r e m o v e d periodically throughout *the^ w h o l e forest*
or*the^forest m a y b e divided into!a#n u m b e r |of| blocks* one |of| w h i c h
*is] cut over*in=this w a y annually or every few years@
The aim [is] {to] improve *and% regenerate *the^ forest* as well as *to^
harvest !a# crop* while some |of| *the^ better formed mature trees may
b e kept*in=*the^stand{for}!a#n u m b e r |of| years{to]provide seed* all dying
{and} defective trees that {are] {at] all merchantable {are] r e m o v e d as
quickly as possible@ N o n m e r c h a n t a b l e trees m a y b e girdled@ A s
regeneration*and%early d e v e l o p m e n t |of| growing stock m u s t take
place*in=partial shade* this m e t h o d [is] particularly suited {to] tolerant
species@
Afforestation
Forestry not only seeks{to]ensure*the^reproduction |of| existing
forests* b u t [is] also concerned with*the^p r o b l e m |of| establishing n e w
forests@ Afforestation m a y b e u n d e r t a k e n (a){to]reclaim forest land
cleared{for}other purposes b u t best suited{for}*the^growing |of| forest
crops* (b) {to] establish forests as *an^ e c o n o m i c crop o n land n o t
previously forested* (c){to]stabilize shifting sand*and%eroding soils*
(d) {to] provide protection {for} agricultural*and%other crops against
w i n d*and%s n o w d a m a g e*and%(e){to]i m p r o v e seepage*in=drainage areas
{and} so stabilize stream flow@
Great Britain* Australia* N e w Z e a l a n d*and%South Africa {have] all
undertaken large#scale afforestation with*theôbject |of| supplementing
their natural resources@ *the^ trees u s e d {have] b e e n predominantly
softwoods* particularly species |of| pine@ O n e |of| *the^ best#known

e x a m p l e s |of| land reclamation{for}forestry purposes[is]*in=*the^Landes
|of| Gascony* where* since*the^latter part|of|*theêighteenth century*
!a# p r o g r a m m e{has]b e e n developed{to]fix shifting sand dunes*{to]drain
s w a m p s*and%{to]afforest large areas with maritime pine*the^principal
source |of| resin*and%turpentine *in= Europe@
The use |of| trees *in= shelter belts*and%w i n d b r e a k s {to] protect
agricultural land[is]c o m m o n practice*in=m a n y countries*and%{has]b e e n
practiced on !a# large scale *in= *the^ United States *and% Russia@ *the^
establishment |of| forests {to] conserve water supplies {has] often been
*an& important objective |of| forestry ever since {its] early beginning *in^
Europe@ *in= many cases* however* such forests may be used {for} wood
production as well as {for} protection@ *in= India*and%certain other
tropical countries forests created primarily{to]provide small timber
{and} fuel{for}*the^local population often help {to] solve*the^p r o b l e m s
|of| flood control* erosion*and%desiccation@
The success|of|afforestation programs depends u p o n m a n y factors@
Foresters must determine*the^suitability|of|species{to]soil*and%climatic
conditions~ they must guard against*the^m a n y hazards that m a y arise
*in& introducing !a# species or race{to]!a#n e w environment~ they must
decide whether*the^species grows best*in=!a#pure stand or*in=mixture
with other species*and%whether {it] {will] thrive as!a#pioneer u n d e r
open#grown conditions or[is]better suited{to]!a#later stage*in=plant
succession@ *the^ relationship|of|*the^species{to]{its]environment m u s t
b e studied carefully if afforestation[is]{to]b e successful@
Botanical Names
T o n a m e !a# thing [is] *the^ next best thing {to] understanding it@
Indeed* unless y o u n a m e it* y o u {will] not understand it@ Nomina si
nescis* perit et cognitio rerum* wrote*the^father |of| botanical names* if
y o u k n o w not names**the^k n o w l e d g e also |of| things [is] lost@ N a m e s
âre**the^tools with w h i c h our thoughts grasp {at] nature@
The first m a n{to]n a m e plants[is]said{to]{have]b e e n Adam@ T h o u g h
w e {have] n o catalogue |of| *the^ n a m e s w h i c h he invented* w e m a y
suppose that they{were]*theêquivalents**in=his speech*|of|n a m e s given
^by* our o w n ancestors* apple* daisy* oak* cowslip@ H e probably used
n a m e s m u c h as w e ordinarily do**in=!a#rather general way~ fully
r e c o g n i z i n g that {for} certain p u r p o s e s {it] m i g h t b e desirable to
distinguish b e t w e e n various sorts |of| apple w h i c h differed *in= taste

{and} *in= virtue@ Furthermore* being !a# horticulturist rather than !a#
botanist* Adam may {have] been misled {by] superficial resemblances
^to* m a k e his groups rather too loose*and%{to]use one n a m e{for}apples
{and} other luscious temptations@
We {are] rich *in= names |of| plants* names which bear *an^ imprint |of|
*the^ cradle |of| *the^ language *and% |of| {its] vigorous youth@ *the^ English
country n a m e s{have]!a#quality w h i c h n o others can share*in=*the^m i n d s
|of| Englishmen@ $I k n o w!a#bank{where}*the^wild t h y m e blows*$ says
Oberon* $where oxlips*and%*the^nodding violet grows$*and%*the^mind@s
eye w a n d e r s over*the^long grass spangled with buttercups{to]h e d g e s
|of| thorn*in=w h i c h tall elms stand*{to]*the^coppice |of| holly*and%oak
{and}{to]*the^brick house beyond* timbered with oak*and%thatched with
straw@
Latin n a m e s also*and%Greek* these conjure our imaginations
steeped *in= *the^ vestiges |of| !a# Mediterranean culture@ Hyacinth and+
narcissus* olive *and% fig *and% plane* these words speak |of| ox#drawn
wains creaking towards*the^R o m a n market*|of|generous vines trained
u p o n elms*|of|*the^care|of|*the^shepherd{for}*the^twin kids d r o p p e d
^by**the^wayside~ |of| pipes heard*in=Arcady~|of|*the^fauns*and%facile
n y m p h s w h o shared those groves@
Latin names *in= particular {have] {had] !a# curious history@ When *the^
tide |of| Germanic barbarism finally burst *the^ barriers *and% swept
over *the^ luxury*and%letters|of|*anêmpire**theârt |of| gardens w a s
almost lost *and% *the^ knowledge |of| plants@ *the^ newcomers *were^
hunters *and% robbers *and% *in= *the^ flush |of| conquest their thought was
^to* destroy@ But* h a v i n g*the^soil*and%*the^w e a l t h thereof* they m u s t
rediscover *the^ arts that *the^ Romans *and% Gauls *and% Iberians and+
Britons {had] known@
Here*and%there survived fragments |of| Christian Rome* hermits
{and} monks~ speaking Latin* preserving*theârts|of|writing*|of|building*
|of| growing plants {for} their simple needs@ *in= their gardens they *had^
!a# few herbs {for} medicine* !a# few potherbs {for} their frugal tables* lilies
{and} roses{for}*the^glory |of| G o d on His festivals@ *the^ G e r m a n i c tribes*
having n a m e s only {for} c o m m o n trees*and%weeds* learned other
n a m e s{from]*the^Latin~ corrupted Lactuca into lettuce*and%achieved
parsley out |of| Petroselinum@ Such ill#bred attempts{at]n a m i n g plants
might well suffice{for}their rude agriculture~!a#pursuit then* as now*
limited{to]*theîgnoble or*the^conquered*and%r e w a r d e d with poverty

{and} contumely@ O n e can g r o w plants without reading b o o k s (though
*the^ m o d e r n publisher does his best{to]m a k e gardeners forget this)@
But there{are]things about plants not k n o w n{to]*the^peasant* qualities
w h i c h m u s t b e carefully preserved*in=*the^writings|of|*the^learned@
This[is]true particularly |of| their medicinal virtues@ S u c h writing w a s
naturally* *in= those rough times* done *in= Latin* *the^ language |of| *the^
few that {were] literate@
Since*theêarliest ages m e n {have] k n o w n that plants {were] useful
*in& their ailments *and% mishaps@ *in= medieval Europe *the^ interest *in^
plants centered about their $virtues@$ !a# brew |of| mugwort (Artemisia)
was good {for} *an^ aching belly *and% would restore (@twas said) *an&
appetite lost {by] drinking@ Self#heal (Sanicula) was considered {to] stop
bleeding |of| w o u n d s external*and%internal@ Thistle#stalk boiled*in=oil
w a s thought {to] cure asthma or distemper |of| *the^ ear@ *and% so on
through herbal after herbal* *an^ interminable list |of| traditional and+
largely mythical remedies@
Such k n o w l e d g e w a s*in=all peoples appropriated{by]*the^wise
m a n*and%*the^priest* incorporated into religions@
Savage forest#dwellers used plant decoctions{to]m a k e their arrows
fatal *and% surrounded *the^ preparation |of| *the^ poison with taboo and+
incantation@ *the^ medicine man invoked powerful spirits when he
administered his potions@ *the^ rabbit@s foot or*the^ceremonial rattle
held equal rank with*the^Cinchona bark* since evidence|of|*the^m o d e r n
clinical kind w a s sought{for}neither*and%b o t h rested their potency
on divine intervention@
So also Europeans |of| five hundred years ago believed that *an&
extract {from] walnut meats was good {for} sickness |of| *the^ brain because
|of|*the^similarity b e t w e e n*the^shape*and%appearance |of| walnut m e a t
{and} brain~!a#beneficent Creator{had]left His m a r k u p o n*the^plant that
m a n m i g h t k n o w*the^purpose|of|{its]existence@ S u c h beliefs survive
*in& our names@
Heartsease* w h i c h w e call also pansy* w a s k n o w n{by]{its]heart#
shaped leaves~*the^value|of|Hepatica m i g h t b e inferred{from]{its]liver#
shaped leaves*and%|of|all plants*the^m o s t sovereign w a s*theâlmost
mythical mandrake* w h o s e root{had]*the^form|of|!a#m a n*and%w a s g o o d
^for* all troubles|of|*the^flesh@{it][is]not surprising* therefore* that m o s t
|of|*theêarliest b o o k s about plants {are] devoted {to] their medicinal
values@*the^learned monks*and%their students made careful manuscript

catalogues |of| plants*and%e n u m e r a t e d *the^ healing or preventive
qualities |of| e a c h kind@ W h e n b o o k s b e g a n {to] b e printed these
c o m p e n d i a {were] copied*in=formal treatises@
Fig@ Heptica
The science |of| b o t a n y{had]{its]roots*in=*the^n e e d{for}descriptions
|of|*the^plants{by]w h i c h they might b e recognized@ *the^ early herbals
^were* anonymous* compilations |of| c o m m o n beliefs* old wives@ tales*
sometimes with crude*and%inaccurate illustrations@ Later herbalists
b e g a n{to]devote their efforts{to]careful examination*and%description
|of| plants~ their writings began {to] {have] scientific value@ These *were^
*the^ botanists {from] whom our names {for} plants {are] descended@
Naturally they wrote*in=Latin@ Their w o r k w a s often translated
into *the^ vulgar tongues{for}*theûse |of| *the^ unlearned*and%if they
occasionally wrote first*in=*the^vernacular* their writings appeared
also*in=!a#Latin version@ So{have]*the^familiar Latin n a m e s c o m e d o w n
^to* us* Rosa* Lilium* Viola* Delphinium* Cornus* Quercus* Vitis and+
Greek names which *the^ Romans {had] adopted *and% spelled *in= their
o w n way* Hyacinthus* Narcissus* Lotus@
One |of| *the^ first rewards |of| persistent inquiry into nature [is] !a#
distinction between different orders |of| likeness@ All trees {are] alike*
*in&!a#general way@ All oaks{are]m u c h m o r e so@*and%a m o n g oaks w e
can pick out white oaks* red oaks* b l a c k oaks* b u r oaks*and%m a n y
others@ {it] {has] b e e n s h o w n that e v e n primitive m a n m a d e such
distinctions@ H e arrived{at]*the^larger groups either{by]overlooking

small differences (such as variation*in=*the^type |of| teeth on*anôak
leaf)~ or{by]deliberately lumping together things that {were] perceived
as slightly dissimilar@ Every child learns* as he grows up* {to] name
groups* *the^ size*and%uniformity|of|*the^group varying with*theâcuity
|of| his perception*and%with his interest*in=*theôbjects@ *the^ old n a m e s
|of| plants**the^Latin names*and%those that{have]come{from]*the^Germanic
tongues*{are]mostly n a m e s |of| w h a t*the^botanist calls genera* Rosa*
Lilium* Acer or Maple* Q u e r c u s or O a k * $ e a c h|of|these[is]!a#GENUS@
A s they attained{to]greater discrimination* as they b e g a n{to]b e
interested*in=*the^smaller distinctions b e t w e e n plants**the^herbalists
{and} early botanists b e g a n{to]n a m e*the^kinds within each genus~ w h a t
*the^ botanist n o w calls!a#species* w h a t*the^general public insists on
speaking |of| as !a# variety@ These they {at] first named {by] adding !a#
qualifying word {to] *the^ Latin name |of| *the^ genus* exactly as we do
*in& English@ A s w e say $white rose$ or $red rose*$ they wrote $Rosa
alba$ or $Rosa rubra$ (the adjective naturally following *the^ noun *in^
Latin)@
Epithets{were]sometimes fanciful@ Certain trees {were] distinguished
on*the^basis|of|!a#curious notion that s o m e {were] $male$*and%others
$female$ (an idea quite dis#s tinct {from] *the^ later realization that *the^
parts |of| flowers {are] indeed comparable {to] *the^ male *and% female
organs |of| animals)@ So we find two dogwoods named Cornus mas and+
Cornus foemina@
Such simple n a m e s did not long serve@ A s n e w plants came into
*the^ catalogues*in=ever increasing numbers* n e w names{were]necessary~
this m o v e m e n t w a s particularly accelerated{by]*the^great explorations
|of|*the^fourteenth*and%fifteenth centuries@ Plantago major*and%Plantago
minor#the greater *and% *the^ lesser plantains$are names enough *for^
two species@ But when John Clayton found !a# new species *in= Virginia
{and} Jan Fredrik Gronovius |of| Leiden (to whom he sent it) tried *to^
name {it] so that others would know {it] again* *the^ result was Plantago
foliis lanceolato#ovatis pubescentibus subdenticulatis* spicis cylindricis
pubescentibus* scapo angulato~$plantain with hairy leaves lance# or
eggshaped*and%having very small teeth**the^flower#spikes cylindrical*
hairy**the^flower#stalk angled@ This w a s*the^n a m e |of| that species~ all
|of|{it]w a s necessary*{at]least{for}scientific purposes@ *the^ botanical
works|of|that period consist mainly|of|such ponderous brain#twisters@
In effect*{to]n a m e!a#plant y o u{had]{to]describe it~*the^m o r e kinds y o u

k n e w*the^longer*and%m o r e complex b e c a m e your descriptions@
The constant effort{at]precision{had]*the^result which such efforts
often have* even*in=our enlightened time* obscurity@ W h e n Leonard
Plukenet*in=1696 described*anÂ m e r i c a n d o g w o o d as Cornus foemina
candidissimis foliis americana *and% Philip Miller *in= 1737 described *an&
American dogwood as Cornus foemina Virginiana* angustiore folio* no
one could tell whether they{had]*the^same or different species~ opinions
varied@
Since they{had]not realized h o w m a n y $female$ d o g w o o d s grew
*in& America*and%h o w similar they were* they{were]unable{to]emphasize
*the^ points necessary{to]distinguish them@ *the^ more adjectives they
introduced into their names* *the^ more difficult did {it] become *to^
compare *the^ plants@ *the^ result was chaos@
Botany was saved{by]*the^great reformers|of|*theêighteenth century@
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort was *the^ first {to] organize into!a#clear
system w h a t w e n o w call*the^genera~ using characters{to]distinguish
them w h i c h any one could find*and%n a m i n g each{by]!a#single word
or!a#short phrase@ $Cornus$ or $Quercus$ w a s selected as!a#definite
name* whether or not {it] was accompanied {by] half !a# dozen lines |of|
assorted adjectives@ Other systematists |of| that systematic age collated*
^to**the^best|of|their ability**the^different descriptive n a m e s|of|*the^same
plant u n d e r*the^particular description which they preferred@
Of these*the^great Carl Linnaeus w a s*the^m o s t successful@ His
journeys*in=northern Europe* his industry* his keen observation*
above all his p o w e r s |of| classifying* gave h i m!a#grasp |of| *the^ plant
world that{had]not b e e n approached{by]his predecessors*and%{has]not
always b e e n equaled {by] those w h o {have] followed him@ H e wrote
several b o o k s devoted{to]*theêxposition|of|his system|of|classification
{and} his rules{for}naming@
The crowning glory|of|his literary career was*the^Species Plantarum*
published*in=1753@*in=this great w o r k $ s t i l l*the^foundation |of| botanical
n o m e n c l a t u r e $ h e recognized*and%described more or less intelligibly
about 6000 species|of|plants*and%collected under each*the^$synonyms*$
i@e@* *the^ names bestowed upon them {by] his predecessors and+
colleagues@ *in= this work !a# device was introduced* possibly only as
*an& afterthought {for} convenience* which {had] *an^ immediate and+
profound effect upon *the^ history |of| names@ *in= *the^ margin opposite
each plant description* Linnaeus wrote!a#single w o r d (or occasionally

two)~ usually *an^ adjective* perhaps selected {from] *the^ descriptive
n a m e|of|*the^species~!a#sort|of|epitome|of|*the^description* or!a#reference
w o r d w h i c h could represent it* used {for} n o other species |of| that
genus@
Instead |of| having {to] repeat R o s a foliis utrinque villosis* fructu
spinoso*{to]specify that plant y o u n e e d only say Rosa villosa~ this
would serve {to] locate *the^ full particulars *in= *the^ Species Plantarum and+
^to* distinguish {it] {from] all other roses* villose *and% otherwise@ This was
*the^ origin|of|*the^famed binomial system |of| nomenclature@
W h e t h e r or not Linnaeus himself grasped all*the^value |of| these
$trivial names*$ their usefulness was{at]once perceived{by]*the^botanical
world@ W h e n Miller brought out*theêighth edition |of| his Gardener@s
Dictionary (1768)* he inserted*the^single w o r d foemina after*the^Cornus
quoted above* before*the^long description|of|*the^species~ henceforth
that species w a s k n o w n {to] gardeners*and%{to]botanists simply as
Cornus foemina@ Today every species |of| plants (and |of| animals) *is$
known {by] *an^ equally simple name |of| two words@
A wonderful system${it][is]not requisite{to]invent!a#single w o r d
^for* each|of|*the^h u n d r e d s |of| thousands |of| species |of| plants~ yet each
^has* !a# short name which can be readily acquired {by] those who *have^
business with it@ We need only as many single different names as
there{are]genera* Quercus* Rosa* Cornus*and%*the^rest{are]*the^n a m e s
|of| g e n e r a $ n u m e r o u s enough**in=all conscience* but not impracticably
so@
The species can be distinguished {by] adding {to] *the^ name |of| *the^
genus simply qualifying words* which may be used over *and% over
again{for}different genera* Q u e r c u s alba* Cornus alba* R o s a alba*
Rosa rugosa* Cornus rugosa* Quercus coccinea* Crataegus coccinea*
I p o m o e a coccinea@ W h e n w e run out |of| descriptive adjectives (as w e
soon do *in= !a# large genus)* we can use *the^ names |of| localities *where^
*the^ species {were] collected or{where}they abound* virginianus*
canadensis* missouriensis@ Or we can use !a# Latinized version |of| *the^
name |of| !a# botanist who collected *the^ first specimen or !a# friend who
helped us{to]collect{it]*and%so perpetuate his m e m o r y*in=!a#flattering
{and} inexpensive manner* Cornus drummondi* Phlox douglasi* Monarda
bradburyana@ W e c a n also easily n a m e *the^ varieties w h i c h w e
distinguish within!a#species{by]simply affixing another word@ Such
groups{are]*the^less stable*and%less distinct subdivisions |of| species*

particularly dear{to]*the^horticulturist* Erica vulgaris[is]heather* Erica
vulgaris alba*and%Erica vulgaris coccinea{are]t w o|of|*the^m a n y colour#
variants |of| heather k n o w n*in=cultivation@ {at] first glance this seems
like!a#return{to]*the^pre#Linnaean $polynomials$~ b u t !a# moment@s
reflection shows that each element |of| these names [is] used *in= !a#
systematic way* one part subordinated {to] another@
Augustin P y r a m u s de Candolle**in=!a#textbook published*in=1813*
wrote as follows* $Thirty thousand species|of|plants{are]today k n o w n
on*the^surface|of|*the^globe~ this n u m b e r w o u l d be increased{to]m o r e
than forty thousand* if w e added all*theûndescribed plants*in=our
collections *and% if we suppose that Asia* Africa *and% America *were^
known {to] presentday botanists as Europe was {to] those |of| *the^ sixteenth
century* we shall see that* *in= all probability* *the^ terrestrial globe *is$
covered {by] more than sixty thousand species |of| plants@$
In*the^second edition |of| this book* published only six years later*
*the^ same sentence appears with*theêstimated total n u m b e r changed
^to* $more than one h u n d r e d thousand@$*in=*the^third edition |of| 1844
ît* appears that eighty thousand species{were]k n o w n*and%*theêstimated
total[is]raised{to]one h u n d r e d*and%twenty thousand@ Botanists n o w
reckon on {at] least three hundred thousand *and% admit that many |of|
*the^ most prolific parts |of| *the^ world await exploration {by] botanists@
Without!a#concise*and%practical naming#system* we should long ago
^have* b e e n intellectually buried {by] such*anâvalanche |of| discovery@
So m a n y{are]*the^blessings|of|!a#concise system |of| n a m e s that w e
m a y forget*the^really greater contribution{to]science made{by]Linnaeus@
He not only named plants* he classified them@ Indeed his system |of|
names was {to] some extent *the^ offshoot |of| his classification@ He was
*the^ first {to] succeed *in= arranging all plants *in= !a# limited number |of|
groups* these groups *in= !a# smaller number |of| larger groups *and% so
on*in=hierarchical array@
Species form genera* genera{are]parts |of| orders* orders m a k e u p
classes@ O u r groups today{are]not those|of|Linnaeus*and%*the^principles
u p o n w h i c h they {are] founded {are] not*the^same as his~ b u t w e use
!a# system w h i c h{has]*the^same general form@ M o r e o v e r w e still use
m a n y |of| *the^ clues w h i c h h e pointed out *in= our searching after
relationship@ W e still follow Linnaeus*in=using*the^numbers |of| stamens
{and}|of|*theêlements|of|*the^pistil as characters |of| primary importance
in classification@ Since almost anyone can count**the^L i n n a e a n system

^has* b e e n {from] *the^ time |of| {its] introduction !a# blessing {to] students
intent on placing*anû n k n o w n flower*in={its]proper category@
The virtue |of| binomials* apart {from] their brevity*and%economy*
*is] that they carry within themselves some information about *the^
grouping *and% affinities |of| *the^ species {to] which they belong@ Any
b i n o m i a l b e g i n n i n g w i t h *the^ w o r d P r i m u l a $ P r i m u l a obconica*
Primula rosea* Primula v e r i s $ a t once locates*the^species*in=!a#group
|of| similar species@ If every one{had]!a#n a m e|of|{its]own* quite unlike
that |of| every other species* this h a n d y guide{to]relationship w o u l d
b e lost@
In spite|of|*the^b e a u t y |of| this system (it{has]drawbacks* but they
âre* minor *and% offer no great obstacle {to] adjustment)* there [is] !a#
popular abhorrence |of| *the^ scientific names |of| plants@ *the^ greater part
|of| this m a y perhaps b e traced{to]!a#fear |of| foreign or even |of| foreign#
seeming w o r d s (this*in=turn{to]*the^current degeneration |of| spelling
{and} g r a m m a r *and% diminution |of| vocabulary fostered {by] certain
m o d e r n schools)@ This[is]!a#sad reflection u p o n our language~{for}Latin
words {have] contributed much {to] English* much |of| beauty *and% |of|
fluency@
Such n a m e s as Veronica* Camellia* Delphinium* Rhododendron*
Althaea* Narcissus* D a p h n e {have] pleasant cadences as well as exact
meanings *and% offer no greater difficulty {to] !a# child than some |of| *the^
more curious etymological survivals |of| *the^ Gothic tongues@ Many
indeed{are]*in=c o m m o n use*in=h o m e s*and%gardens*and%florists@ shops@
ît*[is]true that such w o r d s as Pteris*and%Mnium* with their unfamiliar
combinations|of|consonants* presuppose!a#higher standard |of| reading
than[is]current*in=m a n y schools~ b u t*the^r e m e d y[is]o b v i o u s $ a n d not
difficult@
Charles Kingsley wrote* $In law* physic *and% divinity* folks *had^
sooner be poisoned *in= Latin* than saved *in= *the^ mother#tongue@$
T o d a y he might deplore*theôpposite extreme@*the^prejudice against
Latin n a m e s [is] characteristic|of|*theîntellectually timid or slothful*
w h o promulgate*the^slander that b o t a n y*and%zoology{are]little m o r e
than vocabularies~ that*the^botanist lavishes*anûnnecessary erudition
u p o n*anû n w o r t h y w e e d*and%seeks{to]dull*the^sweetness|of|!a#flower
^by* n a m i n g{it]*in=*anâlien tongue@ These romantic persons should
exercise their eloquence*in=expounding*theâesthetic merits*and%the
valued connotations |of| such n a m e s as horsemint* stinking Willie*

pigweed* bunchflower* mudweed* beardtongue@
M a n y |of| our wild plants must*{for}want|of|*anôriginal metaphor*
be dedicated{to]*the^Father |of| Evil{by]those w h o {are] afraid |of| their
Latin names~ w h a t!a#pleasure awaits*the^tourist w h o finds*the^devil@s
paint#brush*in=*the^devil@s kitchen$ Still others|of|our gracious American
wildflowers {have] borrowed *an^ English name which was used *for^
another species on *the^ other side |of| *the^ Atlantic@ *the^ cowslip which
adorns*theÊnglish springtide bears n o resemblance{to]*the^Virginia
cowslip*and%as{for}b l u e b e l l s $ e v e n*the^Scotch*and%English bluebells
âre* very different *and% neither [is] related {to] most |of| *the^ bluebells |of|
America@
It[is]!a#pity{to]conceal*theîdentity |of| our o w n flowers with!a#n a m e
that does not fit them*!a#n a m e that already{has]{its]aura|of|associations~
as{it]w a s!a#regrettable nostalgia that fastened u p o n one |of| our best#
loved birds*the^n a m e|of|*theÊnglish robin redbreast@ There{are]times
{and} places{for}all things*and%I a m glad that*the^poet did not write
$I k n o w !a# b a n k { w h e r e } T h y m u s serpyllum blows@$ But*the^Latin
n a m e s{are]not essentially formidable*and%if they{are]given as m u c h
consideration as *the^ technical vocabularies |of| baseball*and%radio
n e e d cause n o panic@
It m u s t be granted**in=any impartial consideration |of| scientific
n a m e s that*the^scientist{has]sinned*in=m a n h a n d l i n g language@ M a n y
botanists{are]so unfamiliar with*the^roots*and%stems|of|languages that
ît*[is]!a#pity that they should feel qualified{to]create words@ S u c h n a m e s
as Kickxia*and%Sczegleewia do not inspire confidence *and% Oscillatoria
hahatonkensis must arouse mirth@ But* all *in= all* scientific names *are^
not much worse than others$and far more useful@
Popular dissatisfaction with botanical n a m e s[is]partly due also
^to*!a#very general failure{to]appreciate*the^system |of| nature@ If while
visiting!a#friend I a m invited{to]look around*the^garden (and*in=s o m e
places this[is]inevitable)*{it]m a y h a p p e n also that I a m invited{to]n a m e
some |of| *the^ plants@ Not being omniscient* I cannot always name *the^
species before me* but can say only that {it] belongs {to] suchand#such
!a# genus or family@ *the^ species |of| s o m e genera w h i c h {are] ubiquitous
*in& g a r d e n s $ P r u n u s (cherry* plum* peach* almond)* M a l u s (apples)*
Aster* Crataegus (hawthorns)* Acer ( m a p l e ) $ a r e so c o m p l e x that
they can be accurately k n o w n only{by]*theêxpert*in=those groups@
Fig@ Linnaea
It [is] sufficient {for} ordinary knowledge {to] name *the^ genus and+
*the^ fact that one can do so should be received with proper acclamation@
Even*the^recognition|of|*the^family represents precise*and%detailed
knowledge@ M a n y amateur gardeners *and% botanists {are] i n d e e d
interested *in= arriving {at] such knowledge |of| their plants *and% *are^
thwarted {by] *the^ professional growers* some |of| whom {are] interested
rather*in=*the^m o r e internecine aspects |of| their art@ Horticultural
names* consequently* b o r d e r on chaos@
The principle |of| hierarchical classification[is]extremely simple
{and}[is]*in=constant use{for}all sorts |of| objects@ A m o n g vehicles w e
readily distinguish*the^horse#drawn*and%*the^mechanically propelled~
a m o n g*the^latter w e can classify some as using gasoline* others fuel
oil* still others coal or alcohol@ Each |of| these groups can*in=turn b e
b r o k e n down@
So we {have] !a# n u m b e r |of| species |of| roses* R o s a carolina* Rosa
setigera* Rosa palustris *and% *the^ rest* which together make up *the^
genus Rosa@ This genus *and% other genera such as Potentilla* Spiraea*
Fragaria make up *the^ rose family* Rosaceae@ This family *and% *the^
saxifrage family *and% *the^ bean family *and% some others compose *the^
rose order* *the^ Rosales@ O n *the^ basis |of| certain structural features
m a n y orders* i n c l u d i n g *the^ Rosales* {are] p l a c e d *in= *the^ class
Dicotyledones@ These *in= turn form !a# part |of| *the^ Angiospermae*
flowering plants~ one|of|*the^major divisions |of| *the^ plant world@
There {are] only!a#few |of| these divisions~*theône just n a m e d is
by far *the^ largest@ More or less related {to] {it] [is] *the^ division called *the^
Gymnospermae* which includes those plants commonly known as
conifers* pines* spruces* hemlocks* firs~*the^cycads also*and%!a#few
other r e m n a n t s |of| ancient tribes* {are] usually placed here@ !a# third
division (Filices) holds *the^ ferns* ancient*and%modern@ !a# fourth
(Bryophyta) [is] made |of| *the^ mosses *and% their relatives@ *the^ fifth *is$
*the^ Algae* those mostly small but sometimes very large *and% variously
coloured habitants |of| ocean* lakes*and%streams*and%*the^sixth division
*is] c o m p o s e d |of| plants without chlorophyll**the^Fungi@
The Practice |of| Forestry

Forestry#loosely defined as*the^systematic m a n a g e m e n t*and%use
|of| forests*and%their natural resources{for}h u m a n benefit#has b e e n
practiced{for}centuries@ M o s t often* forestry efforts{have]b e e n initiated
*in& response{to]indiscriminate timber cutting that d e n u d e d*the^land
{and} caused erosion* floods* or!a#shortage |of| w o o d products@
Ancient Forestry Practices
In a n c i e n t P e r s i a ( n o w Iran)* forest p r o t e c t i o n *and% n a t u r e
conservation laws{were]*in=effect as early as 1*700 B@C@ T w o thousand
years ago*the^Chinese practiced what they called $four sides$ forestry#
trees {were] planted on house side* village side* road side**and%water
side@ M o r e than 1*000 years ago* J a v a n e s e maharajahs b r o u g h t*in=teak
{and} b e g a n{to]cultivate it@*in=*theÂfrican Tropics* agroforestry (growing
|of| food crops*in=association with trees){has]b e e n practiced{for}hundreds
|of| years@*in=*the^Y u c a t a n Peninsula |of| southern Mexico**theâncient
M a y a s cultivated fruit*and%nut trees along with such staples as corn*
beans**and%squash@ Bark* fibers**and%resin {were] obtained {from] plants
g r o w n *in= fields* k i t c h e n gardens* *and% orchards@ E a r l y *in= their
civilization**the^M a y a s practiced slash#and#burn agriculture@ A s their
population grew* they found m o r e efficient m e t h o d s |of| growing
crops@ T h e y terraced hillsides* learned h o w {to] decrease *the^ time
b e t w e e n $rotations$ |of| agricultural land with native forests* dug
drainage channels*and%canals{to]m o v e water{to]*and%{from]cultivated
areas**and%filled*in=s w a m p l a n d {to] plant crops@
The agricultural s o p h i s t i c a t i o n |of| *the^ M a y a s e n a b l e d their
civilization{to]g r o w*and%flourish@ W h a t b r o u g h t about their decline
about A@D@ 820[is]n o t fully known* b u t some believe that as their
society developed**the^M a y a s m a d e unsustainable d e m a n d s on their
environment@ Relatively little[is]k n o w n about tropical forestry before

*the^ mid1800@s*in=most places@ {at] that time**theÊ u r o p e a n colonial
empiresnotably *the^ Dutch* English**and%Spanish#brought m o d e r n
forest management practices {to] Indonesia* India* Africa* *and% *the^
Caribbean@ Centers {for} forestry *and% forestry research {were] established*
{and} m o r e careful records {were] kept@
Sustainable Forestry
Modern forestry {has] {its] basis *in= 18th#century Germany@ Like *the^
Chinese *and% *the^ Mayan forest practices* German forestry [is] essentially
agricultural@ Trees{are]managed as!a#crop@ T w o concepts{are]important*
renewability*and%sustainability@ Renewability m e a n s that trees can
be replanted *and% seeded *and% harvested over *and% over again on *the^
same tract |of| land *in= what {are] known as crop $rotations@$ Sustainability
m e a n s that forest harvest can b e sustained over*the^long term@ H o w
far into*the^future {were] foresters expected{to]plan# A s long as there
^were* vast acres |of| virgin (original) forests remaining* this question
w a s s o m e w h a t academic@ Today* however* sustainability[is]!a#vital
issue *in= forestry@ Most |of| *the^ world@s virgin forests {are] gone* and+
people must rely more *and% more on second# growth or managed
forests@ Perhaps w e n o w face* as never before**the^limits{to]long#term
productivity@
In*the^G e r m a n forest model* forestry [is] v i e w e d as!a#continual
process |of| harvest *and% regeneration@ Harvest |of| wood products [is] !a#
goal* but !a# forester@s principal tasks {are] {to] assure long#term
productivity@ That [is] achieved {by] cutting *the^ older* mature* and+
slow#growing timber {to] make way {for} !a# new crop |of| young* fast#
growing trees@
Harvest#Regeneration Methods
T h r e e e x a m p l e s |of| t i m b e r h a r v e s t # r e g e n e r a t i o n m e t h o d s
(silvicultural systems) illustrate how foresters manage stands *to^
produce timber on !a# sustained basis@
Selection
Individual trees or small groups |of| trees{are]harvested as they
b e c o m e mature@ N u m e r o u s small openings*in=*the^forest{are]created
*in& w h i c h saplings or n e w seedlings can grow@ *the^ resulting forest
^has*!a#continuous forest canopy*and%trees |of| all ages@ Such systems
favor slow#growing species that {are] shade tolerant@
Clearcutting
In clearcutting* *an^ entire stand |of| trees [is] r e m o v e d *in= one
operation@{from]*the^forester@s point|of|view* clearcutting[is]*theêasiest
w a y{to]m a n a g e!a#forest#and*the^most economical@ Regeneration m a y
come{from]sprouts on stumps* {from] seedlings that survive*the^logging
operation* or {from] seeds that germinate after*the^harvest@ If natural
regeneration [is] delayed longer than desired**theârea[is]planted or
seeded@
Clearcutting systems {are] often used {to] m a n a g e fast#growing
species that require!a#lot |of| light@ Resulting stands {are] even aged
because all*the^trees*in=*anârea{are]cut#and regenerated#at*the^same
time@ Clearcutting{has]b e c o m e controversial*in=recent years because
ît* {has] *the^ potential {to] damage watersheds *and% because {it] tends *to^
eliminate species |of| wildlife dependent on old growth trees@ If clearcuts
âre* kept small*and%*the^cutting interval [is] long enough* however*
biological diversity m a y not b e impaired@
Shelterwood
In shelterwood systems* *the^ forest canopy [is] removed over !a#
period |of| years* usually *in= two cuttings@ After *the^ first harvest*
natural regeneration begins*in=*theûnderstory@{by]*the^time*the^second
harvest[is]made* e n o u g h y o u n g trees {have] g r o w n{to]assure adequate
regeneration@ Shelterwood systems favor species that{are]intermediate
*in& tolerance{to]shade@ Such systems{are]difficult{to]use successfully
{and}{are]*the^least used|of|*the^three silvicultural m e t h o d s described@
Multiple#Use Forestry
Gifford Pinchot**the^first Chief|of|*theÛ@S@ Forest Service* w a s also
this country@s first professional forester@ Pinchot advocated*theûse
|of| forest resources#all resources* not just timber#for h u m a n benefit@
Pinchot w a s!a#strong*and%charismatic leader**and%his ideas helped
shape*the^course |of| forestry*in=*theÛnited States@ Pinchot{had]!a#vocal
opponent *in= J o h n Muir*!a#y o u n g naturalist {from] California w h o
believed that public lands should b e preserved rather than used@
Eventually M u i r*and%Pinchot b e c a m e rivals {for} public approval@
O d d l y enough* there w a s n o
loser*in=this early conservation battle@ Muir@s preservation ethic
became embodied *in= *the^ philosophy |of| *the^ National Parks* and+
Pinchot@s concept |of| wise use became *the^ guiding principle |of| *the^
National Forests@ National Forests {are] still m a n a g e d u n d e r the
concepts |of| multiple use *and% sustained yield@ *the^ dominant uses |of|
National Forests {are] considered {to] be wood* water* wildlife* forage
(for domestic cattle*and%wildlife)**and%recreation@
E x t r a c t i o n |of| m i n e r a l s *and% other v a l u a b l e p r o d u c t s [is] also
considered!a#legitimate use |of| National Forests@ Because Pinchot@s
philosophy left r o o m{for}*the^$highest*and%best use$|of|!a#given area*
*the^ U@S@ National Forests n o w include!a#wilderness system |of| m o r e
than 32 million acres (13 million ha)*in=w h i c h timber harvest [is] not
allowed@ T o d a y {it] [is] generally r e c o g n i z e d that most* if n o t all*
nondestructive uses |of| forest{are]valid@ S o m e areas m a y b e set aside
as parks~ others {for} wildlife habitat or as wilderness@ Still others *will^
be managed {for} timber harvest or multiple benefits@ Today* conflicts
arise primarily over{where}these different uses {will] be dominant@ *in^
*the^ National Forests* such decisions {are] made through !a# land#use
planning process *in= which *the^ public {has] ample opportunities *for^
input *and% involvement@
Forestry Research
At *the^ turn |of| *the^ century* very little was known about *the^
world@s native forests or how {to] manage them@ *in= *the^ United States*
foresters {were] quick {to] recognize *the^ value |of| information about
forests*and%!a#b r a n c h |of| research w a s established*in=*the^Forest Service
*in& 1915@ Early research w a s done primarily*in=support |of| reforestation
efforts* but* as forestry grew *in= size *and% complexity* so did *the^
research@ Today* *the^ USDA Forest Service {has] six regional experiment
stations located*in=important forest regions@ E a c h experiment station
^has* several field laboratories generally with specialized assignments
^for*!a#geographic region or!a#specific subject area**and%n u m e r o u s sites
^for* field research@ *in= addition* *the^ Forest Products Laboratory *in^
Madison* WI* serves as !a# nationwide centre {for} research and+
d e v e l o p m e n t |of| n e w technology relating{to]wood* including tropical
woods@ T w o laboratories{are]dedicated exclusively{to]tropical forest
research**theÎnternational Institute |of| Tropical Forestry *in= Puerto
Rico*and%*theÎnstitute |of| Pacific Islands Forestry*in=Hawaii@
Research [is] vital {for} modern forest management* which *is$
information intensive@ Today@s foresters require vast quantities |of|
data *and% !a# knowledge |of| ecology* they must understand not only
*the^ parts |of| ecosystems b u t h o w different parts|of|*theê n v i r o n m e n t
interact@ Scientific investigations {are] conducted *in= support |of| all

kinds |of| forestry activities* silviculture* forest insect*and%disease
control* wildlife habitat management* fire prevention*and%control*
range*and%watershed management* forest products utilization* forest
survey* reforestation* ecology**and%economics@
Forest Values
O n e|of|*the^p r o b l e m s *the^ U C S{has]identified [is] that *the^ public
m u s t b e better educated as{to]*the^valuable services that forests
provide* such as biodiversity* carbon storage**and%water purification@
O n e|of|*the^major issues that m u s t b e faced today[is]*theêconomics#
w h e n!a#quick sale can b e m a d e o n*the^l u m b e r or other goods taken
^from*!a#forest*{it][is]h a r d{to]convince people{to]turn a w a y*and%choose
^to* protect *an^ environment that helps everyone but [is] intangible@ *the^
market#based versus environmental# based issues create some |of| *the^
biggest challenges*in=dealing with global w a r m i n g today@
Effects |of| Global Warming
N o t all forests{will]{have]*the^s a m e o u t c o m e s under*theînfluence
|of| global warming *and% changes *in= precipitation@ Some forests *will^
die back* while others may extend their ranges@ Amounts |of| CO *will^ 2
vary* adding{its]influence{to]*the^m i x as well@ W h a t e v e r*theôutcome

|of|!a#particular forest* if{its]population cannot adapt or migrate with
*the^ changes* {it] {will] face extinction@ *the^ IPCC* {at] least one#third |of|
*the^ world@s remaining forests may be negatively affected {by] climate
change during this century@ Global warming may force plant and+
animal species {to] migrate or adapt faster than [is] physically possible*
disrupting entire ecosystems@
The I P C C also predicts that forests {will] {have] changes *in= fire
intensity*and%frequency*and%increased susceptibility{to]insect d a m a g e
{and} diseases@*the^W o r l d Wildlife Fund* climate scientists use!a#variety
|of| m e t h o d s{to]predict*theîmpacts |of| climate change on forests@ O n
!a# global or large regional scale* they can predict shifts*in=ecosystems
^by* c o m b i n i n g b i o g e o g r a p h y m o d e l s w i t h a t m o s p h e r i c general
circulation m o d e l s ( G C M s ) that project changes*in=*anê n v i r o n m e n t
^where**the^C O 2 content{has]doubled@ T h e y also use b i o g e o c h e m i s t r y
m o d e l s{to]simulate*the^carbon cycle* flow |of| nutrients**and%changes
*in& precipitation* soil moisture**and%temperature{to]study e c o s y s t e m
productivity@ T h e y e v e n {have] global m o d e l s that simulate w o r l d w i d e
changes*in=vegetation composition*and%distribution@*theÎ P C C states

that global w a r m i n g both directly*and%indirectly affects forests during
climate change@*the^direct impacts|of|w a r m e r temperatures* changing
rainfall patterns* *and% severe weather events can already be seen *in^
certain tree *and% animal species@
E v e n small c h a n g e s can affect forest g r o w t h *and% survival#
especially |of| *the^ portions that lie along *the^ outer edges |of| *the^
ecosystem*{where}*the^ conditions {are] marginal@ When {it] gets hotter*
m o r e water [is] lost through evapotranspiration* w h i c h causes drier
conditions*and%decreases plants@ use |of| water@ W a t e r temperatures
can also throw off *the^ timing |of| flowering *and% fruiting {for} plants and+
adversely affect their growth rate@ Forests {will] also be threatened
when *the^ seasonal precipitation patterns they {have] been used *to^
change *and% water [is] not supplied when {it] [is] needed* causing drought
conditions*and%stress* or supplies too m u c h { w h e r e } i t cannot b e
assimilated* causing flooding*and%mudslides@
The Natural Resources Canada**theâge*and%structure|of|!a#forest
^will* also play *an^ important role *in= determining how quickly {it] *will^
respond {to] changes *in= moisture conditions@ Mature (older) forests
^have* well#established root systems* which means that they can tolerate
drought better than younger forests or forests that{have]b e e n disturbed
*in& s o m e other way* such as through disease infestation@
Species type also plays!a#part#some species{are]m o r e resistant
than others@ M o d e l s{have]b e e n run simulating*theîmpact |of| elevated
levels |of| C O on forests@ *the^ Natural Resources Canada**the^results
2
|of| these simulations {are] not as straightforward or conclusive as

desired@ Results{are]m u c h m o r e problematic@ T h e y found that higher
levels |of| C O improve*theêfficiency |of| water use {by] s o m e plants*
2
{and} s o m e plants {have] b e e n s h o w n {to] adjust {to] higher C O levels*

2
b u t their absorption rates decrease over time@

It[is]also hard{to]m o d e l C O effects w h e n other greenhouse gases
2
m a y b e involved* such as ozone (which works against CO2) or nitrogen

oxide (which can enhance tree growth)@*in=*the^short term (50#100
years)* changes due{to]global w a r m i n g {will] b e focused on ecosystem
function@*in=*the^long term* shift|of|forest types{will]b e more significant@
*the^ IPCC* boreal (northern) forests{will]feel*the^most impact because
their ecosystem {will] b e greatly reduced since w a r m i n g [is] expected
^to* be most significant*in=*the^polar regions@ S o m e|of|*the^most vulnerable
temperate forests {will] be*theîsland* or isolated* forest communities*

such as *the^ fragmented forests encroached upon {by] urban and+
agricultural areas@ There [is] nowhere {for} them {to] migrate@ Forests
located*in=high elevations on mountain systems face!a#similar threat#
as they migrate upward* eventually there {will] b e n o w h e r e{for}t h e m
^to* go@ Individual species that {are] indigenous {to] small geographic
areas or {have] limited seed dispersal {will] also be threatened and+
endangered@
The WWF* *the^ following {are] *the^ five major categories |of| changes
expected *in= temperate forest ecosystems as!a#result |of| global warming*
1@ Disturbance* Forest ecosystems {will] become more disturbed *by^
extreme weather incidence *and% change *in= rainfall *and% temperature@
Forests{will]become more fragmented*and%isolated* permanently
altering*theêcosystem@
2@ Simplification* If global warming [is] severe enough*{it]{will]cause
slower growing species{to]be replaced{by]faster#growing* short¬
lived weeds*and%other invasive species@ This[is]!a#problem because
ît* degrades*the^landscape* creating!a#speciespoor forest#only!a#few
invasive species dominate instead|of|*theôriginal rich* diverse
mixture |of| many species@
3@ Movement* Migration|of|species[is]expected both*in=latitude (towards
*the^ poles)*and%*in=elevation (up mountains)@ How fast individual
species {will] be able{to]migrate[is]still unknown@
4@ Age reduction* With all*the^stresses put on forest trees with global
warming**theôld growth stands{are]expected{to]die off* leaving
younger stands*in=their place@ This{will]{have]!a#negative impact on
biodiversity@
4@ Extinction* *the^ most vulnerable forest habitats could disappear
forever@
U n d e r global w a r m i n g conditions* surviving forests|of|*the^future
^will* look very different {from] those |of| today@ Although changes *will^
vary *in= degree {from] area {to] area* all forests {will] be affected@
Climate Change Impacts
The forests*in=*theÛnited States*and%Canada{are]already showing
*the^ effects |of| global warming@ O v e r*the^past century*!a#1@67°#3@3°F
(1°#2°C) increase*in=air temperature*and%changes *in= precipitation
^have* already been documented@ Experts believe that higher levels |of|
CO 2 {have] already caused dieback |of| forested areas along *the^ Pacific
{and} Atlantic coasts@
It [is] expected that temperate forests *in= *the^ United States *will^
migrate northward {from] 62#329 miles (100#530 km) over *the^ course
|of|*the^next century@ If*theâir temperature w a r m s 3@3°F (2°C) over
*the^ same period* models {have] predicted that tree species {will] *have^
^to* migrate 1#3 miles (1@6#4@8 km) per year* which [is] too fast {for} most
temperate species* except{for}those w h o s e seeds{are]carried{by]birds
over greater distances@
It[is]expected that grasslands {will] dominate m a n y |of| these areas@
*the^ wildlife inhabiting *the^ temperate forests {will] also be affected *by^
loss |of| habitat* drought* *and% wildfires@ Diseases {will] also weaken
them@*the^National A s s e s s m e n t Synthesis T e a m (NAST)|of|*theÛ@S@
Global Change Research Programme* some forest models predict *an&
overall increase *in= forest productivity with increased temperatures@
T h e y also clarify that other environmental factors* such as severe
weather* could offset any productivity@ N A S T also states that!a#great
deal |of| biodiversity change [is] expected*in=*theÛnited States@
The maple/beech/birch forests *in= *the^ Appalachian Range *from^
New England {to] West Virginia could completely disappear@ *in= *the^
U p p e r Great Lakes region* aspen* birch**and%red spruce could b e
obliterated@ If global w a r m i n g occurs gradually* m o d e l s suggest that
oak/pine*and%oak/hickory forests{will]replace these threatened areas@
If* however* conditions {are] b a d enough* entire vegetation species
could b e lost@ N A S T also found that w a r m i n g*in=cooler a r e a s $ s u c h
as *the^ northern United States *and% western mountains near *the^
Canadian border$ {will] increase tree richness *and% provide !a# better
habitat{for}reptiles*and%amphibians@ These same m o d e l s also predict
!a# decrease*in=bird*and%m a m m a l richness*in=*theêastern United States@
N A S T m o d e l s {have] predicted that temperate forests*in=Scandinavia
^will* m o v e n o r t h w a r d*and%replace other forest communities@
Recent Developments
Four e x a m p l e s|of|modern#day forested areas suffering*theêffects
|of| global warming follow@ *in= July 7* 2006* report *in= USA Today* *the^
frequency *and% size |of| large forest fires {have] increased dramatically
*in& *the^ last 20 years* *and% global warming [is] being blamed as part |of|
*the^ cause@ *the^ western region |of| *the^ United States {has] seen *an&
increase*in=wildfire occurrences since 1987~*the^wildfire season[is]n o w
two *and% !a# half months longer than {it] was back then@ Part |of| *the^
problem [is] that spring warm#up [is] happening earlier *and% more quickly
n o w than{it]{has]*in=*the^past@ This s u d d e n temperature transition melts

*the^ winter s n o w accumulation*in=*the^mountains* turning {it] into
h e a v y spring run#off@ Early green#up |of| grass* shrubs**and%other
vegetation promotes*anâbundance |of| biomass@ W h e n *the^ s u m m e r
m o n t h s h e a t u p s i g n i f i c a n t l y $ t h e r e c a n b e several d a y s w i t h
temperatures *in= excess |of| 100°F (37@8°C)$and *the^ winter melt *has^
already run {its] course through *the^ rivers *and% into reservoirs* *the^
landscape b e c o m e s extremely arid*in=*the^hot* dry air**and%*theâbundant
biomass that grew during*theâmple spring run#off becomes extremely
dry* posing !a# high fire hazard@ Anthony Westerling* !a# researcher *at^
*the^ Scripps Institution |of| Oceanography |of| *the^ University |of| California*
San Diego* $ W e didn@t set out{to]m a k e!a#climate change argument*
b u t it@s easy{to]see h o w!a#further rise*in=temperature u n d e r climate
change w o u l d result*in=m o r e frequent wildfires*in=these severe years@
Y o u get early snowmelt**the^soil*and%vegetation dry out sooner*
{and} you get !a# lot more fires* burning longer *and% getting bigger@$ !a#
group |of| scientists {from] *the^ University |of| California* San Diego* and+
*the^ University |of| Arizona studied 1*166 large forest fires that *were^
each !a# minimum |of| 1*000 acres (405 ha) *in= size {from] 1970 {to] 2004 on
national forest*and%parklands@ T h e y determined that*in=*the^latter
part* {from] 1987{to]2004* there {were] four times as m a n y forest fires
{and} m o r e than six times as m u c h total land area burned@ *the^ fires
*in&*the^latter part {were] also m o r e difficult{to]control*and%lasted longer@
*the^ duration |of| fires b e g a n averaging five weeks@
The most famous fire that occurred during this time was *the^
Yellowstone fire *in= 1988@ One#third |of| Yellowstone National Park
burned**and%*the^fire w a s not extinguished until{it]finally b u r n e d itself
out*in=*the^fall@ T o m S w e t n a m{at]Arizona@s Laboratory |of| Tree#Ring
R e s e a r c h says that climate [is] *the^ principal factor causing large
wildfires* especially*in=*the^n o r t h e r n Rockies@ H e b a c k s up his
conclusion{by]pointing out that*the^n u m b e r |of| large fires*in=Wyoming*
Idaho**and%M o n t a n a{has]risen 60 per cent since 1987@*the^combination
|of| rising temperatures*and%drying[is]making forests highly susceptible
^to* wildfires@
Tourism *and% Recreation
One recreational activity that may be hard#hit {by] *the^ effects |of|
global warming [is] *the^ ski industry@ Already* many |of| *the^ glaciers *in^
*the^ Alps*in=Europe{are]melting* threatening*the^future |of| ski resorts@
Because|of|already w a r m e r conditions*and%changed weather patterns*

m a n y winter recreational resorts{have]{to]use s n o w m a c h i n e s{to]m a k e
artificial snow@*in=*the^N e w Y o r k Times* Shardur Agrawala*!a#climate
specialist* noted that alpine resorts* especially those{at]l o w altitudes*
âre* developing other revenue opportunities that do not require snow*
s u c h as spas* restaurants* s h o p p i n g centres* s w i m m i n g pools*
convention centres* *and% tram rides geared {for} *the^ entertainment |of|
hikers *and% sightseers@ Some resorts *in= Europe claim global warming
^has* already b e g u n affecting tourism@ R o m a n Codina**the^m a n a g i n g
director|of|!a#m o u n t a i n lodge*in=Zermatt* Switzerland* testified about
!a# surge |of| visitors during *the^ summer months#tourists {from] *the^
hotter European cities seeking relief *in= *the^ cooler mountains@ Ski
resorts*in=*theÛnited States stand{to]face!a#similar dilemma@ Already*
resorts create artificial s n o w{to]establish!a#s n o w b a s e*in=years w h e n
there [is] not *an^ adequate accumulation {to] open *the^ ski resorts *by^
Thanksgiving *in= November#a traditional start |of| *the^ ski season@
Artificial s n o w[is]also used as!a#b a c k u p{for}ski competitions during
droughtlike years@
Spread |of| Insects

A report *in= National Geographic News on November 5* 2001* !a#
specific species |of| mosquito* Wyeomyia smithii* {has] gone through
*an& evolution*and%b e e n able{to]adapt{to]*the^climate changes caused
^by* global warming@ William Bradshaw* *an^ evolutionary biologist *at^
*the^ University |of| Oregon* {has] found that this tolerance can occur *in^
as little as five years@ time@ Because winters {are] gradually getting
warmer**the^mosquitoes{are]n o w breeding later*in=*the^year@ Compared
with their hibernation habits 30 years ago* northern populations |of|
*the^ mosquito {have] adapted {to] milder winters *and% become dormant
later*in=their annual cycle@*in=fact* hibernation today [is] about nine
days later than{it]w a s*in=1972@*the^problem with this altered breeding
{and} hibernation schedule[is]that{it]{has]*anîmpact on*the^natural food
chain *and% ecological system@ If *the^ timing |of| *the^ component *in= !a#
system gets out |of| synch* then food sources may not be available
when predators need them* upsetting *the^ entire balance |of| *the^
ecosystem@
Wildlife
O n e n o t e w o r t h y contribution{to]atmospheric methane#a serious
global warming gas*in=*theâtmosphere#is* surprisingly* {from] livestock@
In!a#report M a y 13* 2002* on National Geographic News* scientists

*in& New Zealand determined that livestock *in= their country *were^
adding {to] *the^ global warming problem@ Katherine Hayhoe* *an&
atmospheric scientist{at]*theÛniversity |of| Illinois* remarks*$New
Zealand [is] unique*in=that m o r e than 50 per cent |of| {its] greenhouse
gas emissions arise {from] m e t h a n e released{by]enteric fermentation@$
Enteric fermentation [is] methane that [is] produced as part |of| *the^
digestive process |of| cows* sheep* *and% other animals@ {it] [is] released
w h e n*theânimals burp* which is* surprisingly*!a#lot@ There{are]roughly
10 million cattle*and%4 5 million sheep*in=N e w Zealand**and%their
collective b u r p s add u p {to] 90 per cent |of| N e w Zealand@s methane
emissions@*theÛ@S@ Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)* livestock
*in& *the^ United States only account {for} approximately 2 per cent |of|
methane emissions@ {to] combat this problem* scientists *in= New Zealand
^have* discovered that {by] feeding livestock plants that {are] high *in^
condensed tannins they produce up {to] 16 per cent less methane@
Tannins {are] naturally occurring plant polyphenols that bind and+
precipitate proteins@ They {are] found *in= legume forages *and% some
grasses@ Scientists view this as!a#significant step{to]reduce*theêffect
livestock {are] h a v i n g on *the^ global w a r m i n g problem@ M i c h a e l
Tavendale**the^researcher w h o m a d e *the^ discovery*$It@s early* b u t
this[is]very encouraging n e w s that{will]give our research n e w impetus
{and} offer positive opportunities {to] New Zealand farmers *for^
controlling *the^ problem@$ This diet {has] other benefits as well* *it^
increases livestock weight gain* improves milk yields* *and% decreases
parasites@ A s !a# comparison* !a# 200#cow dairy herd {has] the$petrol
equivalent$ |of| 6*400 gallons (24*000 l) |of| gasoline**the^gas necessary
^to* drive*anâverage car 124*274 miles (200*000 km)@
Controversial Findings
A study conducted{by]*the^Carnegie Institution*in=Washington*
D@C@**and%*the^L a w r e n c e Livermore National Laboratory*in=California
led their scientists {to] conclude that forests *in= temperate regions
actually could w o r s e n global warming@ Using c o m p l e x modeling
software {to] simulate changes *in= forest cover*and%their effects on
global climate* *the^ results they obtained {from] their model *were^
surprising@ Ken Caldeira {from] *the^ Carnegie Institution remarked*$We
^were* hoping{to]find that growing forests*in=*theÛnited States w o u l d
help slow global warming@ But if w e{are]not careful* growing forests
could m a k e global w a r m i n g even worse@$*the^researchers concluded

^from* their study that {it] was *the^ tropical forests that cooled *the^
environment because they released great quantities |of| water during
*the^ evapotranspiration process@ Forests*in=*the^temperate regions*
however* not only did not release as m u c h water* b u t also absorbed
!a# lot |of| sunlight* heating u p *the^ Earth@ {to] s h o w this point* during
one|of|*the^computer simulations* they covered*theÊarth with forests
north|of|*the^20#degree latitude line@ T h e y found that*the^surface air
temperature responded {by] rising m o r e than 6°F (3@6°C)@*in=another
iteration* covering*theêntire planet@s land area with trees increased
temperatures only about 2°F (1@2°C)@*the^w a r m i n g w a s not evident
ât* first@ During*theînitial phase* there w a s cooling because*the^trees
took u p carbon dioxide* w h i c h offset*theâbsorption |of| sunlight@ But
this effect did not last@ *the^ absorption |of| energy lasts forever* b u t
as trees mature* they sequester less carbon@
Based on this simulation**theînvolved scientists concluded that
planting!a#forest*in=*theÛnited States could cool*theÊarth{for}!a#few
decades but would lead {to] planetary warming *in= *the^ long term@ *the^
scientists determined that !a# global replacement |of| current vegetation
^by* trees w o u l d lead{to]!a#global w a r m i n g |of| 2@4°F (1@4°C)@ If areas
^were* replaced with grasslands*{it]could lead{to]!a#cooling |of| 0@7°F
(0@4°C)@ This situation does not hold true{for}tropical forests* however@
Rain forests keep*theÊarth cool not only{by]absorbing C O b u t also
2
^by* evaporating water@

Boreal Forests
The effects |of| global warming {are] felt most {at] *the^ poles* *where^
ît* [is] predicted that temperatures could climb 8@3°#17°F (5°#10°C) or
higher over *the^ next century@ {it] [is] estimated that warming {will] *have^
!a# negative effect on *the^ species that live *in= *the^ ecosystems *and% that
approximately 24#40 per cent |of| *the^ species living*in=*the^boreal
forests right now {will] be lost@ Simply put* species that live *in= *the^
north {will] be crowded out {by] species {from] *the^ temperate regions that
^will* be migrating n o r t h w a r d*in=search|of|cooler climates@*the^species
that {will] invade*the^present boreal forests {will] b e today@s temperate
forest species*and%grasslands@
The IPCC* as *the^ boreal forest vegetation [is] forced out* {it] *will^
migrate poleward 186#311 miles (300#500 km) *in= *the^ next century@
Proof |of| this can already b e seen*in=western Canada~ plant zones
there {have] a l r e a d y b e g u n shifting poleward@ T h e r e {are] major

challenges this migrating vegetation {will] encounter@ {to] b e g i n with*
*the^ soils*in=*the^tundra region{are]not fertile*and%conducive{to]high#
density vegetation or tree growth@ *the^ IPCC* they lack*the^biota
necessary{for}colonization@ Specific seed dispersal rate*and%migration
tolerance range {are] also important factors that might keep trees *from^
being able {to] survive *the^ poleward migration rate set up {by] global
warming@ A s*anêxample* white spruce can colonize 62#124 miles
(100#200 km) over 100 years**and%Scots pine can migrate 2@5#5 miles
(4#8 k m ) every 100 years@ A@ S o l o m o n*and%K@ Jardine |of| Greenpeace*
*the^ rate |of| global w a r m i n g {will] b e about 10 times faster than w h a t
*is] needed{for}successful species migration{at]*anâverage migration
rate |of| 16 miles (25 k m ) each century through natural seed dispersal@
There{are]other factors that {will] hurt species migration as well* such
as habitat fragmentation (small isolated clusters instead |of| one large
c o h e s i v e unit) *and% c o m p e t i t i o n {from] m o r e h a r d y species@ A s
temperatures change*{it]m a y also affect*the^timing*and%rate |of| seed
production* w h i c h {will] affect*the^growth*and%strength |of| trees@
Trees that {have] limited seed dispersal m e c h a n i s m s {will] also
suffer* i@e@* trees w h o s e seeds{are]carried long distances{by]*the^w i n d
^will*{have]!a#better chance |of| survival than those w h o s e seeds fall
closer{to]*the^tree@*theâbility{to]adjust{to]!a#larger temperature range
^will* also play*anîmportant role@ Vegetation with narrow temperature
tolerances {will] be vulnerable{to]extinction@*theÎ P C C{has]stated that
!a# drastic change*in=species composition*and%loss|of|habitat with even
!a# 3@3°F (2°C) warming near *the^ poles {will] damage *the^ ability |of| *an&
ecosystem {to] function as species richness begins {to] be killed off@ They
warn that !a# decrease *in= habitat if this {were] {to] occur would result *in^
*the^ loss |of| 10#50 per cent |of| all *the^ animals living *in= *the^ boreal Great
Basin mountain ranges@ *the^ Natural Resources Canada**anâverage
rise *in= temperature |of| 1@7°F (1°C) over Canada *in= *the^ last century *has^
^had* !a# negative impact on vegetation@
At m i d {to] high latitudes (45° N # 7 0 ° N ) plant growth*and%the
length|of|*the^growing season{has]increased@*in=portions |of| western
Canada* there {has] been !a# decrease *in= rainfall as temperatures *have^
risen* *and% this {has] hurt *the^ growth |of| some tree species* such as aspen
poplar@*in=Alberta* aspen{are]n o w b l o o m i n g 26 days earlier than they
^were* 100 years ago@ Another major concern{for}boreal forests*in=a
warmer climate [is] insect infestations@ Insects commonly found *in^

temperate forests* such as mountain pine beetle* {will] migrate north
along with*the^forests*and%continue{to]infect as they m o v e northward@
A s temperatures climb* droughtlike conditions m a y develop@ If this
happens* there {will] also b e greater incidences|of|wildfire@*in=*the^past
40 years* *the^ trend {has] already b e e n established that as climate
warms* wildfires {have] b e c o m e m o r e frequent*and%{are]b u r n i n g larger
areas@
This overall trend {has] b e e n seen *in= places such as southern
California*and%also*in=boreal locations*in=C a n a d a*and%Russia@ A s
global warming continues* longer fire seasons* drier conditions* and+
more frequent severe electrical storms {are] projected {to] increase*
causing fire seasons {to] b e c o m e m o r e problematic as *the^ climate
continues{to]change@ While{it][is]true that some forest species@ seeds
âre* actually dispersed {by] fire* which {will] aid their migration* and+
burned litter {will] add nutrients {to] *the^ soil* over time reoccurrences
|of| wildfire {will] fragment established vegetation colonies*and%m a k e
ît* m o r e difficult{for}t h e m{to]migrate@*in=addition* as older trees burn*
they {will] add carbon{to]*theâtmosphere**and%as y o u n g e r trees replace
these b u r n e d areas* there{will]b e less initial carbon storage capability@
4
Silviculture and+
Management *in= Forestry
Silviculture*and%Management
A l t h o u g h silviculture*and%m a n a g e m e n t m a y b e looked u p o n as
t w o b r a n c h e s |of| forestry**theône m a i n l y technical*and%*theôther
e c o n o m i c * *the^ t w o {are] i n t e r d e p e n d e n t *and% m u s t a l w a y s b e
coordinated@ While silviculture may establish *the^ ideal possibility |of|
production within !a# forest* management determines *the^ degree *to^
which this can be realized through regulation *and% within *the^ bounds
|of| good business practice@ Forest management may be defined as *the^
application |of| business methods *and% technical forestry principles *to^
*the^ operation |of| !a# forest property@
C o m p a r e d with other crops*!a#forest requires!a#relatively long
time between {its] establishment *and% {its] harvesting@ Revenue {from] *an&
unmanaged forest may accrue only {at] fairly long intervals@ Managed
forests {are] organized{to]ensure!a#sustained yield|of|*the^forest crop
*in& perpetuity@ *the^ income should include !a# reasonable profit on *the^
investment* annually if possible@
S u s t a i n e d y i e l d |of| t i m b e r d e p e n d s u p o n *the^ s y s t e m a t i c
reproduction |of| !a# crop as{it][is]harvested@ {it] also requires that the
timber be cut annually or periodically *in= such quantities that !a#

continuous *and% fairly uniform yield {will] be provided throughout *the^
rotation (the period required {to] grow !a# crop {from] seed {to] maturity)@
The principle |of| sustained#yield m a n a g e m e n t m a y b e illustrated
with reference{to]!a#theoretical forest* usually termed *the^ normal
forest**in=w h i c h*the^stands {are] stocked with*the^m a x i m u m a m o u n t
|of| w o o d that*the^site{will]produce*and%{from]w h i c h*the^same a m o u n t
|of| wood product may be harvested annually forever#namely* *the^
amount that grows annually on *the^ whole acreage@
Consider*{for}example**anêven#aged forest that[is]{to]b e harvested
w h e n fifty years |of| age@ {to] {have] fifty#year#old timber every year*
there m u s t b e!a#series |of| fifty stands of* respectively* one* two* three
{and} up {to] fifty years |of| age@
Each year one stand b e c o m e s mature{for}harvesting@ This stand
*in& v o l u m e represents{its]o w n increment or growth{for}fifty years~ also
ît*[is]equal{to]*the^growth |of| one year on*the^fifty stands m a k i n g up
*the^ whole forest@ Accordingly* each cut [is] equal *in= amount {to] *the^
current year@s growth@ {it] [is] assumed that each stand [is] reproduced
as cut*and%that all *the^ immature stands receive *the^ silvicultural
treatment necessary{for}m o s t satisfactory growth@
A n alternative method*{for}*anûneven#aged forest*[is]{to]cut over
*the^ entire area periodically* r e m o v i n g{at]e a c h cut only*the^v o l u m e
corresponding{to]*the^growth during*the^period b e t w e e n successive
cuts@
In either case* one{has]permanent sustained yield{from]!a#forest
characterized{by]normal distribution |of| age classes* normal increment
{and} n o r m a l growing stock@
There is* |of| course* n o such forest@ Every forest [is] abnormal*
having either excess or deficiency |of| area *in= *the^ older age classes and+
*the^ opposite *in= younger ones *and% *in= general !a# deficiency* {to] !a# greater
or less extent**in=v o l u m e per acre*in=*the^stands |of| different ages@
The abnormalities*in=age#class distribution can b e r e m o v e d only
^by* adjustments *in= *the^ areas cut over *in= successive years* while
deficiencies*in=volume* caused mainly{by]inadequate reproduction*
can be made up through improvement *in= silvicultural practices@ *the^
normal forest [is] *an^ ideal* !a# standard toward which forests should
gradually b e developed@ Such intensive management requires accurate
information about tree species*and%sizes* total*and%merchantable
volume* age#class distribution* growth conditions* site classes and+

rotation ages* as well as about such factors as topography and+
drainage* w h i c h affect*theêfficiency |of| operations@ S u c h information
*is] obtained through enumeration or inventory surveys* supplemented
{and} i m p r o v e d*in=recent years {by] aerial photographs@
O n*the^basis|of|this information*!a#m a n a g e m e n t plan or working
plan [is] evolved* which sets down *the^ objectives |of| management and+
how they {are] {to] be attained *and% allocates *the^ kind *and% amount |of|
timber {to] be cut each year or period |of| years* {at] least {for} *the^ first
part|of|*the^rotation@
Silviculture
In essence* silviculture [is] applied forest e c o l o g y*and%forest
genetics~{it]m a y b e described as*the^d e v e l o p m e n t*and%use |of| cutting
m e t h o d s*and%cultural treatments|of|*the^forest*
• To ensure adequate regeneration |of| desirable species as soon as
possible after*the^mature stand[is]cut*
• To bring about conditions favorable {to] *the^ optimum yield and+
quality |of| production *in= keeping with *the^ objectives |of| management
{and}*the^condition|of|*the^forest
• To maintain*and%{where}possibleimprove*the^quality or productivity
|of|*the^site@
Engineering |of| Logging
Logging engineering [is] concerned essentially with *the^ felling and+
removal |of| timber {from] !a# forest area@ Even{where}*the^ sole purpose
*is] liquidation|of|*the^resource* logging techniques m a y b e developed
^to*!a#h i g h degree |of| efficiency* as they{have]!a#direct*and%important
bearing o n*the^cost |of| extraction@*in=forests u n d e r sustained#yield
management* logging methods must be developed {to] meet *the^
requirements |of| *the^ management plan as well as {to] maintain
operational efficiency@
L o g g i n g e v e r y w h e r e presents m a n y technical problems* b u t
particularly{where}*the^ forests {are] difficult |of| access* distances *are^
great *and% *the^ topography [is] rugged@ *in= many forest regions logs *are^
transported long distances*and%{at]relatively l o w cost {by] natural
water systems*and%*in=*the^northern forests winter snows often facilitate
*the^ hauling |of| forest products@
F r o m*the^point |of| v i e w |of| forest conservation* p e r h a p s*the^m o s t
important logging objectives are*
• To prevent damage{to]*theâdvance growth*and%*the^residual stand*

• To help prepare *the^ site{for}future tree crops (e@g@*{by]soil
scarification)*
• To ensure minimum waste |of| wood*in=*the^trees cut@
In recent years m e c h a n i c a l e q u i p m e n t {has] b e e n increasingly
e m p l o y e d*in=b o t h*the^felling |of| trees*and%*the^transportation |of| logs@
Wood Utilization*in=Forest
While {it] [is] not usual {for} those responsible {for} *the^ growing and+
harvesting |of| timber crops {to] be directly concerned with their
conversion*and%manufacture into usable products* there should b e
!a# close liaison between *the^ two operations |of| forest production and+
wood utilization@
Wood {has] inherent qualities that make {it] particularly suitable *for^
many purposes$good strength *in= relation {to] weight* pleasing
appearance* insulation against heat*and%sound* ease |of| fastening
with nails* dowels* screws* or glue*and%case|of|working with relatively
simple tools@ However* w o o d[is]{by]n o m e a n s!a#h o m o g e n e o u s material*
ît* differs {from] one species {to] another *in= structure *and% physical
properties*and%h e n c e*in=*theûse{for}w h i c h{it][is]best suited@
Within environmental limitations{it][is]desirable{to]grow*the^species
that {will] best m e e t*the^requirements |of| local industry*and%available
export markets@
Furthermore*{to]m a k e*the^fullest u s e|of|*the^timber crop {at] all
stages |of| d e v e l o p m e n t*and%{to]m i n i m i z e logging*and%manufacturing
waste*{it][is]important {to] co#ordinate as closely as possible forest
operations*and%*the^wood#using industries*and%also{to]bring about
!a# closer integration|of|*the^wood#using industries themselves $ as*
^for* example**the^sawmill*and%pulp industries@
Forest Policy
In m a n y countries forests{are]|of|vital importance{to]*theôver#all
economy* not only *in= relation {to] industrial development* but also *in^
providing benefits which may be difficult {to] evaluate *in= monetary
terms@ {for} this reason *and% also because |of| *the^ long#term nature |of|
*the^ forest enterprise* most countries seek {to] ensure *the^ perpetuation
|of| their forests*and%{to]safeguard*theînterests |of| present*and%future
generations{by]placing*the^forests under some degree |of| g o v e r n m e n t
control@
In s o m e countries*the^g o v e r n m e n t retains ownership|of|!a#large

proportion |of| *the^ forested land*and%leases{it]{to]*the^wood#using
industries{for}timber extraction* provision m a y b e m a d e {for} s o m e
degree |of| forest m a n a g e m e n t {by] regulation or through agreement@
O t h e r countries {have] granted or sold m u c h |of| their forest land
^to* private interests* t h o u g h considerable areas {have] s o m e t i m e s b e e n
retained{by]*the^state {to] provide {for} timber reserves* recreational
facilities*and%*the^protection |of| drainage areas~*in=s o m e cases there
*is] considerable public control |of| forest m a n a g e m e n t on*the^freehold
lands@
Elsewhere long#term forest m a n a g e m e n t [is] entirely neglected
{and} forest policies* if any exist* may be concerned only with *the^
method *and% intensity |of| exploitation@
Progress*in=*the^development*and%practice|of|forestry varies widely
throughout *the^ world@ While forestry [is] well advanced *in= much |of|
Europe *and% *in= certain tropical regions* only !a# small proportion |of|
*the^ accessible forests|of|*the^w o r l d [is] u n d e r intensive m a n a g e m e n t
today@
In some regions man still depends on *the^ forests {for} his food and+
shelter *and% contributes little toward their development~ *in= many
countries man long ago destroyed *the^ forests *and% {has] done little *to^
restore them~ elsewhere uncontrolled forest exploitation [is] still *in^
evidence*and%proper protection*and%m a n a g e m e n t lie*in=*the^future@
In N o r t h A m e r i c a w e {are] still*in=*anê a r l y s t a g e |of| forest
conservation@ *in= recent years* however* we {have] begun {to] see *the^
forests as *an^ integral part |of| our economic structure *and% {to] take steps
against*the^destructive exploitation that {has] threatened {to] exhaust
them@
The Forest Stock Intensive Silviculture

T h e principal trend[is]n o doubt*in=*the^direction |of| combination@
O n*the^whole* E u r o p e a n experience with introduced species{has]n o t
b e e n particularly happy~*and%J@ S@ Boyce**in=!a#thought#provoking
article* describes *the^ risks |of| spreading diseases *and% insect pests *by^
introducing foreign trees* warns against placing too much faith *in^
t h e m*and%concludes{by]saying that $exotics{are]not all foredoomed
^to* failure* b u t{for}every exotic*the^chance |of| failure appears {to] b e
m u c h greater than*the^chance{for}success$ *the^ $combination$ idea
is expressed{by]Syrach#Larsen*in=*the^following statement* although*

if anything* he seems{to]favour exotics*
$Broadly speaking*{for}i m p r o v e m e n t|of|*the^forest stock intensive
silviculture places most reliance on *the^ introduction |of| exotics and+
on selection |of| *the^ best indigenous trees$ He also says* $To succeed
^to* any appreciable extent w e m u s t soon approach *the^ stage w h e n
ît* b e c o m e s obvious h o w m u c h m o r e profitable{it]{will]b e {to] create
rapid#growing pure plantations on favorably situated areas$
This[is]artificial forest with!a#vengeance@*theî m a g e conjured up
resembles!a#field|of|hybrid corn* super#trees* single cropping*and%fast
rotations@ Perhaps*the^forest operator|of|*the^future* like*the^farmer
now* {will] {have] {to] spend !a# large part |of| *the^ income {for} fertilizers@ *in^
line with this trend !a# representative |of| *the^ fertilizer industry attended
*the^ Fourth American Forest Congress *in= 1953 *and% suggested !a#
programme |of| spreading fertilizers {from] airplanes on forest soils*
thereby $permitting*the^cutting |of| trees perhaps ten years sooner$
The problems*in=nature facing*the^forester{are]m a n y*and%complex*
fire* windfalls* frost damage* insects*and%fungi* b u t surely*the^m o s t
critical long#run problem *in= any silvicultural system* whether |of| *the^
traditional type or *the^ new* [is] *the^ maintenance |of| !a# fertile *and% healthy
forest soil~{for}if*the^soil fails* everything fails@
Fortunately*the^foresters*{at]least*in=some regions*{are]well aware
|of| *the^ problem@ C@ W@ Scott stresses *the^ importance |of| watching *the^
soil *in= *the^ new Chilean plantations |of| Monterey pine *and% Andre
Aubreville{has]given*the^same advice{to]*the^m a n a g e r s |of| eucalyptus
groves*in=Brazil@ M o s t|of|*the^larger companies*in=*the^forest industries
|of| *the^ Pacific Northwest {have] {had] soils experts on their staffs *for^
several years@
Watching *the^ soil [is] one thing* but providing !a# remedy if *it^
should turn out {to] be deteriorating [is] another@ {it] would hardly be
economically feasible* e v e n if{it]{were]physically possible* {to] raise
forest trees with*theâid |of| fertilizers* as w e raise m a n y |of| our crops@
M y o w n belief[is]that*the^best promise{for}*the^future lies*in=another
direction* n a m e l y natural forest* b u t w e do not seem{to]be going that
way@
In!a#purely technical sense* silviculture*in=*the^forest [is] perhaps
as bright !a# promise as technology {at] *the^ mill* but both run into *the^
dilemma |of| *the^ small#ownership *and% economic problems not |of| their
making@ Excellent results {have] been obtained {by] application |of| *the^
Dauerwald idea *in= some |of| *the^ European forests* but Dauerwald*
w h i c h requires* so {to] say* Dauerpflege or continuous*and%careful
attention{to]details*and%m u c h h a n d labour* is*{for}e c o n o m i c reasons*
impossible*in=m o s t|of|*the^world*and%certainly impossible on b o t h
small*and%large forest holdings*in=North America@
Every forest operator k n o w s that he cannot always follow even
*the^ best advice|of|*the^silviculturist*{for}he w o u l d go b r o k e if he tried@
Clear#cut patches*in=*the^Pacific Northwest on w h i c h Douglas#fir
seedlings should be coming up {are] *in= many regions taken over *by^
alder or choked with brushy vegetation~ some |of| *the^ young stands
n e e d thinning~*and%m a n y trees should b e p r u n e d{for}best results@
O n l y *the^ larger c o m p a n i e s {are] able {to] perform i m p r o v e m e n t
operations |of| this type*{for}m o n e y spent on pruning* thinning* or
fighting brush might not be returned until 75 or 100 years *have^
elapsed *and% under present circumstances most |of| *the^ operators *are^
unable{to]finance such long#term investments@
The result[is]that m u c h|of|*the^forest[is]growing u p unattended
{and}*the^land [is] not producing so m u c h g o o d timber as{it]might@
According {to] *the^ Annual Report |of| *the^ Forest Experiment Station *at^
Portland *in= 1952* *the^ use |of| pulp chips obtained {from] mill waste *in^
O r e g o n*and%W a s h i n g t o n{has]m e a n t*anânnual salvaging |of| material
*in& recent years equivalent {to] several hundred million board feet |of|
logs* !a# very good saving* but {at] *the^ same time *the^ practice {has] *had^
!a# detrimental effect on *the^ market {for} pulpwood obtained {by] thinning*
m a k i n g g o o d forest m a n a g e m e n t m o r e difficult@ Thus* w h a t [is] g o o d
e c o n o m y{at]*the^mill[is]not always good silviculture*in=*the^forest@
Cultural Promises *and% Blocks
The outlook can b e s u m m a r i z e d as follows* A l t h o u g h shrinking*
*the^ area|of|*theâccessible forest [is] large e n o u g h*and%our technical
skill* even though p r o b l e m s remain*[is]n o w g o o d e n o u g h {to] supply
all m a n k i n d with!a#reasonably adequate a m o u n t |of| w o o d*in=*the^near
future* provided *the^ skill be freely applied over *the^ area *and% *the^
yield |of| *the^ forest be equitably distributed@ But deeply entrenched
cultural factors interfere with both *the^ application |of| *the^ skill and+
*the^ distribution |of| *the^ yield@ This [is] *the^ root |of| *the^ forestry problem
{and}*the^m o s t difficult part|of|it@ W e k n o w h o w{to]change*the^n u m b e r
|of| c h r o m o s o m e s*in=aspen*and%h o w{to]produce pines that{are]resistant
to blister rust* b u t w e{are]less successful*in=dealing with ingrained

h u m a n habits*and%*the^blister rust on our cultural institutions@ S o m e
people want {to] save*the^world {by] changing *the^ old w a y s |of| life*
others want {to] save {it] {by] resisting change* but {it] [is] not clear that *the^
first group really understands what [is] involved *in= {its] proposal* nor
*the^ second w h a t{it][is]resisting@ Culture history can b e called!a#history
|of| change* but{it][is]also!a#history|of|*the^persistence|of|customary w a y s
{and} w e still {have] m u c h{to]learn about both@ W e h e a r m u c h today
about*the^n e e d |of| basic research*and%if anything[is]*in=n e e d |of| close
scrutiny{it][is]*the^man#earth relationship* not only{for}w h a t{are]called
academic reasons but also {for} practical purposes@ *the^ future |of| *the^
forest depends on such research* {for} between man *and% *the^ timber
*is] always!a#third factor* h u m a n culture@ S o m e|of|*the^cultural factors
affecting forestry {are] promises* others {are] b l o c k s*and%b o t h {are] so
n u m e r o u s*and%c o m p l e x that only!a#few examples can b e considered
here@
It[is]!a#promising sign that m o r e people than ever seem {to] b e
aware |of| *the^ fact that there [is] !a# forest problem@ Throughout *the^
world* movements {are] afoot {to] save *the^ forest* {to] plant trees* *to^
introduce more efficient uses |of| wood *and% {to] foster !a# better *and% more
widespread understanding |of| *the^ importance |of| *the^ forest *in= *the^
protection |of| soil *and% water@ There is* however* *an^ element |of| risk
involved@ Silviculture can never b e*in=!a#hurry* but popular m o v e m e n t s
sometimes{are]*and%*the^danger[is]that mistakes m a y b e m a d e because
|of| *the^ hurry@ *an^ error *in= *the^ forest may take !a# century or two *to^
correct* if {it] can be corrected {at] all@ We {have] blister rust *in= *the^ United
States today because|of|*the^mistake |of| introducing infected white#
pine seedlings@
M e n t i o n {has] already b e e n m a d e |of| e c o n o m i c difficulties that
encumber technology *and% silviculture *and% |of| *the^ fact that both *are^
caught *in= *the^ dilemma |of| small ownership@ This dilemma {has] been
resolved ## or removed* rather ##*in=*the^countries{where}*the^state
holds all*the^forest land@ But this[is]not{to]say that*the^forest problem
^has* been solved *and% systems |of| land tenure {are] changing so fast *at^
*the^ present time *in= many regions that not much can be said about
w h a t m a y c o m e out |of| *the^ flux@ *in= m o s t |of| *the^ W e s t e r n world*
however**the^problem |of| small ownership remains@{it][is]regarded as
!a# p r o b l e m{by]foresters because{it][is]generally on*the^small lots that
forest m a n a g e m e n t [is] poorest*and%m o s t difficult{to]improve@ E v e n

*in&*the^Scandinavian countries*and%Finland*{where}*the^ populations
âre* relatively small* culturally h o m o g e n e o u s*and%strongly forest#
minded* m a n a g e m e n t on m a n y small properties leaves something
^to* be desired@ Franz H e s k e refers{to]*the^small private w o o d l a n d #
# Bauernbusch ## as *the^ $child |of| sorrows$ |of| German forestry~ and+
*the^ consensus among foresters *in= *the^ United States [is] that one |of| *the^
m o s t critical problems[is]h o w{to]improve m a n a g e m e n t on*the^small
holdings@{it][is]not!a#little problem@ O n e half|of|*the^land classified as
commercial forest*in=*theÛnited States ##*the^half that [is] generally
m o s t accessible*and%potentially productive ##[is]o w n e d{by]some four
million persons* holding on*theâverage about sixty acres each@ M o s t
|of| this land[is]*in=*the^form |of| w o o d lots o w n e d {by] three million
farmers*and%*the^rest[is]held{by]!a#million nonfarmers* m a n y |of| w h o m
âre* absentee owners@ Numerous difficulties stand *in= *the^ way |of|
better forest management on *the^ wood lots* their uneconomically
small size{for}*the^purpose |of| timber production~ *the^ c o m m o n l y
frequent change |of| ownership~ *the^ lack |of| capital *and% experience *in^
forestry~ sometimes *the^ lack |of| interest* {for} *the^ farmer [is] primarily
occupied with raising food crops* not trees~ *and% problems |of|
marketing@
A promising development [is] *the^ formation |of| associations |of|
wood#lot owners {for} dealing with these problems* {for} example *the^
$Otsego Forest Products Cooperative Association$*in=N e w York*
$ C o n n w o o d * I n c $ *in= C o n n e c t i c u t * $ T h e S h e l t o n C o o p e r a t i v e
Sustained#Yield Unit$ *in= western Washington *and% others@ *the^
technical assistance |of| some two or three hundred government
foresters[is]available{to]wood#lot owners*and%!a#n u m b e r |of| industry#
sponsored organizations {are] also encouraging better forestry on *the^
small holding* such as $Trees {for} Tomorrow$ *and% $Cash Crops *from^
Your Woods$ There must be several thousand wood#lot owners now
belonging{to]associations*and%actively engaged*in=improving forest
m a n a g e m e n t on their lots* b u t that [is] still!a#long w a y {from] four
million members@
Improvement [is] !a# good thing* but we {have] fallen into !a# rut *in^
talking about *the^ imperative necessity |of| raising *the^ timber production
on*the^farm lots*and%w e n e e d{to]give some thought{to]another side
|of|*the^question**the^farmer@s side@ There [is] w i s d o m*in=what Franz
Heske says* $The small woodlot must not be judged {by] {its] yield |of|
timber* {for} {its] importance lies *in= other values* fuelwood* protection
|of| soil*and%water*and%shelter{from]*the^wind@*the^woodlot {will] probably
never b e*anîmportant source |of| supply{for}*the^timber market$ This
comment also applies {to] North America@ I suspect that many *an&
owner likes his wood lot as {it] [is] *and% does not think |of| {it] as commercial
forest land* but rather as!a#place{for}getting some firewood*and%fence
posts* doing!a#little hunting*and%fishing* or just walking*in=*the^woods@
$There {are] some w h o can live without wild things*$ says A l d o
Leopold* $and some who cannot$ Wood#lot owners wishing *to^
improve timber management on their lands should certainly be
encouraged* b u t w e {have] n o right{to]force*the^farmer into forestry
{and}*the^n u m b e r |of| people w h o like their w o o d s just as they{are]m a y
be larger than w e think@
Impression |of| *the^ Timber Resource
It[is]unrealistic*and%gives!a#false impression|of|*the^timber resource
*in&*theÛnited States{to]classify some 200 million acres |of| w o o d lots
as commercial forest land* when *in= fact many |of| them {are] not and+
perhaps never {will] be@ {it] might be wiser {to] count them under some
other heading*in=*the^census*and%face*the^timber p r o b l e m on*the^basis
|of| w h a t we k n o w [is] commercial forest land@ Likewise*{it]w o u l d b e
sounder {to] think |of| *the^ areas given over {to] shifting cultivation *in= *the^
tropical regions as farm land* which they are* instead |of| calling them
potential timberland@ We {have] as yet no adequate practical way |of|
changing either *the^ system |of| shifting agriculture *in= *the^ tropics or
*the^ w o o d lots*in=*the^midlatitudes@ B o t h {are] firmly rooted cultural
institutions@
S o m e|of|*the^problems{are]perhaps n o m o r e than vexatious* b u t
nevertheless tend{to]hinder good management@*in=*theÛnited States*
^for* example* most |of| *the^ land [is] m a p p e d according{to]*the^well#
k n o w n township*and%range system* w h i c h[is]!a#g o o d system*in=level
country* b u t{its]suitability*in=*the^rough terrain|of|*the^western forest
lands can be questioned@*the^sections lie over*the^country like squares
on!a#checkerboard*and%property lines run straight across mountains*
ridges* valleys*and%rivers without regard{to]*the^lay|of|*the^land@
O w n e r s h i p s {are] chaotically m i x e d u p*and%*the^chaos [is] worst
precisely{where}*the^best timber grows##that is**in=*the^r e d w o o d belt
|of| California*and%*the^Douglas#fir region |of| O r e g o n*and%Washington@
The® system naturally creates difficulties with access roads and+

causes other trouble@ {it] [is] !a# basic principle *in= forestry that good
m a n a g e m e n t [is] facilitated {by] contiguous holdings *and% rendered
difficult {by] scattered property@ *the^ intricate pattern |of| ownership
m a y*in=time b e unscrambled even though*the^process |of| unscrambling
does not seem {to] m o v e very fast* b u t there [is] little h o p e |of| ever
changing*the^checkerboard system*{for}{it][is]*anînstitution so thoroughly
fixed*in=A m e r i c a n tradition that n o one even talks about changing
it@
A n o t h e r problem[is]forest taxation* w h i c h*in=one form or another
^has* probably troubled forestry*in=every country@*in=*theÛnited States*
ât* least**the^m a n n e r |of| taxing timber{has]*in=*the^past w o r k e d against
rather than helped good forest management *and% *in= many states |of|
*the^ union {it] still does@ Property taxes on growing timber* paid annually
{and} increasing as*the^trees approach maturity* {have] forced m a n y
owners {to] clear#cut prematurely *in= order {to] salvage some |of| *the^
value |of| *the^ timber before {it] [is] all eaten up {by] taxes@ New Hampshire
^has* introduced !a# $yield tax$ calculated on *the^ anticipated value |of|
*the^ timber {at] *the^ time when {it] {will] be cut *and% furthermore allows
!a# rebate {to] owners who manage their forest lands according *to^
certain standards@ Several other states {have] also begun {to] change
their tax systems* b u t most {have] not@ Other factors having*anâdverse
effect on forest management *in= *the^ United States {are] *the^ banking and+
insurance regulations* which make {it] difficult *and% *in= some instances
virtually impossible{to]insure forest land or{to]obtain!a#loan with
standing timber as security@
The tradition|of|*the^virgin forest* or*the^lure |of| n e w timberland
^to* be o p e n e d{for}utilization*[is]as old as forestry itself*and%[is]still very
strong@*the^timber*in=*the^lands|of|*the^western Mediterranean probably
looked as inexhaustible{to]*theâncient Greeks*and%Phoenicians as did
*the^ forests |of| G e r m a n y {to] Caesar*and%Tacitus* or *the^ A m e r i c a n
forests{to]*theÊ u r o p e a n colonists* or *the^ tropical forests {to] some
people today@
T h i s t r a d i t i o n [is] n o t h e l p i n g u s {to] s e t t l e d o w n {to] g o o d
management*{for}w e seem unable{to]face*the^problem as long as there
âre* virgin forests over*the^hill waiting{to]b e opened up*and%m a d e
$fully productive$ There [is] truth *in= *the^ saying that good forestry *is$
*the^ child |of| necessity@ According {to] Theophrastus* *the^ ancient rulers
of Cyprus b e g a n{to]conserve their m o r e accessible cedar groves only

w h e n{it]b e c a m e too expensive{to]transport timber{from]*theînterior@
*the^ forest regulations that came into existence*in=western Europe
during *the^ late Middle Ages {were] *in= large measure stimulated *by^
*the^ fear |of| wood famine@
In*the^Pacific Northwest* as!a#veteran forester once told m e with
!a# trace |of| bitterness *in= his voice* *the^ timber buccaneers began *to^
practice conservation after they {had] slashed their way across *the^
continent{to]*the^coast*and%could go n o farther@ However* w e should
not visit*the^sins|of|*the^fathers on*the^present generation |of| lumbermen*
^for* m a n y|of|them{are]helping{to]create!a#better tradition@{it][is]significant
that*the^leading timber c o m p a n i e s n o w regard*the^forest land they
h o l d $ t h e soil##as their most valuable possession* not *the^ timber
standing on{it]{at]*the^present moment@
The distinction [is] important@ B u t *the^ e m e r g e n c e |of| *the^ n e w
tradition does not mean that *the^ old yearning {for} virgin forests *has^
ceased@ On *the^ contrary* *the^ pressure {for} opening more timberland
continues as strong as ever@ O n e can scarcely read anything dealing
with forestry* w h e t h e r{it][is]!a#government report* industry#sponsored
p u b l i c a t i o n * or p r o c e e d i n g s |of| !a# f o r e s t c o n v e n t i o n * w i t h o u t
encountering*the^claim that one|of|*the^greatest needs[is]m o r e access
roads into*the^mature*and%overmature virgin forests@
It[is]true that m o r e timberland {will] gradually b e n e e d e d*in=order
^to* replace forest areas lost{to]other forms |of| land use*in=*the^future*
b u t {it] w o u l d also seem{to]b e true w i s d o m not {to] open *the^ virgin
forests any faster than we must@ There {are] several good reasons *for^
!a# cautious approach@
An understanding |of| how trees reproduce [is] fundamental *to^
silviculture* but very little [is] known about *the^ fruiting habit or* *in^
fact* about *the^ whole regeneration process |of| most |of| *the^ species |of|
trees *in= *the^ tropical forests@ P@ W@ Richards suggests that we need
m o r e basic research into*the^nature|of|*the^tropical forest before w e
try{to]m a n a g e it@ E v e n*in=*the^midlatitudes* as J@ W@ Duffield points
out**the^p h e n o m e n o n |of| seed years[is]not yet fully understood@ Forest
trees {have] always suffered {from] diseases*and%insects* but*in=recent
years*theâttacks |of| these e n e m i e s {have] developed into dangerous
epidemics that threaten*the^very existence |of| s o m e species |of| trees@
W@ B@ Greeley r e m i n d e d*the^Mid#Century Conference on Resources
for *the^ Future that *in= trying {to] control insects *and% diseases we *are^
seriously handicapped {by] !a# lack |of| fundamental knowledge@
Furthermore* w e do not k n o w {to] w h a t extent these epidemics
âre**the^result |of| our opening|of|*the^forests@{it][is]not inconceivable
that opening *the^ virgin forests might be tantamount {to] inviting !a#
more intensive attack upon them {by] insects *and% diseases@ *the^ truth
|of| *the^ matter [is] that modern silviculture *and% forest management *are^
still *in= *the^ experimental stage *and% {it] seems unwise {to] experiment
with our last reserves |of| virgin timber* particularly since we *have^
*an& experimental field closer {at] hand@
If{it][is]true* as {has] often b e e n claimed* that good m a n a g e m e n t
can double *the^ yield |of| *the^ forest *and% if we think we {are] skilled *in^
managing timberland* {it] would seem only common sense not {to] go
into*the^virgin forests until w e {have] p r o v e d our skill{by]first putting
*in& order s o m e 75 or 100 million acres |of| already accessible but
unproductive*and%poorly stocked forest lands that lie strewn over
*the^ United States*in=!a#cut#over* burned#over*and%generally wretched
condition as reminders|of|*the^fact that!a#short while ago w e did not
m a n a g e well@
$ W e s h o u l d r e c o g n i z e *the^ i m p o r t a n c e |of| p l a c i n g h e a v y
investments on d e n u d e d lands or poor quality stands that occupy
*the^ best quality lands@ This[is]m o r e important {for} long#run future
production than rushing into our few remaining virgin stands$ O n e
w o u l d expect that this sensible*and%important suggestion should
^have* stimulated !a# lively discussion among *the^ letter writers* or *for^
that matter on *the^ editorial page* but {to] my knowledge *the^ response
^has* been !a# dead silence@ *the^ prevalent mode |of| thinking seems *to^
be that we must open all *the^ timberlands as soon as possible and+
then* presumably* w e shall put*the^whole h o u s e |of| forestry*in=order@
The real drive behind *the^ demand {for} opening *the^ reserves* *is$
*the^ old yearning {for} virgin timber* but *the^ tradition {has] been
rationalized*in=recent times{by]saying that{it][is]not good conservation
^to* leave *the^ virgin forests alone@ *the^ argument [is] that wood *is$
$wasted$ *in= *the^ mature forests because old trees {are] dying@ {it] [is] !a#
specious argument* b a s e d on*theôld mistaken idea that*the^standing
timber constitutes*the^resource* w h e r e a s*the^real resource[is]*the^land
that produces*the^timber@{it][is]true that trees{are]dying*in=*the^mature
forests* b u t trees{are]also growing up* as they {have] b e e n doing for
millions |of| years@ There {will] b e timber*and%w h a t[is]m o r e important*

there {will] b e timberland*in=*the^virgin forests e v e n if w e do not get
into them {for} !a# long time {to] come@ We {are] not wasting any |of| *the^
true resource##timberland#by staying out |of| *the^ virgin forests until
w e actually n e e d them* but w e {will] b e wasting!a#part|of|*the^resource
unless w e soon concentrate!a#major effort on restoring*the^lands that
âre* d e n u d e d or poorly stocked b e c a u s e |of| former mismanagement@
It [is] not possible {to] place *the^ cultural promises *and% blocks *in= !a#
balance free {from] personal bias *in= order {to] see which outweighs *the^
other@ *the^ chances {are] that *the^ inclination |of| *the^ person doing *the^
w e i g h i n g w o u l d decide*theôutcome* so that one might see!a#bright
future a h e a d*and%another w o u l d not@ Cultural institutions {are] n o t
fixed forever~ they change *and% {it] may be that *the^ culture blocks *will^
be removed *in= time* but *the^ evidence {at] hand does not suggest *to^
m e that w e {have] b e e n very successful*in=this removal@
Forestry*and%Silviculture*in=*the^Modern Sense
Forestry [is] *in= one sense !a# very ancient practice@ {it] [is] related *in^
Genesis that Abraham planted !a# grove {at] Beersheba~ according *to^
Plato* *the^ Greeks |of| *the^ fifth century B@C@ raised forest trees~ Cato
says that R o m a n farmers b e g a n{at]*anêarly time{to]cultivate plantations
|of| trees {to] provide timber {for} local needs~ *and% Pliny describes *at^
length *the^ system |of| coppicing woods *in= regular rotation {to] obtain
firewood* vineyard stakes*and%*the^like@
But forestry*and%silviculture*in=*the^m o d e r n sense {are] not very
old* dating {from] *the^ work |of| Heinrich Cotta *and% G@ L@ Hartig *in^
Germany *in= *the^ 1780@s *and% {from] that |of| Bernard Lorentz *and% Adolphe
Parade*in=France shortly thereafter@ *the^ age |of| m o d e r n silviculture*
ît* might be said* [is] about *the^ same as three or four generations |of|
forest trees *and% *in= terms |of| certain species as only two or three
generations@ !a# plant b r e e d e r w o r k i n g with annuals w o u l d hardly
feel confident about*theôutcome |of| his e x p e r i m e n t after only t w o
or three generations|of|*the^plant he [is] studying@
H e can observe m a n y successive generations*and%[is]able{to]correct
!a# mistake after only!a#few years {have] elapsed* but*the^forester* as
R@ S@ T r o u p puts it* rarely lives long e n o u g h{to]see*the^result |of| his
mistake@{it]w o u l d b e captious n o t{to]recognize*the^great contribution
|of| silviculture*and%*the^remarkable i m p r o v e m e n t s *in= forestry that
^have* b e e n achieved*in=recent years* but w e m u s t keep*in=v i e w the
fact that m o d e r n silviculture [is] still*in={its]early stages~*theôutcome

|of|*the^great experiment[is]not yet certain@ N e w systems{are]still being
tried out* Mark L@ Anderson |of| England {has] recently described *the^
result |of| $spaced#group planting$~ *the^ method |of| $area selection$ or
$patch#cutting*$ n o w prevalent*in=*the^Douglas#fir forest|of|*the^Pacific
Northwest* [is] scarcely twenty#five years old *in= that region~ *and% *in^
*the^ mixed coniferous forest |of| *the^ Sierra Nevada *in= California* after
analysis |of| forty years |of| research*and%experience*!a#n e w system
k n o w n as $unit#area control$[is]{to]be initiated@
There {are] t w o major types |of| silvicultural systems* coppice
methods* probably *the^ oldest* depending on vegetative or sprout
reproduction~*and%w h a t{are]k n o w n*in=Europe as high#forest systems*
w h i c h depend on seed reproduction@*theûse |of| coppice[is]declining*
except perhaps{for}firewood production*in=some regions*and%industrial
forestry*in=*the^future {will] n o doubt depend increasingly on seed
reproduction@ About !a# dozen high#forest systems {are] *in= use* most |of|
them developed *in= western Europe during *the^ nineteenth century
{and} they can also be divided into t w o major groups* clear#cutting
types*and%selection#cutting types@
A n u m b e r |of| variant forms {have] c o m e into existence* such as
$irregular shelterwood*$ $strip system*$ $coulisse method*$ $wedge#
cutting*$ $two#storied high forest*$ $high forest with standard*$ and+
several others@ Some |of| them {are] essentially clear#cutting *in= different
patterns* others{are]fundamentally selection#cutting@ O n*the^whole*
regeneration after clear#cutting produces even#aged stands* often
dominated{by]!a#single species* while!a#forest u n d e r selection#cutting
remains m i x e d b o t h as{to]age classes*and%species@{it][is]not necessary
^to* discuss these systems *in= detail~ {it] {will] suffice {to] say that each *has^
advantages *and% disadvantages *and% that none can be called *the^ best
system{for}all regions@ Clear#cutting{has]sometimes b e e n uncritically
condemned* but under certain circumstances {it] [is] undoubtedly *the^
most suitable method and* *in= fact* *the^ only system that can be used
*in& some regions@ {it] [is] not so much *the^ method as *the^ manner |of|
employing {it] that may be dubious@
Different Trends*in=Recent Silviculture

Another grouping can b e m a d e according{to]t w o different trends
*in& recent silviculture* or two different attitudes toward *the^ forest and+
these attitudes {will] surely be |of| more critical importance *in= *the^ future
than any particular system |of| forestry@ *the^ attitudes{are]not always

well expressed* but*in=their clearest form* one|of|them can be described
as faith*in=artificial forest**theôther as faith*in=natural forest@
O n *the^ one hand* there {are] those w h o believe that *the^ forest
should be treated as !a# plantation producing !a# maximum amount |of|
*the^ type |of| wood that [is] most profitable {to] man* *the^ pace |of| production
being forced{by]h u m a n action~ on*theôther hand* those w h o think
that*the^best result*in=*the^long run{will]b e obtained if natural conditions
*in&*the^forest{are]disturbed as little as possible*and%*the^forest* while
encouraged {by] *the^ co#operating hand |of| *the^ silviculturist* sets *the^
pace |of| timber production@
The difference s o m e w h a t resembles*the^contrast*in=agriculture
between those who believe *in= $organic farming$ *and% those who *have^
what Sir Albert Howard calls *the^ $N K P mentality$ *and% place their
faith *in= forced f e e d i n g w i t h c o m m e r c i a l l y p r o d u c e d c h e m i c a l
fertilizers@ These attitudes toward *the^ forest {are] found *in= every
country* b u t *the^ history |of| G e r m a n forestry provides *the^ clearest
e x a m p l e s*and%*the^longest record@
Coppice* clear#cutting*and%selection#cutting{have]b e e n practiced
ever since*the^M i d d l e A g e s*in=*the^forests |of| G e r m a n y*and%western
Europe generally* locally m o r e or less regulated{at]certain times b u t
m o r e c o m m o n l y not@ Unregulated selective cutting*in=h i g h forest
w a s widespread* b u t{it]w a s*the^w r o n g kind |of| selection**the^best trees
^were* cut out* leaving*the^poorer specimens{to]regenerate*the^forest@
Some |of| *the^ forests {were] excessively grazed {by] livestock~ *the^
custom |of| gathering fallen material {for} fuel *and% *the^ raking up |of|
leaves {for} bedding *the^ livestock *in= winter denuded many forests |of|
their litter~*and%yet other forests* because|of|*the^passion{for}hunting
a m o n g*the^nobility* b e c a m e overstocked with game* causing great
d a m a g e{to]*the^forest seedlings@
The result was !a# general deterioration |of| *the^ forest* which {by] *the^
end |of| *the^ eighteenth century {had] become so serious that strong
remedial measures {were] initiated@ Heinrich Cotta* 6 Director |of| *the^
Forest Academy {at] Tharandt* suggested that *the^ only way |of|
rehabilitating *the^ forest was {by] clear#cutting *and% making !a# fresh
start* helping*the^regeneration{by]*the^planting |of| trees* if necessary@
This m e t h o d b e c a m e c o m m o n*in=*the^forests |of| S a x o n y*and%w a s
adopted*in=m a n y other regions as well@{it]should b e noted that the
proposal w a s remedial *in= purpose* not intended as !a# permanent

system*and%Cotta himself w a r n e d against*the^danger|of|monoculture@
But that [is] what*the^m e t h o d turned out{to]be@
It b e c a m e standard practice*in=*the^nineteenth century*and%early
part|of|*the^twentieth{to]clear#cut* plant*and%harvest on short rotations
{and}*theûpshot w a s that m a n y forests b e c a m e dominated{by]even#
aged* nearly pure stands |of| spruce or pine* while fir*and%beech* oak
{and} other deciduous trees well#nigh disappeared@ *the^ dominant
motive was profit* spruce or pine* worked on short rotations *for^
lumber* pulp* mine timber *and% *the^ like* gave#for !a# while#the highest
{and} quickest economic returns@ This was *the^ earliest *and% one |of| *the^
clearest expressions |of| *the^ first |of| *the^ two attitudes* faith *in= artificial
forest@ A s Franz Heske says* w o o d changed{from]!a#carefully rationed
essential material{to]*anôrdinary commodity**the^production |of| w h i c h
w a s governed primarily {by] financial considerations@
But signs that all w a s not well b e g a n{to]appear* stunted growth
|of| trees* yellowish needles* increasing growth |of| lichens*and%peat*
decrease*in=grass* formation |of| h a r d p a n*in=s o m e soils~*and%{it]also
became apparent that *the^ trees suffered increasing damage *from^
wind* frost* fungus *and% insects@ !a# series |of| thorough investigations
|of| forest conditions *in= Saxony* undertaken {by] E@ Wiedemann *in= *the^
1920@s* revealed marked soil deterioration *and% !a# loss *in= *the^ average
annual growth rate* w h i c h according{to]estimates quoted {by] R@ S@
T r o u p a m o u n t e d{to]m o r e than 9 cubic feet per acre over!a#100#year
period* or !a# total loss |of| 3 1/2 billion cubic feet over *the^ whole |of| *the^
state forests *in= Saxony@ Unsatisfactory results *in= managed forests
^have* also b e e n observed*in=other regions@
Reports {from] *the^ large planted pine forest |of| *the^ Landes *in^
southwestern France indicate that *the^ heavy losses |of| recent years
^have* resulted not only {from] catastrophic fires* windfalls*and%attack
^by* beetles* b u t also {from] *the^ m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l c a u s e |of| soil
deterioration@ After a b o u t 100 y e a r s |of| intensive management*
described{by]G@ R o u x as $absolute monoculture*$*the^trees{are]less
healthy**theânnual increment{has]dropped**the^yield |of| turpentine
^has* decreased*and%natural regeneration[is]almost impossible{to]obtain~
seed cones {have] long been imported@ J@ L@ Arend estimates that *the^
area underlain with hardpan *in= *the^ region {has] increased *by^
approximately one half@
O n e|of|*the^proposed remedies[is]*theîntroduction |of| broadleaf

species {to] mix with *the^ pines@ Anders Holmgren* after fifty years |of|
work *in= *the^ forests |of| Swedish Norrland* during which time he *has^
given much |of| his attention {to] *the^ problems |of| regeneration and+
m e t h o d s |of| cutting* r e c o m m e n d s greater reliance on natural forest
{and} natural reproduction* advises against clearcutting with *the^
coulisse method *in= *the^ mountains *and% *the^ far north *and% suggests
that* if*the^m e t h o d m u s t b e used**theâreas cut should not b e larger
than 25{to]35 acres@ *the^ experience |of| S a x o n y does not prove* as
m a n y foresters {have] p o i n t e d out* that clear#cutting alone w a s
responsible{for}*the^deterioration* nor that pure stands{are]necessarily
bad* some forests naturally consist|of|nearly pure stands*and%adverse
results {have] also b e e n observed *in= m i x e d forests m a n a g e d with
different systems@ *the^ reasons {for} *the^ unsatisfactory outcome *were^
many *and% complex* but certainly *the^ fundamental cause was *the^
forced pace dictated{by]financial considerations@{it][is]not likely that
any forest soil* whether supporting pure or m i x e d stands* can long
stand u p u n d e r intensive short#rotation cropping@
Not all foresters approved |of| *the^ system@ Strong protests *were^
made* particularly {by] Karl Gayer* who advocated *the^ reestablishment
|of| forestry operations b a s e d u p o n*and%not contrary to* natural laws@
M a n y followed Gayer@s lead*and%!a#reaction set*in=against clear#
cutting*and%monoculture* reaching*anôpposite extreme*in=*theîdea
|of| Dauerwald* or forest with continuous cover*and%selective#cutting
*in& such !a# manner that $the forest hardly notices it$ Clear#cutting and+
artificial regeneration {are] still practiced *in= many regions* but *the^
present trend*in=E u r o p e a n silviculture[is]*in=another direction@ E@ W@
Jones summarizes his survey |of| present#day ideas a m o n g European
foresters {by] saying that opinions preponderantly favour mixture |of|
species* natural regeneration* constant preservation |of| *the^ forest
canopy *and% flexible cutting methods *and% stress particularly *the^
importance |of| giving careful attention {to] soil *and% site conditions *in^
reaching decisions on silvicultural policy {for} !a# given region@ That
forestry [is] essentially*anêconomic operation [is] not overlooked~ on
*the^ contrary* *the^ belief [is] that these methods |of| cooperating with *the^
bent |of| nature {will] *in= *the^ long run give *the^ highest returns *and% *at^
*the^ same time preserve *the^ health *and% beauty |of| *the^ forest@ {it] *is$
interesting{to]note* as*anîndication|of|*the^trend* that J o s e p h Kostler
concludes!a#recent major w o r k{by]reminding us that $forestry[is]also

landscape care*$*and%leaves*the^reader with!a#quotation {from] Goethe*
$We m u s t eavesdrop on Nature{to]learn her ways* lest we coerce her
into obstinacy{by]procedures against her will$ Here[is]*the^clearest
expression|of|*the^second attitude* faith*in=natural forest@
The trend |of| European silviculture m a y be t o w a r d natural forest*
b u t whether *the^ industry as !a# whole {will] follow suit [is] another
question@ There [is] no doubt about *the^ persistence |of| strong faith *in^
artificial forest *and% forced pace *in= countries outside |of| Europe@
The n e w fast#growing pine forests *in= Chile* N e w Zealand*
Australia* K e n y a *and% S o u t h Africa {are] essentially m o n o c u l t u r e
plantations* with some |of| *the^ rotations as short as thirty years@ *the^
technique developed *in= South Africa* as described {by] W@ E@ Hiley*
consists|of|early*and%h e a v y thinning according{to]mathematical rules
{and} $has*theôbject |of| producing *the^ greatest value |of| timber*in=as
short!a#time as possible*and%*the^prescriptions {are] b a s e d on strictly
e c o n o m i c principles$ N o better definition |of| nineteenth#century
forestry *in= Saxony could be found* but whether *the^ result {will] be *the^
same only future generations {will] know@ Hiley concludes that {it] *is$
too early {to] pronounce judgment on *the^ principles |of| this $daring
experiment$
The large industrial forests*in=*the^southeastern part|of|*theÛnited
S t a t e s * { w h e r e } p i n e s {have] a l w a y s b e e n abundant* {are] b e c o m i n g
dominated {by] softwoods {at] *the^ expense |of| hardwoods because |of| *the^
emphasis on planting pine {for} industrial purposes@ Southern forestry*
*in& fact* s e e m s{to]b e destined{for}monoculture@
The prevailing attitude [is] indicated *in= speeches made {at] *the^
meeting |of| *the^ Southern Pulpwood Conservation Association *in^
February 1954@ As reported *in= American Forests* one |of| *the^ speakers
said* $Put every acre{to]w o r k ## that@s good management* m a k e every
acre w o r k harder ## that@s applied research* m a k e every acre g r o w
better trees faster#that@s basic research$*the^speakers also questioned
*the^ w i s d o m |of| growing high#grade saw timber on 80#year rotations
*in&*the^national forests|of|*the^South*{where}there{are]so m a n y pulpmills@
*the^ planting |of| trees[is]certainly!a#c o m m e n d a b l e practice*and%n o one
can object {to] improvements *in= management *and% yield* but {it] *is$
obvious that here we {are] again on *the^ old Saxon road@ *the^ intention
*is]{to]m a k e*theâcres do what we bid@{it]{will]also b e observed that
the statement|of|*the^speaker reflects*the^widespread confusion over

w h a t constitutes basic research@ N o t only[is]*the^task|of|basic research
assigned* b u t*theêxpected result [is] laid down@
O n e can imagine *the^ feeling |of| !a# research scientist* produce
better trees* or else$*in=*the^rugged terrain|of|*the^dense D o u g l a s fir
forest*in=*the^Pacific Northwest*the^m e t h o d n o w almost universally
employed *and% approved {by] virtually every forester familiar with *the^
region* [is] clear#cutting |of| staggered blocks* sometimes called $area
selection$ There [is] no standard size |of| *the^ blocks {to] be logged* *for^
conditions vary {from] place {to] place* but *in= conversation with foresters
having lifetime experience with Douglas fir one hears *the^ opinion
that*{by]*and%large**the^b l o c k s ought not {to] exceed 30 or 4 0 acres@
It may be recalled that Holmgren made *the^ same suggestion *for^
northern Sweden@ But *the^ economic advantage |of| cutting larger
blocks[is]great*and%clear#cut areas |of| 300 acres{are]common@{it]can
hardly b e said that*the^long#run effect on*the^forest |of| such large
blocks[is]known* b u t m a n y foresters suspect that{it]{will]not b e good@
*the^ size|of|*the^b l o c k s[is]indicative|of|*anâttitude that [is] determined
m o r e {by] financial interest than {by] silviculture@
W e{are]clearly m o v i n g*in=!a#direction opposite{to]that suggested
^by* Goethe@ W e intend {to] coerce nature* hoping that she {will] not
respond with obstinacy* but there [is] plenty |of| evidence that she *will^
{and} none that she {will] not@ *the^ claim that good management can
cause#or force ##*theÂ m e r i c a n forest soil{to]yield twice as m u c h
w o o d as n o w on!a#sustained basis {has] almost b e c o m e sacrosanct
doctrine@ S o m e speak |of| increasing*the^yield e v e n more@ W e k n o w
that forestry{has]i m p r o v e d remarkably*in=recent years* w e k n o w that
good m a n a g e m e n t can raise*theânnual growth* b u t w e do not know*
we only hope* that *the^ total annual production can be doubled and+
permanently maintained {at] that level@ *the^ science |of| genetics *has^
come {to] *the^ fore during *the^ last half century *and% may conceivably
^have*!a#t r e m e n d o u s effect on*the^forests|of|*the^future@ *the^ r e n e w e d
interest*in=natural forest during Karl Gayer@s time w a s accompanied
^by*!a#reawakening curiosity about*the^nature|of|*the^forest**theîronic
result |of| w h i c h m a y b e*theênd |of| b o t h*the^concept*and%*theêxistence
|of| natural forest@ Like silviculture* modern forest genetics {has] *its^
precursors@ Duffield points out that as early as *the^ 1780@s !a# German
forester{by]*the^n a m e |of| W a n g e n h e i m w a s aware|of|hereditary strains
in forest trees*and%r e c o m m e n d e d*the^planting |of| seeds {from] superior

individuals*and%that Patrick Matthew* !a# British forester**in=1831
proposed!a#theory|of|natural selection derived{from]his experience with
raising trees@ *in= more recent years {it] {has] been discovered that there *are^
local races within *the^ species |of| trees *and% that !a# number |of| traits *are^
hereditary* such as form |of| trunk* type |of| branching* rate |of| growth*
v i g o u r |of| seeding@ A p p l i e d forest g e n e t i c s [is] b a s e d o n t h e s e
discoveries@{it][is]n o longer!a#question merely |of| planting seeds b u t
|of| planting seeds{from]*the^best trees@
Several thousand $elite$ trees {have] b e e n registered*in=*the^forests
|of| Scandinavia*and%Finland* seeds{are]regularly collected {from] these
protected individuals ## with*theâid |of| specially constructed steel
ladders erected{from]movable platforms* making{it]possible{to]harvest
*the^ seeds without h a r m i n g*the^tree ##*and%careful records {are] kept
|of|*the^progeny@ C@ Syrach#Larsen b e g a n{to]establish seed tree orchards
*in& Denmark during *the^ 1930@s {for} *the^ purpose |of| raising scions |of|
superior trees *and% {to] carry out cross#pollination experiments@ *in^
S w e d e n pines {from] *the^ north* characterized {by] slow growth b u t
highquality wood* {have] b e e n crossed with faster growing southern
stock*in=*the^h o p e |of| combining*the^best qualities |of| b o t h parents@
Experiments with X#ray treatment{to]achieve polyploid varieties
^have* produced!a#$giant aspen$ having twice*theôrdinary n u m b e r
|of| c h r o m o s o m e s*and%maturing*in=30 years@ J@ W@ Duffield*and%F@ I@
Righter report about two dozen new pine varieties produced {at] *the^
experiment station near Placerville *in= California* many |of| which
show decided hybrid vigour* grow faster *and% {are] more resistant *to^
cold* insects *and% diseases than either |of| *the^ parent species@ !a# cross
b e t w e e n eastern white pine*and%H i m a l a y a n white pine [is] w a t c h e d
with particular interest*{for}this hybrid not only outgrows eastern
white pine b u t{has]s h o w n itself resistant{to]blister rust*in=!a#rigorous
exposure test that n o w {has] b e e n*in=progress{for}nearly!a#decade@
Perhaps w e{are]on*the^threshold|of|!a#period that future historians
^will* refer {to] as *the^ time when forest trees {were] domesticated and+
natural forests passed away@ {it] [is] {to] be expected* if *the^ domestication
succeeds* that *the^ character |of| *the^ future forests {will] depend on
present trends*in=applied forest genetics@ While all geneticists w o r k
*in&*the^same general direction with controlled breeding experiments*
there seem{to]b e different opinions about*theâdvantage |of| exotics
over native species* some placing most|of|*the^faith*in=elite indigenous

trees* others expecting more {from] introduced species* or {from] !a#
combination |of| exotics *and% superior native stock@
5
Food*and%Plant Products*in=Forestry
Introduction
Pursuant{to]*theâuthority granted{by]*the^Federal Plant Pest Act
(FPPA) |of| M a y 23* 1957* as a m e n d e d (7 U@S@C@ 150 aa t h r o u g h 150
jj)**and%*the^Plant Quarantine Act (PQA) |of| August 20* 1912* as amended
(7 U@S@C@ 151 t h r o u g h 164* 166**and%167)@ U S D A {has] regulatory
authority over*the^m o v e m e n t into or within*and%t h r o u g h*theÛnited
States |of| plants* plant products* plant pests**and%any product or
article w h i c h m a y contain!a#plant pest{at]*the^time |of| movement@
These articles {are] regulated *in= order {to] prevent *the^ introduction*
spread* or establishment|of|plant pests n e w{to]or not widely prevalent
*in&*theÛnited States@ *the^ regulations i m p l e m e n t i n g this statutory
authority {are] found*in=7 C F R Parts 3 0 0 t h r o u g h 399@
$Plant Pest*$ as defined{by]statute* m e a n s any living stage |of| any
insects* mites* nematodes* slugs* snails* protozoa* or other intertebrate
animals* bacteria* fungi* or parasitic plants or reproductive parts
thereof* viruses* or any organisms similar {to] or allied with any |of| *the^
foregoing* or any infectious substances* which can directly or indirectly
injure or cause disease or d a m a g e*in=any plants or parts thereof* or
a n y p r o c e s s e d * m a n u f a c t u r e d * o r o t h e r p r o d u c t s |of| plants)@
$Movement*$ as defined {by] statute* m e a n s {to] ship* deposit for
transmission *in= *the^ mail* otherwise offer {for} shipment* offer *for^
entry* import* receive {for} transportation* carry* or otherwise transport
or move* or allow{to]b e moved*{by]mail or otherwise)@
The current permit system requirements{for}*the^m o v e m e n t into
or within*and%through*theÛnited States |of| plants* plant products*
plant pests* *and% other articles regulated {by] FPPA *and% PQA *were^
fully described *in= *the^ December 31* 1984 Notice {at] 49 FR 50900#01@
*the^ procedures{for}issuing permits{for}*the^m o v e m e n t |of| plant pests
^were* discussed separately {from] plants* plant products*and%other
articles w h i c h m a y contain plant pests {at] 4 9 F R 50901#02@ U S D A
regulates*theîmportation |of| noxious w e e d s through!a#permit system
similar{to]that established{for}plant pests@ *the^ existing regulations
*in& 7 CFR Part 360 which designate plants as noxious weeds and+
establish procedures {for} obtaining *an^ import permit {were] described
at 4 9 F R 50902@
Regulation|of|*theÎntroduction|of|Organisms*and%Products Altered
or P r o d u c e d T h r o u g h Genetic Engineering W h i c h {are] or W h i c h
There [is] R e a s o n{to]Believe {are] Plant Pests
The F P P A*and%P Q A{are]applicable{to]*the^m o v e m e n t |of| plants*
plant products**and%other articles*and%plant pests developed through
genetic engineering if such plants* plant products* other articles* or
plant pests present !a# risk |of| plant pest introduction* spread* or
establishment@
U n d e r*theâuthority granted{by]*the^F P P A*and%PQA* U S D A is
proposing new regulations which would impose restrictions on *the^
introduction |of| organisms *and% products altered or produced through
genetic engineering w h i c h{are]plant pests or w h i c h there [is] reason
^to* believe {are] plant pests@ *in= accordance with *the^ provisions |of| *the^
FPPA *and% PQA@ USDA must determine *the^ plant pest status |of|
plants* plant products or articles {to] be moved into or within or
through*theÛnited States@ *the^ evaluation process{for}determining
what safeguards* if any* can be imposed which would allow *the^
movement |of| *the^ plant pest without risk that *the^ plant pest would
be disseminated {were] described *in= *the^ December 31* 1984 Notice *at^
49 FR 50901#02@ {for} genetically engineered material {from] dissimilar
source organisms (inter#generic combinations)**the^determination
m a y b e complex@ Information about genetically engineered organisms
produced through*theûse|of|donor* vector/vector agent*and%recipient
organisms that{are]{from]!a#list|of|k n o w n plant pests[is]n e e d e d*in=order

that such organisms b e properly regulated@
During *the^ past year* USDA {has] received permit applications *to^
move genetically engineered organisms into or through *the^ United
States@ U S D A [is] confident that organisms altered through genetic
engineering {will] play !a# major role *in= increased plant yield and+
improved plant quality@ However* !a# genetically engineered organism
derived {from] organisms that {are] plant pests also presents !a# risk |of|
plant pest introduction@ *the^ organisms themselves* *the^ cultures *in^
w h i c h they{are]transported* or their packaging m a y b e contaminated
with plant pathogens@ Genetic alteration m a y create!a#plant pest n e w
^to**and%not widespread*in=*theÛnited States@{it][is]necessary* therefore*
^to* establish appropriate safeguards {to] prevent *the^ introduction |of|
genetically engineered organisms that pose !a# threat {to] agriculture@
Other genetically engineered organisms that{are]not plant pests or
^where* there[is]n o reason{to]believe such organisms{are]plant pests
w o u l d not b e regulated@
N e w data {have] {to] b e required *in= order {to] properly evaluate
permit applications{for}those organisms w h i c h {are] plant pests or
w h i c h there[is]reason{to]believe{are]plant pests@!a#determination w a s
m a d e that additional data requirements w o u l d b e incorporated into
proposed regulations {for} those genetically engineered organisms
w h i c h{are]|of|concern u n d e r*the^provisions|of|*the^F P P A*and%PQA@
U S D A[is]publishing as!a#c o m p a n i o n d o c u m e n t*in=*the^$proposed
rules section$ |of| this issue |of| *the^ Federal Register {its] p r o p o s e d
regulations pertaining{to]organisms*and%products altered or produced
through genetic engineering w h i c h{are]on plant pests or w h i c h there
*is] reason{to]believe{are]plant pests@
The proposed regulations w o u l d establish!a#n e w part entitled*
$Introduction |of| O r g a n i s m s*and%P r o d u c t s A l t e r e d or P r o d u c e d
T h r o u g h Genetic Engineering W h i c h{are]Plant Pests or W h i c h There
*is] Reason {to] Believe {are] Plant Pests$* *in= Title 7 |of| *the^ Code |of|
Regulations (7 CFR)* pursuant {to] *the^ authority |of| *the^ FFPA* as
a m e n d e d (7 U@S@C@ 150aa#150jj)*and%*the^PQA* as amended* (7 U@S@C@
151#164* 166* 167)@ Such proposed regulations would regulate *the^
importation into *and% movement within *and% through *the^ United
States as well as prevent*the^release into*theênvironment |of| certain
organisms* or p r o d u c t s a l t e r e d or p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h g e n e t i c
engineering* w h i c h{are]plant pests or w h i c h there[is]reason{to]believe

âre* plant pests@
The proposed regulations would restrict *the^ $introduction$ |of|
certain organisms *and% products altered or produced through genetic
engineering* referred {to] as $regulate articles@$ *in= this context*
$introduction$ m e a n s{to]m o v e into*theÛnited States*{to]release into
*the^ environment* or {to] m o v e interstate* or any attempt thereat@$
$Release into *the^ environment$ m e a n s $use|of|!a#regulated article
outside *the^ constraints |of| physical confinement that {are] found *in= !a#
laboratory* contained greenhouse* or fermenter or other contained
structure@$
USDA@s proposed regulations* which {are] designed {to] prevent *the^
release into *the^ environment |of| genetically engineered organisms
w h i c h{are]plant pests or w h i c h there[is]reason{to]believe {are] plant
pests{are]consistent with*the^legislative intent|of|*the^FPPA@*the^F P P A
was enacted *in= 1957 *and% was intended as $gap filing$ legislation *for^
*the^ purpose |of| protecting American agriculture against invasion *by^
plant pests*and%diseases w h i c h{are]n e w{to]or not theretofore k n o w n
^to* be widely prevalent or distributed within *and% throughout *the^
United States@ *the^ FPPA also provides USDA with authority *to^
regulate insects or pests that might later be found {to] be injurious *to^
cultivated crops@ *the^ release into*theênvironment|of|!a#genetically
engineered plant pest [is] tantamount{to]*theîntroduction |of| !a# plant
pest which[is]n e w{to]*and%not theretofore k n o w n{to]b e widely prevalent
within*and%throughout *the^ United States*and%subject{to]regulation
u n d e r*the^FPPA@
It should b e noted that $regulated article$ w o u l d b e defined as
any o r g a n i s m or p r o d u c t altered or p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h genetic
engineering* if*the^donor organism* recipient organism* or vector or
vector agent belongs {to] !a# group |of| organisms designated {by] *the^
proposed regulations as having plant pests or any organism or product
which USDA determines [is] !a# plant pest or which there [is] reason *to^
believe [is] !a# plant pest@
U n d e r USDA@s p r o p o s e d definition* certain m i c r o o r g a n i s m s
w o u l d b e excluded if*the^recipient microorganism[is]non#pathogenic*
*is] non#infectious* *and% otherwise not !a# plant pest* *and% resulted *from^
*the^ addition |of| genetic material that [is] well characterized *and% contains
only non#coding regulatory regions@ Restrictions w o u l d b e required
for regulated articles because they{are]plant pests* or because U S D A

^has* reason{to]believe they {are] plant pests@
The proposed regulations would require that !a# person obtain !a#
permit prior {to] *the^ introduction |of| !a# regulated article *and% would list
specific conditions required{for}*theîntroduction|of|!a#regulated article@
*the^ regulated article could be introduced only if all conditions *in= *the^
proposed regulations as well as all conditions specified on *the^ permit
^were* met@{it][is]important{to]note that*in=considering w h e t h e r!a#permit
c a n b e i s s u e d {for} *the^ i n t r o d u c t i o n |of| !a# genetically e n g i n e e r e d
organism* U S D A{will]perform*the^same comprehensive analysis that
*is] used *in= determining whether !a# permit can be issued {for} *the^
movement |of| !a# $conventional$ plant pest@ Such asessment shall include
*an& examination|of|*the^factors that {were] discussed*in=*the^D e c e m b e r
31* 1984* Notice{at]4 9 F R 50901#02 as part|of|*theêvaluation process
^for* determining what safeguards can b e i m p o s e d w h i c h w o u l d allow
*the^ m o v e m e n t|of|!a#plant pest without risk |of| dissemination@ These
factors {are] oriented toward *an^ examination |of| *the^ ecological and+
environmental effects |of| !a# release |of| *the^ genetically engineered
organism or product into*theênvironment@
The proposed regulations also contain provisions{for}!a#certificate
|of| e x e m p t i o n{for}those organisms or products altered or produced
through genetic engineering that {are] not subject{to]*the^proposed
regulations@ !a# person seeking{to]introduce*anê x e m p t article could
voluntarily request !a# certificate |of| exemption {to] facilitate *the^
introduction |of| *the^ organism or product@
The proposed regulations provide!a#list |of| groups |of| organisms
w h i c h {are] plant pests or contain plant pests@ If*the^donor* vector/
vector agent* or recipient |of| *the^ genetically engineered organism *is$
derived {from] *an^ organism on *the^ list |of| organisms containing plant
pests* such genetically engineered organism would be deemed !a#
$regulated article$@
A s defined*in=*the^proposed regulations*!a#plant pest includes
microorganisms such as bacteria*and%viruses**and%thus!a#$regulated
article$ may be !a# microorganism unless {it] meets *the^ provisions *for^
exclusion@ {it] [is] important {to] note that *in= some instances certain
microorganisms {will] be subject {to] joint regulation {by] USDA and+
EPA@ USDA {has] jurisdication over certain microorganisms under *the^
F P P A*and%P Q A if*the^microorganisms{are]!a#plant pest@ E P A w o u l d
have jurisdiction u n d e r*the^Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) if

*the^ m i c r o o r g a n i s m[is]d e e m e d{to]b e!a#$new$ m i c r o o r g a n i s m or u n d e r
*the^ Federal Insecticide* Fungicide**and%Rodenticide Act* as a m e n d e d
(FIFRA) if*the^m i c r o o r g i n i s m[is]{to]b e u s e d as!a#pesticide@ Because
each A g e n c y{has]!a#different statutory mandate* certain jurisdictional
overlaps cannot b e avoided@ However* E P A*and%U S D A {will] work
cooperatively*and%simultaneously*in=*theêvaluation |of| genetically
engineered m i c r o o r g a n i s m s that fall u n d e r*the^jurisdication |of| b o t h
Agencies@ {to] expedite *the^ review |of| these m i c r o o r g a n i s m s each
Agency {will] appoint contact persons {to] coordinate *the^ review *to^
ensure data requests {are] not duplicated@ *the^ specifics |of| which
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s {will] b e subject{to]dual A g e n c y review* or primarily
single A g e n c y review*[is]set forth*in=*the^preamble|of|USDA@s proposed
regulations b e i n g published as!a#c o m p a n i o n d o c u m e n t{to]this policy
statement@ That document should b e consulted{for}further information@
A k e y{to]determining whether!a#genetically engineered organism
^will* be regulated{by]U S D A[is]*the^list |of| organisms containing plant
p e s t s t h a t a p p e a r s *in= § 340@2 *in= p r o p o s e d P a r t 340@ U S D A
a c k n o w l e d g e s that this[is]not*anêxhaustive list**and%that{it]does n o t
attempt{to]list every pest species@ C o m m e n t s{are]w e l c o m e on*the^list
as well as on other parts |of| *the^ proposed regulations@ *in= order *to^
solicit as many comments as possible on *the^ list *and% all other parts
|of|*the^p r o p o s e d regulations* U S D A {has] scheduled public hearings
*in& Washington* D C*and%Sacramento* California* during*the^60#day
c o m m e n t period@ *the^ time*and%place|of|*the^public hearings as well
as*theâddress{to]send written c o m m e n t s[is]specified*in=*the^preamble
^to* *the^ proposed regulations@ USDA believes that through *the^
submission |of| detailed comments *and% full participation {by] public
{and} private interests* U S D A {will] b e able {to] p r o m u l g a t e !a# final
regulation that {will] prevent *the^ introduction *and% dissemination |of|
genetically engineered organisms which {are] plant pests or which
there [is] reason {to] believe {are] plant pests* yet not impede *the^
development |of| biotechnology@
Principles|of|Plant Selection
Selection species[is]important{for}*the^success |of| social forestry@
*the^ selection should b e b a s e d on*the^following criteria*
1@ trees should be fast growing* early maturing*and%yielding*
2@ they should{have]multiple usages (for food* fodder* fuel* manures)*

3@ the tree trunk should be strong*and%stout*
4@ the species should be suited{to]climate*and%soil|of|*the^place*
5@ they should {have] dense foliage*
6@ they should possess capacity{to]tolerate adverse climate*and%soil
conditions*
7@ they should {have] deep root system*
8@ the leaf shedding should be*in=early spring*and%not*in=summer*
9@ they should {have] coppicing capacity (ability{to]produce shoots
^from* cut portion)*
10@ they should not {have] prominent thorns and
11@ their planting*and%caring should be easier*and%economical@
It [is] essential that *the^ species selected{for}planting should b e
directly or indirectly related{to]*the^soci0#economic needs|of|*the^people@
Therefore* there must b e full participation|of|local people*in=selecting
species {for} planting@ {at] *the^ same time people {have] {to] b e taken
through*the^process |of| reflection*and%analysis{to]m a k e t h e m aware
|of|*the^socio#economic conditions|of|*the^their life*in=relation{to]social
forestry before they choose*the^type |of| trees{to]b e planted@ Planning
should take into account not only *the^ immediate needs but also *the^
future increasing requirements@
Plant Groups
Trees can be grouped according {to] people@s requirements@ *for^
*the^ selection |of| trees* people should identify locally available species
first*and%then only go{for}exotic species@ This principle should b e kept
*in& m i n d always before!a#species[is]selected{for}social forestry@
O n e can always find{at]least half!a#dozen local species suitable
^to* various n e e d s|of|*the^people@
Given below [is] !a# model classification |of| trees according {to] *the^
needs |of| people *and% major agro#climatic conditions@ However* *the^
list[is]neither exhaustive n o r*the^classification rigid or exclusive@ *the^
scientific n a m e s with Hindi n a m e s*in=parenthesis {are] given*in=*the^
classification@{it][is]up{to]*the^people{to]identify local trees{for}various
purposes*and%plant them@
Fuel Trees
Fast growth *and% high yield {are] *the^ most important criteria *for^
selecting firewood trees@ Tress requiring 5#15 years {to] attain full
growth{are]considered suitable{for}fuel production@ Fuel w o o d can

b e g r o w n {by] t w o methods* (a) coppicing (cutting*and%regrowing
branches continuously)@ All*the^trees do not {have] regrowth capacity@
S o m e fast growing cropping fuel trees are* alder eucalyptus* subabul*
poplar*and%sallow@ S o m e|of|*the^c o m m o n firewood trees{are]classified
climate wise though s o m e |of| them {are] g r o w n u n d e r!a#wide range
|of| climatic conditions@
Tropical dry regions* (a) Acacia nilitica (Babul)~ (b) Albizia lebbeck
(Siris) (c) Azadirachta indica (Neem)~ (d) Emblica officinalis (Amla)~
(e) Prosopis julifera (Vilayati babul)~
(f) Zizyphus mauritiana (Ber)~*and%(g) Tamarindus indica (Tamarind)@
Tropical humid regions* ( a ) Acacia nilitica (Babul)~
( b ) Albizia lebbeck ( S i r i s ) ( c ) Azadirachta indica (Neem)~
(d) Casuarina equisitifolia (janglijhau)~ (e) Dalbergia sisoo (Shisam)~ (f)
Ficus religiosa (Pipal)~ (g) Salix daphnoides (Willow)~ (h) M a d h u c a
longifolia (Mahua)~ (i) Moringa olifera (Drumstick)~ (j) Tamarindus
idica (Tamarind)~ (k) Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul)~*and%(1) Mangnifera
indica (Mango)@
Subtropical regions* (a) Acacia catechu (Khair)~
(b) Grevillea robusta (Silver oak)~ (c) Populous spp@ (Popular)~ (d) Salix
spp@ (willow)~*and%(e) Toona ciliata (Toon)@
Fodder Species
Fodder species should be included*in=!a#social forestry p r o g r a m m e
^to* ensure balanced feed{to]*theânimals@
Fast growing leguminous species{are]m o r e valuable as fodder
due {to] their high protein content(Subabul )@ *in= addition {to] being !a#
legume* trees with succulent *and% dense foliage with better silage
m a k i n g quality{are]preferred{for}fodder@ F o d d e r trees{are]generally
planted close*and%maintained*in=*the^form|of|!a#b u s h {by] repeated
coppicing@ S o m e|of|*the^fodder trees{are]classified according{to]climate@
Tropical dry regions* ( a ) Acacia nilotica (Babul)~
(b) Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul)~ (c) Cordia rothii (Gondi)~ (d)
Zizyphus mauritiana (Ber)~ (e) Albizia lebbeck (Siris)~
(f) Bauhinia vareigata (Kachnar)@
1@ Tropical humid areas* (a) Morus alba (Shatoot)~
(b) Moringa olifera (Drumstick)~ (c) Acacia nilotica (Babul)~ (d) Albizia
lebbeck (Siris)~*and%(e) Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kat#hal)@
2@ Subtropical regions* (a) Ficus religiosa (Pipal)~ (b) Toona ciliata (Toona)~
(c) Bauhnia purpurea (Lal kachnar* Kaliar)~*and%(d) Acacia catechu

(Khair)@
Fruit Trees
Choice |of| *the^ local people should be given due consideration *for^
selecting fruit trees *in= social forestry along with soil *and% climatic
factors as *the^ fruit trees do not florish unless they get !a# suitable
environment@
The objective{for}raising*the^fruit trees should b e also ascertained@
If{it][is]{for}commercial purpose* marketing facilities should b e first
ensured@ Following species can b e g r o w n according{to]*the^specific
region@
1@ Tropical dry regions* (a) Zysyphus mauritana (Ber)~ (b) Tamarindus
indica (Tamrind)~ (c) Moringa olifera (Drum stick)~ (d) Emblica
officinalis (Amla)~ (e) Carissa carandas (Karaunda)~*and%(f) Ceratonia
siliqua (Kharnub)@
2@ Tropical humid regions* (a) Anacardium occidentale (Cashew)~ (b)
Areca catechu (Supari* Betelnut)~ (c) Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kat#
hal)~ (d) Cocos nucifera (Coconut)~ (e) Tamindus indica (Tamerind)l
(f) Madhuca longifolia (Mahua)~ (g) Embnlica officinalis (Amla)~ (h)
Mangifera indica (Mango)~ (i) Moringa olifera (Drumstick)~ (j) Morus
Alba (Shahtoot)~*and%(k) Syzygium cumini (Jamun* Jambu)@
3@ Subtropical regions* (a) Litchi chinensis (Litchi)~ (b) Emblica officinalis
(Amla)~ (c) Magnifera indica (Mango)~ (d) Psidium guajava (Guava)~
(e) Prunus persica (peach)~*and%(f) Pyrus communis (Pear)
Timber Trees
Timber trees{are]|of|two types namely small timber*and%commercial
timber {for} logging@ {for} social forestry purposes* normally small
timber [is] raised w h i c h [is] used{for}village housing{for}m a k i n g farm
implemts*and%tools handles@ Here* too**the^local species {are] given
preference over *the^ exotics@ S o m e |of| *the^ major timber speciaes
according {to] their purpose* climatic requirements {are] grouped@
1@ Rural housing*and%fencing* (a) Albizia lebbeck (Siris)~ (b) Azadirachta
indica (Neem)~ (c) Cocos nucifera (Coconut)~ (d) Madhuca longifolia
(Mahua)~ (e) Syzygium cumini (Jamun)~ (f) Dalbergia sisoo (Shisham
)~*and%(g) Phoenix dactylifera (Khajur)@
2@ Big housing*and%furnitures* (a) Acacia catechu (Khair)~ (b) Acasia
nilitica (Babul)~ (c) Cassia fistula (Amaltas)~ (d) Dalbergia sisoo
(Shisham)~ (e) Madhuca longifolia (Mahua)~ (f) Pinus spp@ (Pine)~ (g)
Shorea robusta (Sal)~ (h) Tectona grandis (Teak)~*and%(i) Terminalia
arjuna (Arjun* Kahu)@
3@ Farm implements* (a) Acacia catechu (Khair)~ (b) Acacia nilotica

(Babul)~ (c) Azadiracht indica (Neem)~ (d) Cassia fistula (Amaltas)~
{and} (e) Syzygium cumini (Jamun)
4@ Tool handles* (a) Pongamia glabra (Karanj)~ (b) Leucaena leucocephala
(Subalul)~ (c) Bambusa spp@ (Bamboo)~ (d) Grewia oppositifolia (Bhimal)~
(e) Azadirachta indica (Neem)~ (f) Acacia catechu (Khair)~ (g) Acasia
Nilotica (Babul)*and%(h) Dalbergia sisoo (Shisham)
Trees{for}soil erosion control*{for}soil erosion control* planting
methods *and% designs {are] more important than *the^ kinds |of| tree@
Generally trees useful {for} soil erosion control {are] classified@
1@ Tropical dry regions* (a) Acacia catechu (Khair)~ (b) Acacia nilotica
(Babul)~ (c) Albizia lebbeck (Siris)~ (d) Azadirachta indica (Neem)~ (e)
Bambusa spp@ (Bamboo)~ (f) Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul)~*and%(g)
Prosopis julifera (Vilayati babul)@
2@ Tropical humid regions* (a) Acacia catechu (Khair)~ (b) Acacia nilotica
(Babul)~ (c) Albizcia lebbeck (Siris)~ (d) Azadirachta indica (Neem)~ (e)
Bambusa sp@ (Bamboo)~ (f) Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul)~ (g) Prosopis
julifera (Vilayati babul)~ (h) Salix sp@ (Willow)~*and%(i) Pongamia
glabra (Karanj)
3@ Subtropical regions* (a) Populaus spp@ (Poplar)~ (b) Eucalyptus spp*
(Eucalyptus)~ (c) Bombax ceiba (Semal)~ (d) Azadirachta indica (Neem)~
(e) Dalbergia sisoo (Shisham)~ (f) Morus alba (Mulberry)~*and%(g)
Prosopis julifera (Vilayati babul)@
Trees with*the^following characteristics{are]suited{for}soil erosion
control*
1@ profuse branching{from]*the^base (eg@Vilayati babul)*
2@ extensive root system (eg@ Casurina)
4@ ability{to]produce saplings {from] cutting (eg@ Shisham)~ and
5@ tolerance{to]close growing condition (eg@ Bamboo)@
Improvement |of| Poor Soils
Saline* alkaline* usar* waterlogged*and%marshy land constitute
*the^ poor soil@ These lands cannot be u s e d{for}agricultural purposes@
Planting trees resistant or tolerating these types |of| soils* sill not only
help*in=reclamation |of| soil* but also yield useful products like fuel
or fodder@ Planting trees on water logged areas {will] lower*the^water#
table {to] certain extent@ Following trees {are] suitable {for} *the^
improvement |of| soils@
1@ Saline* alkaline*and%usar soils* (a) Acasia nilotica (Babul)~ (b) Albizia
lebbeck (Siris)~ (c) Azadirachta indica (Neem)~ (d) Butea monosperma
(Dhak)~ (e) Casurina spp@ (f) Emblica officinalis (Amla)~ (g) Madhuca
latifolia (Mahua)~ (h) Morus alba (Shahtoot)~ (i) Pongamia glabra

(Karanj)~ (j) Terminalia arjuna (Arjun)* (k) Zizyphus spp@ (Ber)~ (i)
Prosopis julifera (Vilayati kikar)~ (m) Nerium indicum (Kaner)~ (n)
Cassia fistula (Amaltas)~*and%(o) Ficus religiosa (Pipal)@
2@ Short duration water logged areas* (a) Acacia nilotica (Babul)~ (b)
Butea monosperma (Dhak)~ (c) Dalbergia Sissoo (Shisham)~ (d)
eucalyptus spp* (e) Pongamia glabra (Karanj)~ (f) Terminalia arjuna
(Arjun)~ (g) Syzigium cumini (Jamun)~*and%(h) Salix spp@ (Willow)@
3@ Damp*and%marshy lands* (a) Pongamia glabra (Karanj)~ (b) Salix spp@
(Willow)~ (c) Popular spp@ (Popular)~ (d) Casuarina equesitifolia (Jangli
Jhau)~*and%(e) Toona ciliata (Toona)@
Windbreaks
Windbreak refers {to] one or three rows |of| trees planted as !a#
protective against strong wind@ Windbreaks {are] planted perpendicular
^to**the^direction|of|*the^w i n d*in=*the^locality@*in=India* there{are]generally
planted north#south direction {to] check*the^w i n d force {from] south¬
west*and%north#east@ T h e y reduce*the^w i n d velocity*and%consequent
m o v e m e n t |of| sand*and%soil [is] arrested@@ thus they (1) reduce soil
erosion (2) conserve precipitation *and% (3) increase soil moisture@ *the^
following {are] !a# few examples |of| trees suitable {for} planting as
windbreaks@
1@ Dry*and%arid regions* (a) Albizia lebbeck (Siris)~ (b) Azadirachta indica
(Neem)~ (c) Artocarpus heterophyllus (Kat#hal)~ (d) Pongamia glabra
(Karanj)~ (e) Sesbania grandiflora (Agast)~ (f) Tamarindus indica
(Tamarind)*and%(g) Tamarix dioica (Jhau)@
2@ Coastal areas* (a) Anacardium occidentale (Cashew)~ (b) Grevilea
robusta (Silver oak)~ (c) Casuarina equisitifolia (Casurina)* JangliJhau)~
(d) Saraca indica (Ashok)@
Constraints |of| Social Forestry
Several factors constrain social forestry programmes@ Some |of|
*the^ more significant ones {are] mentioned below*
A@ Absence |of| comprehensive research findings on *the^ suitability |of|
certain species {for} various agro#climatic regions |of| *the^ country*
techniques for growing
such plants successfully *and% economically* optimum spacing |of|
trees* subsequent management *and% harvesting practices etc@ [is] !a#
major hurdle{for}social forestry@
B@ A remunerative support price{for}tree corps grown{by]beneficiaries
*is] lacking@ Instead*the^middlemen take away most|of|*the^profit@
C@ Rules*and%regulations regarding*the^harvesting* transport and
marketing {have] {to] be simplified so as {to] eliminate hurdles *in^

obtaining permission@ {for} example* sandalwood production *in^
Karnataka {has] been steadily decreasing despite *the^ increasing
demand@ One reason{for}low production[is]absolute state control
over sandal trees even on private lands@ Similarly most|of|*the^trees
except eucalyptus* babool* saijana*and%few others {are] forbidden
^to* be cut*and%transported outside*the^village even{by]*the^producer
himself without permission{from]*the^forest department@*the^farmer*
there* [is] reluctant {to] grow these trees as he {has] no right either *to^
cut or sell them@
D@ Harassment {by] government officials [is] another problem *in= *the^
implementation |of| social forestry programmes@ They demand illegal
gratification {from] villagers{for}transporting*and%trading*in=minor
forest products produced under social forestry programmes@ Hence
people{are]not interested*in=social forestry programmes@
E@ Most social forestry programmes{are]undertaken on community
wastelands* roadside*and%canal margins{where}it[is]very difficult
^to* grow*and%protect*the^saplings@ Moreover* most|of|*the^plantations
âre* very small *in= size *and% scattered making management and+
protection impossible@
F@ Encroachments|of|*the^land also deprive*the^poor {from] his due
benefits@ *the^ rich*and%*theînfluential people encroach*and%take
possession |of| most |of| social forestry plantations *and% *the^ poor *are^
marginalized@ People should be involved {at] every stage with real
conviction*and%understanding@ Otherwise they become mere
workforce@ Special task forces need{to]be mobilized*in=every region
^to* create awareness among *the^ people *and% {to] motivate them@ *it^
should be made !a# movement both *in= thinking as well *in= practice@
^for**the^success |of| social forestry {it] must become!a#people@s
movement involving as many villagers as possible@
G@ Extension [is] !a# two#way communication between researches and+
people~ better *and% new ideas about social forestry should flow
^from* researchers {to] people *and% *the^ people should provide *the^
feedback {to] *the^ researchers@ {at] present there {are] neither such
facilities nor competent personnel*in=extension methodology@
H@ Lack |of| proper distribution system{for}*the^sharing|of|*the^social
forestry products [is] yet another constraint@ Neither government
nor voluntary agencies{have]evolved*anâcceptable*and%equitable
system |of| product distribution@
I@ Non#availability|of|required seedlings[is]another major handicap@
Hence* people plant whatever they get which ultimately proves
unsuitable{to]them@
Cool Season Plants

D e p e n d i n g on their area|of|native adaptation* plants prefer cooler
or w a r m e r temperatures@ Cool loving plants tolerate temperatures
slightly b e l o w *the^ 32°F@ G r o w t h [is] poor {at] w a r m e r temperatures@
E x a m p l e s|of|cool season plants include vegetables (cabbage* broccoli*
lettuce* radishes* peas)* flowers (crocus* daffodil* tulips* violets)* fruits
(apples* pears* plums* A m e r i c a n grapes)*and%shrubs (forsythia* lilac*
spirea* honeysuckle)@ C o o l s e a s o n p l a n t s prefer a v e r a g e daily
temperatures b e l o w 70°F@ Premature seed stalk formation or bolting
|of| biennial vegetables[is]!a#p r o b l e m {for} cool season crops@ Cool
temperatures following planting c o m p r e s s e s their natural growth
cycle*and%seed stalks often form later*in=*the^season@
Warm Season Plants
S o m e plants prefer temperatures above 70°F*and%{are]usually
injured{by]freezing temperatures@ S o m e t i m e s these plants{are]called
n o n h a r d y or tender plants* while those that can withstand freezing
temperatures {are] called h a r d y plants@ E x a m p l e s |of| w a r m season
crops{are]vegetables (beans* tomatoes* sweet corn* melons)* flowers
(roses* lilies tropical foliage plants)*and%fruits (peaches* apricots*
sweet cherries)@
Freezing Injury
When *the^ temperature drops below 32°F there [is] !a# chance |of|
injury {to] some plants@ This [is] frequently called frost injury@ Frost *is$
ice formation on!a#surface while plant injury occurs only w h e n ice
forms within *the^ plant@ Generally* *the^ period just before dawn [is] *the^
time when *the^ temperature reaches *the^ lowest point *and% freezing
injury occurs@ Freezing injury results*in=*anî m m e d i a t e water soaked*
blackened appearance that quickly turns brown *and% dies@ {it] [is] !a#
common horticultural practice {to] cover plants with insulating
m a t e r i a l s or s p r i n k l e p l a n t s w i t h w a t e r {to] p r e v e n t freezing
temperatures {from] occurring within *the^ plant@ While water {from] !a#
sprinkler may feel very cold {it] {has] some heat energy that [is] passed
on {to] *the^ plant@ There [is] !a# lot |of| current research on treatments *to^
allow plants {to] be exposed {to] lower temperatures without injury and+
^to* u n d e r s t a n d*the^m e c h a n i s m |of| freezing injury {to] plant tissues@
Chilling Injury
Injury can occur{to]w a r m season plants or products e x p o s e d to
low temperatures@ This l o w temperature injury [is] called chilling

injury*and%results{from]!a#malfunction*in=*the^n o r m a l plant growth
processes rather than*the^freezing |of| water within*the^plant@ Crops
such as cucumbers* tomatoes* tropical fruits*and%most tropical foliage
plants* {are] subject{to]chilling injury@ *the^ d e v e l o p m e n t |of| chilling
injury usually results*in=rapid respiration**the^d e v e l o p m e n t |of| rots
{and} molds* bitter or $off flavours$*and%a b n o r m a l colours@ Chilling
injury m a y occur{at]temperatures b e l o w 45#50°F*in=m a n y plants or
products@
Rest Period
There{are]periods w h e n!a#plant or seed does not g r o w despite
favourable conditions@ These periods {are] called rest periods@ T h e y
usually coincide with*the^natural period |of| d o r m a n c y{for}perennial
plants during*the^winter@ During this time deciduous plants lose
their leaves*and%herbaceous plants {are] frozen b a c k{to]*the^ground@
Buds |of| woody plants do not grow due {to] physiological and+
biochemical processes@ Following !a# period |of| cold* *the^ buds break
(end) their rest period *and% continue growth@ *the^ temperature and+
hours needed {to] break dormancy {has] been determined {for} many
plants@ Fruit varieties {are] grouped {by] their requirement |of| hours *at^
or below !a# critical temperature (usually 40°F) {to] break *the^ rest period@
Desirable environmental conditions{are]necessary{to]r e s u m e growth
following*the^breaking|of|*the^rest period@ M a n y temperate plants
produce seeds with!a#natural rest period following ripening@ This
rest period can only be broken {by] exposure {to] cold temperatures *for^
!a# period |of| time@ This process [is] called stratification@ We can artificially
stratify seeds{by]storing t h e m*in=!a#moist m e d i u m such as peat m o s s
or sand{at]near freezing temperatures (usually 40°F){for}!a#n u m b e r
|of| weeks@ This b r e a k s*the^n o r m a l rest period*and%allows*the^seeds
^to* germinate uniformly@
Woody Plant Survival

A n e x a m p l e |of| hardiness{has]already b e e n provided{for}annual
plants tolerant{to]l o w temperatures@ W o o d y plants can also tolerate
low temperatures{to]varying degrees@ Native plants have* through
*the^ years* adapted {to] withstand low temperatures *and% {are] said *to^
be hardy {to] *the^ area{where}they evolved@ *the^ level |of| low winter
temperatures that!a#particular type |of| plant can withstand{has]b e e n
determined{for}m o s t w o o d y plant species@

The U n i t e d States[is]divided into areas called plant hardiness
zones@ *the^ zones{are]n u m b e r e d 1#10 {from] colder{to]w a r m e r areas@
This m a p w a s developed{by]*theÛ S D e p a r t m e n t |of| Agriculture@
W o o d y o r n a m e n t a l p l a n t s survive a v e r a g e n o r m a l l o w w i n t e r
temperatures*in=these areas*and%plants can b e characterized{by]their
adaptation{to]these climatic zones@{it]m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d that these
zones{are]based on*theâverage|of|all|of|*the^lowest winter temperatures
recorded over !a# 50 year period@ *in= certain extreme years* such as *in^
January 1994* severe damage {to] plant material occurred because *the^
temperatures {were] so m u c h colder than normally w o u l d b e expected@
Damage also frequently occurs {to] normally hardy plants when *an&
unusually early frost or freeze hits plants before they {are] fully dormant
or*in=*the^spring after they {have] b e g u n {to] lose dormancy@
Modifying Temperatures
Much |of| horticulture [is] involved *in= altering *the^ environment *to^
improve plant growth@ Areas |of| horticultural production *have^
developed *in= areas{where}natural protection {from] temperature
extremes exists@ S u c h protection[is]provided{by]large b o d i e s |of| water
such as*the^western area |of| M i c h i g a n*and%*the^western areas |of| N e w
Y o r k bordering*the^Great Lakes@ Buildings* streets* etc@*in=large cities
absorb heat *and% reradiate {it] {at] night providing several degrees |of|
warmth against *the^ first freezing temperatures |of| *the^ fall@ Growing
plants*in=!a#m a n a g e d environment like!a#greenhouse w a s developed
^to* provide!a#favourable temperature during adverse periods@ There
âre* other e x a m p l e s |of| t r e a t m e n t s horticulturists use {to] modify
temperature@ These including *the^ use |of| mulches@ Black or clear
plastic absorbs heat*and%transfers{it]{to]*the^soil encouraging earlier
plant growth*in=*the^spring@ H o t c a p s or hot#tents#paper or plastic
covers also serve as miniature greenhouses{to]modify*the^microclimate
around transplants*in=*the^spring@
Sheets |of| fiberglass or p o r o u s plastic{are]frequently placed over
r o w s |of| plants{to]w a r m t h e m*in=*the^spring@ T h i s type |of| structure
*is] called!a#cloche (pronounced klosh) or r o w cover@ A n o t h e r example
or !a# specialized plant growing structure[is]!a#h o t b e d or coldframe
used {to] start seedling plants@ Water mist [is] frequently used as !a#
means |of| reducing freezing temperature injury@ *the^ protection
provided{by]water mist[is]b a s e d on*the^principle that as water freezes
it gives off heat@ Thus* as*the^water freezes{it]gives off e n o u g h heat

^to* protect plants{for}!a#few degrees@ Other examples|of|frost protection
include smudge pots* stoves *and% air turbulators used *in= orchards *to^
force warmer air around plant surfaces@ Horticulturists continue *to^
study w a y s{to]understand *the^ m e c h a n i s m s |of| temperature injury*
w a y s |of| improving*theâdaptation |of| plants{to]temperature extremes
{and} ways |of| altering *the^ temperature around horticultural plants *to^
improve their growth@
Water
A brief drive through*the^desert* failure{to]water!a#pot|of|flowers*
or wilted lettuce on!a#salad b a r reminds us|of|*theîmportance |of| water
^for* plant growth*and%development@ Just as with temperature extremes*
plants {have] adapted{to]g r o w*in=areas|of|l o w water availability@ Thick*
fleshy leaves* layers |of| wax* specialized structures{for}water storage
{and} other m e c h a n i s m s help plants survive*in=areas |of| limited water@
Such plants {are] called xerophitic@
Water*in=*the^Plant*and%Soil
W a t e r constitutes*anîmportant part|of|plants@ Living plants need
!a# constant flow |of| water{from]*the^roots{to]leaves{to]continue their
life processes@ W a t e r*in=plant cells provides pressure on cell walls*
called turgor pressure* keeping*the^plant rigid@ W a t e r[is]*anîmportant
constituent |of| photosynthesis@ Water flows {from] *the^ root* up *the^
stem *and% into *the^ leaves *in= specialized conducting cells called xylem
cells@ Movement |of| nutrients *and% other constituents flow *in= water *in^
*the^ plant as well@ Pressure {from] water *in= *the^ cell enables cells *to^
enlarge *and% expand@ Water not used {by] plant cells evaporates and+
m o v e s out|of|*the^leaf through small pores or openings*in=*the^leaf
surface called stomata@ Evaporation |of| water{from]*the^leaf[is]called
transpiration@ Evaporation|of|water{from]*the^leaf{has]!a#cooling effect
{and} reduces temperatures*in=*the^surrounding environment@
Water moves into root cells {from] *the^ soil@ Soils differ *in= *the^
amount |of| water that they can hold@ Sandy soils hold less water than
l o a m or clay soils@ W a t e r available{to]!a#plant{from]!a#particular soil
*is] called *the^ soil water potential@ Some water [is] held so tightly *by^
*the^ soil that *the^ plant cannot extract it@ Water that *the^ plant can
extract{from]*the^soil[is]called available water@*the^root system develops
*in&*the^soil{to]obtain water{for}*the^plant@ S u d d e n flooding|of|*the^soil
cuts off oxygen {to] *the^ root system *and% causes root death@ Plants *in^
flooded locations can die quickly {from] such injury@ Too much water
can b e as serious!a#p r o b l e m as not e n o u g h water@ {for} this reason*
!a# greenhouse manager must carefully monitor *the^ water level *in^
containers {to] provide *the^ proper amount |of| water {to] meet *the^ crop@s
needs@*in=field situations* drainage tiles or pipes{are]often installed
^to* allow excess water {to] be removed@ Water [is] lost {from] soils *by^
evaporation {from] *the^ soil surface@ Evaporation |of| water {from] soil
combined with loss |of| water through *the^ plant (transpiration) *is$
referred {to] {by] *the^ combined word evapotranspiration* or loss |of|
water {by] plant *and% soil combined@
Applying Water {to] Plants
Horticultural production{has]developed{where}water[is]abundant@
Applying water {to] supplement rainfall [is] !a# standard practice *for^
many horticultural crops@ Irrigation should replace water removed
^by* plants@ Considerations*in=irrigation amounts*and%frequency depend
on *the^ needs |of| *the^ crop* *the^ depth |of| roots *and% *the^ ability |of| *the^
soil {to] absorb water@ !a# certain portion |of| *the^ water [is] lost *to^
evaporation before {it] reaches *the^ soil@ On !a# windy day !a# sprinkler
system putting out!a#fine mist m a y lose 25#30%|of|*the^water applied
before {it] reaches *the^ soil@ Drip or trickle irrigation allows small
a m o u n t s |of| water{to]b e applied frequently{to]!a#portion|of|*the^root
zone@ This reduces*theâ m o u n t |of| water n e e d e d {to] g r o w!a#crop@
Effects |of| Limited Water Availability
For m a n y horticultural plants there[is]!a#period |of| critical water
n e e d w h e n water m a y not b e available@{for}most plants this[is]during
*the^ period |of| flowering*and%fruit development@!a#s y m p t o m |of| water
need [is] wilting |of| *the^ foliage@ Plants {are] affected {by] stress before *the^
external symptom |of| wilting occurs@ Emphasis on water levels
necessary {to] support plant growth *and% scheduling irrigation *to^
minimize water use [is] important@ Water needs can be predicted *from^
climatic factors such as temperature* humidity* w i n d *and% solar
radiation combined with particular characteristics |of| *the^ crop and+
soil type@ Microcomputers assemble various weather factors and+
develop predictions*and%schedules{for}adding supplemental water@
Fluctuations*in=water available can cause sudden splitting|of|cherries*
tomatoes *and% cabbage@ Uniform water supplies {are] necessary *to^
prevent these problems@
Light
Light[is]essential{for}photosynthesis@ Green plants{are]*theôriginal
solar collectors@ T h e y transfer energy{from]*the^sun{to]!a#usable form
|of| energy{for}*the^plant@ Light varies*in=intensity* quality*and%duration
or photoperiod@
Intensity
The intensity or amount |of| light available{has]!a#direct influence
on *the^ amount |of| photo#synthesis that can occur@ Some plants *have^
adapted {to] growing *in= areas |of| low light availability such as !a# jungle
floor@ This[is]w h y tropical foliage plants g r o w well*in=limited indoor
light@ Grasses{are]native{to]*theôpen plains*and%require high light
intensity{for}growth@
When light intensity [is] lowered* *the^ rate |of| photosynthesis *is$
reduced@ When *the^ level |of| photosynthesis equals respiration* {it] *is$
referred {to] as*the^compensation point@ B e l o w compensation point
growth ceases@ S u d d e n exposure{to]high light intensity can cause
leaf scorch or sunburning@ *the^ s y m p t o m s {are] large* brown* dead
areas on leaves@ Plants growing *in= low light {have] !a# thinner layer |of|
wax on leaf surfaces@ This helps *the^ leaf {to] capture more light@
However* m o v i n g{it]suddenly into bright light results*in=rapid water
loss@ H i g h light intensity can also cause fading |of| flowers* especially
*in& hot s u m m e r weather@*anârea |of| special interest{to]*the^greenhouse
industry[is]*theûse|of|high intensity lights{to]supplement natural light
{and}{to]extend*the^photoperiod@ Crops|of|high value m a k e*theêxpense
|of| installing *and% o p e r a t i n g h i g h intensity s u p p l e m e n t a l lights
economical@
Light Quality
Light quality refers {to] *the^ $colour$ |of| *the^ light or *the^ portion |of|
*the^ light spectrum@ *the^ biochemical constituents |of| chlorophyll* *the^
compound responsible {for} photosynthesis* absorb only light *from^
particular portions |of| *the^ light spectrum@ Artificial lights supply light
|of| particular portions |of| *the^ spectrum@ Light absorbed {by] plants *is$
^from* *the^ blue#violet *and% orange#red parts |of| *the^ spectrum@ Specialized
l a m p s {have] b e e n developed {to] provide light rich *in= wavelengths
^from* this part |of| *the^ spectrum@ These l a m p s {have] *the^ additional
benefit |of| creating dark green foliage*and%!a#deep* intense flower
colour@ Excellent plant g r o w t h can b e a c h i e v e d w i t h o r d i n a r y
fluorescent bulbs@ Other portions|of|*the^spectrum such as ultraviolet
light {are] important *in= *the^ coloration |of| some fruits *and% *the^
development |of| autumn colour *in= leaves@
Relative Humidity*and%Wind
Relative humidity [is] *the^ amount |of| water vapour *in= *the^ air@ *it^
*is] closely related {to] temperature@ As *the^ temperature goes down*
relative humidity goes up@ Relative humidity[is]measured as!a#percent@
W h e n{it]reaches 1 0 0 % w e {have] rain* snow* fog* or sleet@ This[is]w h y
ît* rains as!a#cold front goes through@
A s *the^ relative h u m i d i t y drops* evaporation increases@ Plants
leaves give off m o r e water{at]4 0 % than 8 0 % relative humidity@ This
water loss increases if*the^w i n d [is] blowing@ Tropical foliage plants
âre* native|of|humid* jungle e n v i r o n m e n t s*and%often suffer*in=*the^dry*
indoor air*in=winter@ G r o u p i n g plants together*and%placing plants on
!a# layer|of|pebbles*in=standing water helps increase relative humidity@
L o w e r i n g*theînterior temperature |of| h o m e s[is]beneficial*in=reducing
some|of|*the^l o w h u m i d i t y p r o b l e m s with plants@
H u m i d i t y [is] often related{to]*the^d e v e l o p m e n t |of| certain plant
diseases@ Warm* d a m p conditions{are]ideal{to]encourage*the^g r o w t h
|of| fungi@ M a n y fungal spores m u s t {have] water {to] b e g i n growing@
Damping off [is] !a# common problem {for} seedlings@ {it] results *from^
fungi rotting small plants {at] *the^ soil line@ Increasing air circulation
^to* lower humidity *and% reducing watering can generally stop *the^
problem@
Wind [is] !a# problem with plant production *in= some areas@ *in^
addition {to] blowing away valuable soil* wind can also cause injury
^to* tender plant stems{by]sandblasting*the^stems{at]*the^soil line@ N e w
transplants*and%n e w l y planted trees{are]often shaded as!a#protection
^from* hot sun*and%wind@*in=m a n y areas|of|*the^Great Plains|of|*theÛ@S@*
*the^ planting |of| rows |of| trees *in= !a# windbreak protects homes and+
animals@ Strong winds *in= storms damage many trees *and% shrubs each
year@ W i n d d a m a g e [is] especially severe w h e n{it][is]*in=combination
with ice@ *the^ plant species[is]also important@ T r e e s such as silver
maple* Siberian e l m*and%w i l l o w{are]m o r e frequently injured{by]w i n d
than oak* w a l n u t*and%sugar maple@
Economic Importance |of| Plants

Plants{are]extremely important*in=*the^lives|of|people throughout
*the^ world@ People depend u p o n plants{to]satisfy such basic h u m a n
n e e d s as food* clothing* shelter**and%health care@ T h e s e n e e d s are
growing rapidly b e c a u s e|of|!a#growing world population* increasing

incomes* andurbanization@
Plants provide food directly* |of| course**and%also feed livestock
that [is] then c o n s u m e d itself@ *in= addition* plants provide *the^ raw
materials{for}m a n y types |of| pharmaceuticals* as well as tobacco*
coffee* alcohol**and%other drugs@*the^fibre industry depends heavily
on*the^products |of| cotton**and%*the^l u m b e r products industry relies
on w o o d{from]!a#wide variety |of| trees (wood fuel[is]u s e d primarily
*in& rural areas)@ Approximately 2@5 billion people*in=*the^world still
rely on subsistence farming{to]satisfy their basic needs* while*the^rest
âre* tied into increasingly complex production*and%distribution systems
^to* provide food* fibre* fuel**and%other plant#derived commodities@
*the^ capability |of| plants{to]satisfy these growing needs[is]not!a#n e w
concern@
The Reverend Thomas Malthus (1766#1834) *in= his Essay on *the^
Principle |of| Population *in= 1798 argued that population growth would
exceed nature@s ability{to]provide subsistence@ According{to]*theÛ@S@
Census Bureau**the^world population w a s about one billion*in=1800*
doubled{to]two billion*in=1930* doubled again{to]four billion*in=1975*
{and} reached six billion people*in=2000@ W o r l d population[is]expected
^to* be nine billion{by]*the^year 2050@ *the^ challenge{to]satisfy h u m a n
needs*and%wants still exists@
Income {has] also been increasing rapidly throughout most |of| *the^
world {at] *the^ same time@ U@S@ census estimates {are] that *the^ gross
national product reached $27*000 per person*in=1997*and%[is]expected
^to* reach $69*000 *in= 2050 assuming !a# 1@8 per cent annual rate |of|
growth@ Income per person *in= many countries |of| Asia* Latin America*
{and} Africa{has]increased more rapidly* b u t continues{to]be less than
*in& other areas such as W e s t e r n Europe*and%*theÛnited States@ As
income grows* plants b e c o m e m o r e valuable b e c a u s e people w a n t
^to* b u y more*and%higher#quality products {to] satisfy basic needs@
Increasing urbanization leads {to] *an^ increase *in= demand *for^
marketing services as populations relocate {from] rural areas {to] urban
areas@ According {to] *the^ Census Bureau* *the^ U@S@ population* *for^
example* changed {from] 60 per cent rural *in= 1900 {to] less than 25 per
cent rural*in=2000@ This urbanization demands more marketing services
^to* assemble* sort* transport* store* *and% package large quantities |of|
foods {from] production centers {to] consumption centers@
Value |of| Plants

A c c o r d i n g {to] *the^ U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d *and% A g r i c u l t u r e
Organization**theêstimated export value|of|major plant commodities
traded *in= world markets {for} 1998 was* rice ($9@9 billion dollars)*
maize ($9@1 billion)* w h e a t ($15@1 billion)* soybeans ($9 billion)* coffee
greens*and%roast ($13@7 billion)* sugar ($5@9 billion)* tobacco ($24@1
billion)* cigarettes ($15@4 billion)* lint cotton ($8@2 billion)* forest
products ($123 billion)**and%forest pulp{for}paper ($13 billion)@
Markets*!a#place{where}people b u y*and%sell goods*and%services*
determine *the^ economic value |of| plants@ *the^ value depends on *the^
expected uses *and% benefits provided@ *the^ economic value |of| plants
*is] measured {by] their prices *in= !a# market economy@ Demand and+
supply determine *the^ price@ *in= most countries* markets operate freely
with little direct g o v e r n m e n t interference *in= trading@ *in= centrally
p l a n n e d e c o n o m i e s s u c h as China* however* *the^ g o v e r n m e n t
frequently controls market operations**and%b u y s*and%sells through
g o v e r n m e n t companies@
In p l a n n e d e c o n o m i e s * g o v e r n m e n t s m a y set p r i c e s
administratively{at]levels that do not indicate true economic value
^to* c o n s u m e r s*and%producers@ A s w o r l d e c o n o m i e s b e c o m e m o r e
open*and%market#oriented through trade agreements such as those
that come{from]*the^W o r l d Trade Organization**the^value |of| plants
^will* likely b e c o m e m o r e equal a m o n g countries@
T w o m a i n types |of| markets set*the^value |of| plants* cash markets
{and} future markets@ *the^ most c o m m o n type[is]!a#cash market@ C a s h
markets{are]very popular places throughout*the^world{where}buyers
{and} sellers m e e t{to]exchange m o n e y{for}g o o d s*and%services@ D e m a n d
{and} supply *in= *the^ cash market set *the^ price {at] which buyers *will^
exchange money with sellers {for} immediate possession |of| goods@
In *the^ simplest case* producers take goods {to] *the^ market *for^
immediate sale* *and% consumers arrive with cash {to] buy goods *for^
immediate possession@*in=m o r e c o m p l e x cases* producers sell g o o d s
^to* one or m o r e other b u y e r s w h o*in=turn sell*the^g o o d s{to]consumers@
C a s h markets operate daily* weekly* or{for}other intervals all
over*the^world@ C o n s u m e r s*and%producers trade*in=thousands |of| cash
markets operating *in= *the^ world today@ These local cash markets *in^
rural areas {are] linked {to] larger regional trading centers that *in= turn
âre* linked{to]cash markets*in=*the^larger cities@ C a s h markets operate
for all*the^major plant products@ Futures markets*!a#second major

market{to]set*theêconomic value |of| plants* operate very differently
^from* cash markets@ *in= cash markets buyers *and% sellers trade *the^
physical good* whereas *in= futures markets buyers *and% sellers trade
!a# futures contract@ F u t u r e s c o n t r a c t s {are] s t a n d a r d i z e d w r i t t e n
d o c u m e n t s calling{for}future delivery|of|!a#good{at]!a#particular time
{and} place *in= *the^ month |of| expiration@ Futures markets attempt *to^
discover *the^ best value today {for} !a# good tomorrow based upon
expected d e m a n d*and%supply*in=s o m e future time period@
Futures markets {have] become increasingly popular around *the^
world@ Important futures exchanges include *the^ Chicago Board |of|
Trade {for} grains *and% oilseeds~ *the^ Chicago Mercantile Exchange *for^
livestock* dairy products* *and% lumber~ *and% *the^ New York exchanges
^for* cocoa* coffee* cotton* orange juice**and%sugar@ Futures contracts
âre* traded on exchanges*in=Great Britain* France* Japan* Australia*
Singapore* *and% Canada@ *in= addition* Brazil* China* Mexico* Italy* and+
Spain (to name !a# few) {have] futures exchanges@
It[is]interesting{to]note that futures markets do not trade contracts
*in& fruits*and%vegetables*and%other highly perishable products@ Futures
trading [is] not possible {for} highly perishable products because |of| *the^
difficulty |of| long#term storage@
Marketing Systems {for} Plants
The marketing system {for} most plants can be viewed as *an&
hourglass shape that concentrates production {from] many farms into
large quantities*and%fewer firms{for}processing*and%handling* followed
^by* !a# distribution into smaller quantities *and% more firms {for} sale *to^
many consumers@ Marketing systems add value as *the^ plants progress
^from**the^farmer{to]*the^consumer@ *the^ added value takes*the^form
|of| marketing services that transform!a#raw c o m m o d i t y into!a#finished
product {for} c o n s u m e r use@ D e p e n d i n g on *the^ commodity* these
services include cleaning* sorting* grading* packaging* storing*
transporting* handling* processing* *and% financing until goods *are^
sold {to] *the^ consumer@
Farmers usually sell their goods{at]harvest time*in=local markets
^to* buyers w h o m a y c o m e {from] large u r b a n or smaller regional
trading centers* or farmers sell{to]agents |of| those buyers@ *the^ b u y e r s
assume*the^risks |of| ownership until they {are] able{to]sell*the^goods
^to* consumers{at]!a#later time@*theôwnership risks include providing
m a n y valuable marketing services{to]assure that products {will] b e

available *in= *the^ right quality* *in= *the^ right place* {at] *the^ right time* *in^
*the^ appropriate amount* *and% {for} !a# reasonable price@
The difference b e t w e e n*the^value paid{by]consumers{for}plants
{and}*the^value received{by]producers[is]*the^marketing margin* w h i c h
*is]*theâ m o u n t charged{by]*the^businesses{for}*the^services provided@
^for* example* if *the^ consumer pays one dollar {for} !a# product *in= *the^
supermarket* *and% *the^ producer receives forty cents* then *the^ marketing
margin [is] sixty cents@
Higher incomes*and%growing populations m e a n that consumers
^will* demand more marketing services that increase convenience and+
reduce preparation time* such as slicing* freezing* packaging* and+
ready{for}microwaving@*in=addition* as per capita income increases*
*the^ composition|of|demand{for}food changes{to]increased consumption
|of| higher#value products@ These changes typically m e a n increased
consumption |of| products such as fruits*and%vegetables* meat* dairy*
{and} processed products**and%decreased consumption |of| staples such
as potatoes* cassava**and%rice@ M o r e marketing services{are]required
^for* high#valued products@
A s consumers d e m a n d more marketing services**the^marketing
margin {will] increase* causing *the^ farmers@ share |of| *the^ consumer
food dollar {to] decline@ *in= many countries* *the^ farmers@ share |of|
consumer expenditures (about 40 {to] 50 per cent) [is] already declining*
as marketing margins increase@ J o h n Abbott*in=Agricultural *and% Food
Marketing *in= Developing Countries indicated that margins also vary *by^
country {for} *the^ same commodity due {to] differences *in= income*
geography*infrastructure**and%marketing systems@
The farmers@ share |of| consumer food expenditures {has] declined
steadily through time *in= *the^ United States {to] about 21 per cent *in^
1993~ ranging {from] 25 per cent {for} food consumed {at] home {to] 15 per
cent{for}away#from#home consumption@ This declining farmers@ share
can b e expected{to]continue as income increases@!a#declining farmers@
share does not m e a n that*the^marketing system[is]inefficient or that
farming[is]unprofitable@ Technical progress that increases productivity
generally {will] result*in=declining real prices per unit |of| output@
F a r m e r s c a n i n c r e a s e t h e i r s h a r e |of| *the^ c o n s u m e r f o o d
expenditures {by] adding value {to] what they sell@ Some examples |of|
added value {are] direct sales {to] consumers {at] farmers@ markets*
roadside markets**and%farmer#owned marketing *and% processing

cooperatives@ Paul Eck*in=*theÂmerican Cranberry described O c e a n
Spray cranberry juice as!a#m o s t successful story |of| farmers adding
value {to] cranberries@ Cranberry growers formed !a# cooperative *to^
process *and% market Ocean Spray cranberry juice more profitably* !a#
product that {has] great b r a n d identification with consumers@
Leaves*and%Seeds Used*in=Medicine Products

Anantmool
Botanical Name* H e m i d e s m u s indicus
English Name* Sarsaparilla # Indian
Hindi Name* Anantmool* Uppalsari
Sanskrit Name* Anantamool* Sariva
Sarsaparilla* Indian[is]!a#w e e d native{to]India@ This[is]!a#c o m m o n
w e e d found *in= almost every part |of| India@
This [is] !a# member |of| Asclepiadaceae plant family@ This [is] !a#
perennial twinned herb@ *the^ nodes {are] thickened@ *the^ leaves *are^
opposite* elliptic oblong {to] linear lanceolet@ *the^ flowers bloom through
out*the^year@*the^flowers{are]*in=cymes*green{from]outside*and%purple
^from* inside@
Uses* *the^ roots{are]sweet*in=taste@*the^roots{have]!a#cooling effect*
useful as aphrodisiac *and% cure leprosy *and% various skin diseases@ *the^
root purifies *the^ blood *and% acts as tonic@ *the^ roots {are] useful *in^
increasing *the^ quantity |of| urine without damaging kidney@ *the^
p o w d e r e d root [is] useful as Ayurvedic medicine@
Arusha Chhota
Botanical Name* A d h a t o d a b e d d o m e i
English Name* Vasaca small
Hindi Name* Arusha chhota
Sanskrit Name* Atrush sweta
Adhatoda beddomei [is] !a# plant common *in= India@ *in= India {it] *is$
commonly found on arid land@This variety |of| Adhatoda differs *from^
Adhatoda vasica *in= colour *and% size |of| leaves@The leaves {are] white#
green *and% smaller *in= case |of| Adhatoda beddomei* while leaves |of|
Adhatoda vasica {are] bigger *in= size *and% blackish green *in= colour@
This plant[is]!a#m e m b e r |of| Acanthaceae plant family@@
This [is] *an^ evergreen herb* growing {to] !a# height |of| 80 cms@ *the^
flowers {are] white@ *the^ flowering season [is] through out *the^ year@
Uses* *in= Ayurveda *the^ leaves* seeds *and% *the^ roots {are] used *for^
treatment |of| cough* asthma@
Chemical C o m p o u n d s Obtained* Vasicine[is]obtained {from] this
plant
Adulasa
Botanical Name* Justicia adhatoda* A d h a t o d a Vasica
English Name* M a l a b a r nut
Hindi Name* Adulasa* A d o s a
Sanskrit Name* Atrush
Vasaka or Malabar nut [is] *an^ herb native {to] India@ {it] [is] found *in^
almost every part |of| India@
Vasaka[is]!a#m e m b e r |of| Acanthaceae plant family@ This[is]!a#m a n y
b r a n c h e d shrub@ *the^ leaves {are] opposite* elliptic lanceolet* acute
with n a r r o w base@ *the^ flowers{are]*in=axillary spikes@ *the^ white
coloured flowers with rose coloured streaks *in= *the^ throat* bloom *in^
August {to] November@
Uses* *the^ leaves {are] very efficacious as !a# remedy {for} all sorts |of|
coughs *and% Cold* bronchitis* asthma@ *the^ leaves *and% extracts |of|
leaves{are]useful*in=Ayurvedic Medicines@
Trigonella Foenum # Gracum
Botanical Name * Trigonella F o e n u m # G r a c u m
Family Name * Fabaceae
Common Name * Fenugreek* Greek Hayes* Alholva* Bird@s Foot*
Boyotu* Chinagreye* Fenegriek* F o e n u m G r a e c u m
Part used* Leaves*and%Seeds
Habitat* Wild *in= Kashmir* Punjab *and% upper gangetic plains and+
also cultivated *in= other parts |of| India as !a# pot#herb@
Uses* Fenugreek seed{has]b e e n u s e d{for}stomach upset* swelling
(inflammation) |of| *the^ upper air passages or throat* appetite* *for^
lowering blood sugar *and% {for} softening *the^ stool@ {it] also {has] been
used as!a#gargle{to]relieve sore throat*and%as*anêxternal dressing
^for* swelling (local inflammation)@
The Seeds{are]very nourishing*and%{are]given {to] convalescents
{and}{to]encourage weight gain* especially*in=anorexia nervosa@ Research
^has* shown that*the^Seeds can inhibit cancer|of|*the^liver* lower blood
cholesterol levels *and% also {have] *an^ antidiabetic effect@ *the^ Seeds and+
leaves {are] anticholesterolemic* anti#inflammatory* antitumor*
c a r m i n a t i v e * demulcent* deobstruent* emollient* e x p e c t o r a n t *

febrifuge* galactogogue* h y p o g l y c a e m i c * laxative* parasiticide*
restorative*and%uterine tonic@
The Seeds can be ground into!a#p o w d e r*and%used as!a#poultice
^for* abscesses* boils* ulcers* b u r n s etc@ or they can be used as!a#douche
^for* excessive vaginal discharge@ O n e|of|{its]constituent alkaloids u s e d
*in& cancer therapy@ *an^ essential oil[is]obtained{from]*the^seed # u s e d
as!a#food flavouring*and%medicinally@ *the^ dried plant{has]!a#strong
aroma |of| hay@
Cichorium Intybus Linn
Botanical Name * Cichorium Intybus Linn
Family Name * A S T E R A C E A E
Common Name * S u c c o r y * C h i c o r y * B l u e S a i l o r s c h i c o r y *
Coffeeweed* Achicoria Amarga* Almeirao* Barbe D e Capucin* Blaue
Wegwarte* Blue Sailors* Cichorei* Cicoria Cikoria* C o m m o n Chicory
Endive@
Part Used* W h o l e plant
Habitat* Cultivated throughout India* grows*in=fields* fence r o w s
{and} waste places@
Uses* *the^ leaves {are] rather bitter* especially when *the^ plants *are^
flowering@ This greatly reduces any bitterness* there [is] also !a#
corresponding loss |of| vitamins*and%minerals@ *the^ b l a n c h e d leaves
âre* often u s e d*in=winter salads*and%{are]also cooked@ *the^ unblanched
leaves{are]m u c h less bitter*in=winter*and%m a k e*anêxcellent addition
^to* salads@
The root [is] said {to] be *an^ ideal food {for} diabetics because |of| *its^
insulin content@ Chicory#root [is] free |of| harmful ingredients* *and% *is$
essentially !a# concentrated combination |of| three sugars (pentose*
levulose *and% dextrose) along with taraxarcine (the bitter principle |of|
dandelion)@ {it] [is] especially important as source |of| levulose@ Roots *are^
used *in= seasoning soups* sauces *and% gravies *and% {to] impart !a# rich
deep colour@ *the^ roasted root [is] u s e d as !a# caffeine#free coffee
adulterant or substitute@
Solanum Indicum
Botanical Name* S o l a n u m I n d i c u m
Family Name * Solanaceae
Common Name * P o i s o n Berry* I n d i a n Nightshade* A f r i c a n
Eggplant* B u s h Tomato* Ntunfulu
Part Used* Roots* Berries

Habitat* Throughout India*in=*the^plains*and%{at]l o w elevations@
Uses* Roots {are] diaphoretic* diuretic* expectorant* stimulant@ *the^
root [is] used against bronchites* itch *and% {for} bodyaches* {for} asthma
{and}{to]cure w o u n d s while*the^seeds {are] u s e d {to] treat toothache@
The berries{are]injurious{to]children but{are]often eaten{by]adults
with impunity* especially w h e n quite ripe as*the^poisonous principle
*is] chiefly associated with all green parts@{it][is]applied *in= medicine
similarly{to]bittersweet but[is]more powerful*and%possesses greater
narcotic properties@
The leaves{are]placed*in=*the^cradles |of| infants{to]promote sleep@
ît* [is] useful *in= cutaneous disorders@ Their juice {has] been used *for^
ringworm* gout *and% earache *and% when mixed with vinegar* *is$
considered{to]b e good{for}gargle*and%mouthwash@
Abelmoschus Moschatus
Botanical name * A b e l m o s c h u s M o s c h a t u s
Family name * Malvaceae
Common Name * Ambrette Seeds* Hibiscus Abelmoschus* M u s k
Mallow* M u s k Okra* Ornamental Okra* Annual Hibiscus* Y o r k a
Okra* Galu Gasturi* B a m i a Moschata@
Part Used* seeds* seeds oil
Habitat* Cultivated *in= India
Uses* Ambrette seeds c o m e{from]!a#tropical hibiscus@ *the^ seeds
contain*anôil with!a#fatty#musky* slightly ambery odour@ It@s m o s t
important odoriferous components{are]*the^macrocyclic m u s k s 5(Z)#
t e t r a d e c e n # 1 4 # o l i d e *and% 7 ( Z ) # h e x a d e c e n # 1 6 # o l i d e * a l s o c a l l e d
ambrettolide [6]@ *the^ oil was formerly highly appreciated *in^
perfumery* but {has] now been largely replaced {by] synthetic musks@The
seeds{have]!a#strong aroma |of| musk**and%{have]b e e n k n o w n as grani
moschi@ Relaxing *and% stimulating powers {are] attributed {to] them~ and+
some cases* apparently authentic* {have] been recorded* *in= which they
seemed {to] {have] !a# decided influence *in= casting out *the^ poison |of|
snakes@ Possibly !a# further *and% more careful investigation |of| their
properties* w o u l d show t h e m{to]be*anâgreeable*and%useful article
*in& cases{where}mild nervous prostration required!a#diffusible stimulant
{and} relaxant@ {at] present* they seem{to]b e used{for}nothing b e y o n d
giving flavour{to]*the^coffee |of| *the^ Arabs@
Annona Squamosa
Botanical Name * A n n o n a S q u a m o s a
Family Name * Annonaceae
Common Name * C u s t a r d Apple* S u g a r Apple* S w e e t s o p *
Kaner@apra* P o m m e Canelle* Tapotapo* F u n Li Chi* Anon* A n o n a
Blanca* Ati* Ates
Part Used* A n n o n a seeds* A n n o n a leaves* A n n o n a bark
Habitat* Throughout India
Uses*There {are] medicinal application|of|*the^custard apple tree@
*the^ bark*and%leaves contain annonaine**anâlkaloid@!a#bark decoction
*is] used {to] stop diarrhea* while *the^ root [is] used *in= *the^ treatment |of|
dysentery@ !a# decoction |of| *the^ leaves [is] used as !a# cold remedy and+
^to* clarify urine@ A n n o n a squamosa Linn@* family Annonaceae*[is]said
^to* show varied medicinal effects* including insecticide* antiovulatory
{and} abortifacient@The fruits |of| A n n o n a {are] Haematinic* cooling*
sedative* stimulant* expectorant* maturant* tonic@ They {are] useful *in^
anaemia* burning sensation@ *the^ seeds {are] abortifacient and+
insecticidal*and%{are]usefull*in=destroying lice*in=*the^hair@
Argyreia Nervosa
Botanical name * Argyreia Nervosa
Family Name * Convolvulaceae
Common Name * H a w a i i a n B a b y W o o d r o s e Seeds* E l e p h a n t
Creeper Seeds@ Original Argyreia Seeds
Part Used* Seeds* w o o d
Habitat* Hills* 900 m*and%above*in=India
Uses* *the^ roots {are] acrid* bitter* astringent* sweet* emolliet@ {it] *is$
used *in= vitiated conditions kapha *and% vita* emaciation* wounds*
ulcers* anorexia* dyspepsia* latulence*@ {it] [is] widely used *for^
Psychotropic *and% ornamental purposes@
The seeds |of| Argyreia nervosa contain about 0@3per cent ergot
alkaloids* including chanoclavine* lysergol* ergotmetrine*and%ergine@
These {are] all derivatives |of| Lysergic acid*and%m o s t{are]collectively
n a m e d lysergic acid amides (LSA)@ L S D (Lysergic Acid Diiethylamide)
*is] also!a#lysergic acid amide*and%although resembling *the^ natural
lysergic acid amides b o t h *in= structure and *and% pharmacological
activity*{it]{has]not b e e n found*in=nature@ M a n y|of|*theêrgot alkaloids
can cause constriction |of| bloodvessels* w h i c h m a y result*in=necrosis
|of|*the^tissue*and%gangrene*in=h u m a n s*and%animals
Azadirachta Indica
Botanical Name * Azadirachta Indica
Family Name * Meliaceae
Common Name * Lilac* M a r g o s a Tree* Neem* N e e m Chal
Part Used* Leaves* Flower* Oil* Seed
Habitat*{it][is]evergreen*and%grows throughout India@
Uses* Vermifuge* Insecticide* Astringent* Tonic*and%Antispetic@
ît* posseses anti diabitic* anti bacterial *and% anti viral properties and+
used sucessfully *in= cases |of| stomach* worms *and% ulcers@ Root bark
posseses anstringent* tonic*and%antiperiodic properties@{it][is]also
useful*in=Malarial fever@*theôil[is]used*in=m a k i n g N e e m b a s e d soaps*
s h a m p o o s*and%toothpaste@
Bacopa Monniera
Botanical Name * B a c o p a Monniera
Family Name * Scrophulariaceae
Common Name * Herpestis Monnieria* T h y m e L e a v e d Gratiola*
Brahmi
Part Used* W h o l e Plant
Habitat* G r o w s*in=M a r s h y places*and%cultivated South India@
Uses* {it] [is] Diuretic* Cardiac* Nervine *and% Tonic@ {it] [is] reported *to^
improve intellect* treatment |of| asthma* hoarseness* insanity* epilepsy@
ît*[is]!a#potent nervous tonic*and%[is]anti anxiety agent@{it][is]considered
good fort heart@
Boerhaavia Diffusa
Botanical Name * Boerhaavia Diffusa
Family Name * Nyctaginaceae
Common Name * H o g Weed* Pig Weed* Horse Purslane* Tar Vine
Part Used* Root* L e a v e s*and%Seeds@
Habitat* G r o w s as c o m m o n w e e d
Uses* A c c o r d i n g {to] A y u r v e d a Boerhaavia [is] bitter* anaemia*
cooling* heart diseases* astringent{to]bowels* useful*in=biliousness*
b l o o d impurities* leucorrhoea* asthma* alternatives etc@ *the^ leaves
âre* u s e f u l *in= d y s p e p s i a * t u m o u r s * a b d o m i n a l pains* s p l e e n
enlargement@ According {to] Unani system |of| medicine* *the^ leaves *are^
appetizer* alexiteric* useful *in= opthalmia *and% *in= joint pains@ Seeds *are^
tonic expectorant* carminative* useful*in=lumbago* scabies@*the^seeds
âre* considered as promising b l o o d purifier@
Parts Offerd* Roots
Buckwheat Hulls
Botanical Name * F a g o p y r u m Esculentum
Family Name * Polygonaceae
Common Name * B u c k w h e a t
Parts used* Buckwheat* B u c w h e a t hulls
Habitat* Native {to] Central*and%Northern Asia
Uses*{it][is]u s e d{for}wide range |of| cirulatory problems* b u c k w h e a t
*is] best taken as Tea or tablet@
T h e natural filling {has] m a n y advantages over conventional
fiberfill* foam* or feather fillings@Buck wheat{has]*the^m o s t important
quality{for}*the^relief |of| pain[is]that*the^material conforms{to]*theêxact
contours|of|*the^h e a d*and%neck providing!a#compliant passive support@
Advantages|of|*the^b u c k w h e a t hull filling{are]*the^cool*in=*the^summer*
w a r m*in=*the^winter insulating properties**theâbility{to]adjust*the^size
^to* your individual needs {by] removing or adding back filler so *the^
pillow fits you just right@ *the^ filling also lasts {for} many years making
*the^ pillow*the^best value cervical pillow on*the^market@ L o n g after
other pillows {have] collapsed*and%w o r n out!a#b u c k w h e a t hull pillow
^will* still b e fully functional@ B u c k w h e a t hull p i l l o w s {are] also
environmentally friendly@
Calamus
Botanical Name* * A c o r u s C a l a m u s
Family Name* Araceae
Common Name* Calamus* Sweet#flag* Sweet Root* Bach
Part Used* Dried R h i z o m e
Habitat* North Temperate*and%subtropical regions upto 2 2 0 0 m
altitude*in=Himalayas@
Uses*{it][is]Nauseant* Stomachic* Anthelmentic* Stimulants* Emetic*
Expectorant* Carminative* Antispasmodic*and%Nervine Sedative@
R h i z o m e [is] u s e d*in=*the^cure |of| host |of| diseases such as epilepsy*
mental~ ailments* chronic diarrhoea *and% dysentary@ {it] [is] used *in^
incense sticks *and% dhup *and% [is] widely used as insecticide {for} lice*
bedbugs* w o r m s etc@
Cassia Angustifolia
Botanical Name * Cassia Augustifolia
Family Name* Caesalpinaceae
Common Name* Senna* Indian Senna* Tinnervelly Senna* Cassia
Senna
Part Used* Pods*Stems* L e a v e s

Habitat* Cultivated*in=dry lands |of| Southern*and%W e s t e r n India*
{and} indegenous {to] Arabia@
Uses* {it] [is] recognised {by] British *and% US pharmacopoeias@ {it] *is$
useful *in= habitual costiveness@ {it] lowers bowels* increases peristaltic
m o v e m e n t s|of|*the^colon{by]{its]local action u p o n*theîntestinal wall@
ît*[is]u s e d as expectorant* w o u n d dresser* antidysentric* carminative
{and} laxative@
Consumption |of| Food Products

The consumption|of|food*in=India w a s estimated{at]approximately
INR 4*000 bn {at] 1993#94 prices (INR 7*250 bn {at] 2001#02 prices) *in^
*the^ year 2001 #02* growing {at] !a# CAGR |of| 7@8%@ Food consumption
^has* b e e n driven primarily{by]increase*in=per capita expenditure on
food items@*in=*the^period 1996#2002**the^per capita expenditure grew
^by* 6 % per a n n u m*and%population increased{at]*the^rate |of| 1@6% per
annum@
Urban food consumption {has] grown {at] 9@1 % annually *and% *is$
estimated {at] INR 1*540 bn (1993#94 prices)@ Rural food consumption*
on*theôther hand*{has]g r o w n{at]7% annually*and%[is]estimated{at]I N R
2*550 b n (1993#94 prices)@ Uttar P r a d e s h [is] *the^ largest c o n s u m e r
m a r k e t{for}food products followed {by] Maharashtra* W e s t Bengal*
Bihar *and% Andhra Pradesh@ Among *the^ fastest growing markets *are^
*the^ North East states* Gujarat *and% Andhra Pradesh@
The share |of| grain#based products[is]*the^highest*in=*theÎndian
consumer@s food basket* f o l l o w e d {by] m i l k *and% m i l k products*
vegetables* edible oil*and%m e a t products@ *the^ g r o w t h rates{for}fruit*
vegetables* m e a t*and%dairy products[is]higher than grains*and%pulses*
indicating!a#shift*in=c o n s u m p t i o n pattern@ This also implies*the^n e e d
^for* diversification *in= agricultural production {to] match *the^ change *in^
consumption patterns@
Consumption |of| Processed Food Products

The m a r k e t size{for}processed foods{for}year 2003#04*{at]current
prices[is]estimated{at]I N R 4*600 bn* w h i c h[is]about 53 %|of|total food
consumption@ This includes processing*in=unorganized sector*in=dairy
(Halwais)*and%grains (chakkis)@ *the^ m a r k e t size excluding these
s e g m e n t s[is]about I N R 3*300 bn@*the^m a r k e t size |of| processed foods
3
ât* factory cost{for}2003#04 [is] estimated {at] I N R 2*100 b n implying
about 60 % mark#up {from] factory cost{to]market price@

However* primary processed products constitute as m u c h as 62
% |of| processed foods consumed* with value#added products being
*the^ balance 38%@
Distribution |of| Foods *in= India
F o o d products{are]sold through over 5 million food*and%grocery
stores*in=India@*theôrganised food retail market[is]estimated{at]I N R
20 bn (approximately 0@2 % |of| food expenditure *in= India)@ This [is] *in^
contrast {to] developed countries*{where}food distribution [is] highly
consolidated@ *the^ majority |of| food*and%food products {are] retailed
through n e i g h b o u r h o o d kirana stores@*the^kirana stores focus on dry
food products*in=*theâbsence |of| infrastructure{for}cold storage@ Bulk
|of| fresh produce [is] sold{by]vendors with p u s h carts@ Meat* poultry
{and} marine products {are] primarily sold {by] small retailers *in= w e t
markets@ Such produce [is] associated with l o w product quality* lack
|of| variety*and%l o w hygiene levels@
Internationally* food retailers {have] played *an^ important role *in^
improving supply chain efficiencies such as developing storage and+
transportation infrastructure* training supply chain m e m b e r s on food
hygiene*and%standards*and%providing scientific k n o w h o w{to]farmers@
The key impediments {to] growth |of| organised food retailing *in^
India include lack |of| infrastructure* technology *and% capital@ Foreign
Direct Investment (FDI)[is]not allowed*in=retailing with*theêxception
|of| cash & carry formats@ This restriction[is]b a s e d on*the^premise that
entry|of|large international players{will]displace existing e m p l o y m e n t
{and} reduce bargaining p o w e r|of|farmers@ However* there[is]empirical
evidence {from] other countries (USA* China) w h i c h highlights that
opening|of|*the^retail sector{to]F D I{has]enabled e m p l o y m e n t creation*
disintermediation* increased farmer access{to]information*and%wider
choice*and%cost savings{for}*the^consumer@
Exports |of| Agricultural*and%Food Products
India{has]1@5 % (INR 360 b n*in=2003#04) share|of|global agricultural
exports (approx USD 522 bn)* despite {its] production leadership *in^
agriculture@ India@s exports primarily constitutes commodity and+
primary processed items*{where}price realisations{are]low@*in=addition*
m a n y products {are] showing single digit or negative growth@
The reasons{for}India@s insignificant share*in=global trade include
supply side factors such as lack|of|consistency*in=supply*and%quality*
lack |of| cost competitiveness**and%d e m a n d side factors such as non#

tariff barriers* short product life cycles*and%perception |of| Indian food
products*in=overseas markets@
M o s t exporters {from] India lack scale#{for}e x a m p l e *the^ largest
fresh produce exporter records annual sales|of|about I N R 500mn@This
^has* resulted*in=lack |of| e c o n o m i e s*in=operations*and%renders them
uncompetitive@ Hence* exporters{are]not able{to]establish themselves
as long#term players*in=*theêxport market* rely on opportunistic
businesses *and% {are] consequently* unable {to] develop technical and+
managerial expertise@ These factors cumulatively lead {to] low
investments {by] exporters*in=b r a n d building* quality i m p r o v e m e n t
{and} b r a n d development@
Financing |of| *the^ Food Processing Sector
The structural complexion |of| *the^ Indian supply chain {has] led *to^
limited scale |of| financing as well as higher risk* given *the^ lack |of|
control |of| each|of|*the^players* on*the^supply chain@
Financing |of| farmers* Farmers often rely on unorganized sources
|of| credit due {to] bottlenecks *in= access* timeliness *in= availability and+
adequacy |of| credit {from] organized sources@ *the^ key hurdles faced
^by* b a n k s*in=financing farmers{are]their inability{to]provide adequate
collateral as security* *and% *the^ potential {for} default* *in= *the^ absence |of|
*an& assured market {for} their produce@
Financing |of| food processing enterprises* *the^ food processing
enterprises primarily comprise small*and%m e d i u m sized companies*
!a# large proportion |of| which {have] stand alone operations* with n o
linkages with farmers**and%reliant on other organizations{to]undertake
marketing/further processing |of| their products@
Consequently* companies*in=*the^food processing sector usually
b e a r!a#steep cost |of| interest{for}*the^high risk perception associated
w i t h *the^ n a t u r e |of| their operations@ F u r t h e r there {are] several
regulations which limit availability|of|finance{to]*the^sector* including
*the^ definition |of| priority sector lending* *the^ Cooperatives Act and+
*the^ Warehousing Corporation Act@
A b s e n c e |of| well#developed risk mitigation tools {has] further
impacted availability |of| finance{to]*the^food*and%agriculture sector@
Additionally* crop insurance schemes*in=India {have] faced various
issues including assessment|of|farmer yields{at]*the^m a n d a l level* lack
|of| past statistical data{to]calculate premia* high premia{for}certain
crops*and%administrative hurdles*in=m a n a g i n g claims* thus resulting

*in& poor e c o n o m i c viability as also limited benefit {to] farmers@
FDI*in=food processing* F D I*in=*the^food processing sector[is]low*
constituting !a# m e r e 4 % |of| total F D I*in=*the^period 1991 #2004@The
actual inflow [is] only about 28% |of| FDI approved (INR 4@2 bn out |of|
approved INR 11@6 bn) This [is] despite *the^ fact that with *the^ exception
|of| food retailing* plantations *and% alcoholic beverages* 100% FDI *is$
permitted *in= *the^ sector@
Government Schemes* Government provides assistance {to] *the^
industry *and% entrepreneurs under various schemes@ While there *are^
significant overlaps *in= these on *the^ one hand* there {are] several
unaddressed need gaps |of| *the^ industry* on *the^ other@ Further* *the^
restriction on quantum |of| financial assistance per unit disincentivises
scale@ Additionally* *the^ structure |of| *the^ s c h e m e n e e d s {to] b e b a s e d
on specific sectoral requirements@ *the^ Government needs {to] {have] !a#
robust monitoring mechanism {to] assess *the^ direct *and% indirect impact
|of| such assistance@
Research *and% Development
The Indian food industry needs world class technologies *to^
compete effectively with international products@ Indian R&D
institutions {have] not b e e n able {to] develop innovative products*
processes*and%machinery |of| global stature as reflected *in= India@s
share*in=global trade@
T h e industry [is] dissatisfied with*the^quality |of| research output
{and} response |of| existing R & D institutions@*the^key reasons{for}this
âre* segregation |of| a c a d e m i c s {from] applied research* inadequate
industry interface* low commercial orientation *and% lack |of|
collaborative efforts with global peers@
Plant Products*and%Food Quality

T h e focus|of|*the^Plant Products*and%F o o d Quality p r o g r a m m e
*is]{to]elucidate*the^chemical* b i o c h e m i c a l*and%genetic b a s e s |of| quality
{and} bioactivity*in=plant#derived foods*and%products@{it]aims{to]enhance
*the^ health benefits|of|foods{to]*the^public{by]improving*the^nutritional
{and} organoleptic properties |of| both raw *and% processed products and+
^to* establish diversification |of| *the^ non#food crops sector via bioactive
plant product research@ This c o m b i n e s*the^skills |of| natural product
chemists* molecular biologists*and%*the^genetic/breeding skills*in=SCRI@s
Genetics programme@ Metabolomics*and%transcriptomics technologies

continue{to]provide*anîncreasingly important technology platform
within*the^programme* recently assisted{by]significant grant income
^from* EU F r a m e w o r k V I*and%other national sources@
As part |of| !a# rolling commitment {to] maintain !a# high level |of|
scientific quality *and% relevance we {have] reviewed *the^ programme@s
research emphasis *and% {to] enshrine this {have] recently changed *the^
programme name {from] Quality* Health *and% Nutrition {to] Plant
Products*and%F o o d Quality@ I m p r o v i n g*the^quality*and%nutritional
value |of| food remains!a#major area |of| work~{for}e x a m p l e transgenic
potato plants {have] b e e n generated *in= w h i c h *the^ tuber carotenoid
content {has] b e e n e n h a n c e d u p {to] seven#fold@
In addition* managed sustainability |of| renewable resources *is$
now !a# major focus *in= all aspects |of| agriculture and* along with !a#
n e c e s s i t y {to] d i v e r s i f y *the^ n a t i o n a l e c o n o m y base* s i g n i f i c a n t
opportunities exist with respect{to]*the^development |of| plant products
*in&*the^widest sense@ A s part |of| this *the^ achievement |of| national
sustainable development *and% growth must be accompanied *by^
agricultural (crop) diversification *and% rural development *and% this
can be achieved {by] research *in= *the^ non#food sector that [is] *the^
development |of| plant products@ {to] achieve these aims *the^ programmes
*is] divided into t w o sub#programmes@
Food Quality
Food quality [is] !a# multi#faceted parameter *and% [is] generally *the^
predominant driver behind economics |of| *the^ food industry@ Within
*the^ Plant Products*and%F o o d Quality p r o g r a m m e *the^ research foci
âre**the^major c o m p o n e n t s m a k i n g u p food quality* taste* texture*
nutritional value*and%safety@
Plant Products
There[is]*anîncreasing i m p e t u s{to]ensure that*the^resources w e
use{for}b o t h food*and%non#food u s e s{are]m a n a g e d*in=!a#sustainable
manner@ *the^ utilisation |of| crops{for}applications other than simple
nutrition[is]increasingly b e i n g seen as*the^w a y forward with respect
^to* !a# sustainable economy@ *the^ Plant Products sub#programme *will^
focus on *the^ non#food aspects |of| crops *and% plants such as bioactivity@
Plants & Plant Products Overview

T h r o u g h{its]Plants*and%Plant Products programs* N I F A provides
national program leadership*and%funding opportunities{for}research*

education**and%extension {to] address various challenges {for} crop
production*and%plant protection@ These programs guide development
{and} u s e |of| e c o n o m i c a l l y s o u n d *and% e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y friendly
approaches *and% products {for} national needs such as food* feed* and+
fiber@
N I F A P l a n t *and% P l a n t P r o d u c t p r o g r a m s p r o v i d e !a# b e t t e r
understanding |of| plants* how they grow* how their growth and+
productivity can be improved* *and% how they can be used *in= new
ways@
The combination |of| leadership*and%funding*in=Plants*and%Plant
Product programs brings about development |of| new strategies and+
improvement |of| existing strategies {for} plant use *and% productivity@
This increased understanding*and%forward thinking strengthens our
nation@s ability {to] address challenges such as loss |of| arable land*
increased population* protection |of| *the^ nation@s food production*
destruction|of|*theênvironment* global climate change**and%e c o n o m i c
stability |of| rural*and%agricultural communities@
Plants {are] diverse organisms* differing *in= size *and% shape and+
ranging {from] single cells such as algae {to] complex organisms such
as trees@
A n important feature unique {to] plants [is] their ability {to] use
energy {from] sunlight {to] produce their o w n food such as sugar*
starch**and%other carbohydrates~ this process[is]termed photosynthesis@
T h r o u g h photosynthesis* plants provide food* oxygen**and%energy
^for**the^world@ Plants also provide fiber* medicines* building materials*
{and} natural products such as oils *and% latex@ Plants enliven and+
sustain our environments* providing flowers {for} indoor decoration*
parks{for}recreation**and%forests{for}wildlife@
N I F A p r o g r a m s*in=Plants*and%Plant Products reflect*the^diversity
|of|*the^types*and%uses |of| plants seen *in= today@s world@ A s our
k n o w l e d g e about plants[is]increasing* w e{are]learning h o w{to]b r e e d
plant varieties that{are]productive u n d e r drought conditions* better
withstand attack {by] pests *and% disease* produce pharmaceuticals *to^
treat human disease* or make new chemicals {for} energy or industrial
use@ Additionally**the^study|of|plants[is]leading{to]better m a n a g e m e n t
|of| parks* forests**and%rangelands*and%{to]*theûse |of| plants{for}solving
environmental pollution problems@ Thus* N I F A Plants*and%Plant
Products p r o g r a m s play!a#vital role*in=maintaining*and%improving

agricultural sustainability* environmental protection**and%e c o n o m i c
security@
P r o g r a m s*in=*the^Plants* Plant Products National E m p h a s i s A r e a
include* Plant Breeding* Genetics & Genomics*{for}hundreds|of|years*
traditional plant breeding {has] generated more productive and+
nutritious crop plants@ Genetics *and% genomics {are] now improving
*the^ effectiveness*and%efficiency |of| plant breeding@*the^Plant Breeding*
Genetics* & G e n o m i c s P r o g r a m focuses on use |of| these approaches*
tools* *and% resources {to] improve* protect* *and% sustain plants *for^
agriculture *and% *the^ environment@
B i o b a s e d P r o d u c t s & Processing* *the^ B i o b a s e d P r o d u c t s &
P r o c e s s i n g P r o g r a m f o c u s e s o n i n c r e a s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t * use*
competitiveness**and%quality |of| b i o b a s e d products@ !a# b i o b a s e d
product[is]!a#commercial or industrial product (other than food or
feed) that[is]c o m p o s e d|of|biological products such as r a w agricultural
materials* agricultural wastes* or forestry materials@ Biobased products
lead {to] n e w areas {for} agricultural research* business* e c o n o m i c
development**and%crop diversification*and%m a k e use |of| renewable
resources{to]produce fuel* energy* chemicals* construction materials*
pharmaceuticals**and%other beneficial materials@
Horticulture* *the^ H o r t i c u l t u r e P r o g r a m a d d r e s s e s i s s u e s
pertaining {to] breeding* growth* production* storage* handling* and+
marketing |of| horticultural crops@ Horticultural crops consist |of|
vegetables* fruits* flowers* nuts* berries* *and% nursery *and% greenhouse
plants@ These plants provide variety{to]h u m a n diets*and%enhancement
^for* our living environment*and%personal well#being@ Rapidly growing
areas |of| horticulture include floriculture* outdoor recreation* and+
home *and% urban landscape design *and% management@
A g r o n o m y & F o r a g e Crops**theÂ g r o n o m y*and%F o r a g e C r o p s
P r o g r a m f o c u s e s o n i s s u e s *in= c r o p p r o d u c t i v i t y *and% n a t u r a l
resource protection@ Agronomy uses plant *and% soil sciences *to^
maintain or improve productivity |of| forage *and% field crops and+
^to* e n s u r e w i s e u s e |of| n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s such as w a t e r*and%soil@
Forage crops {are] important agriculturally* economically* and+
environmentally* providing food* feed grain* oil* fuel* *and% fiber
^for* n a t i o n a l u s e*and%i n t e r n a t i o n a l trade* r e d u c i n g soil erosion*
{and} i m p r o v i n g soil quality@
Forestry*and%Forest Products
In*the^country|of|Portugal*!a#total|of|*anêstimated 3 8 %|of|*the^total
land area |of| *the^ country [is] devoted {to] forest covers *and% most |of| *the^
major forest products like paper *and% wood pulp* cork etc@ *are^
significant contributors {to] *the^ progressing Portuguese economy and+
*in& recent years*!a#considerable increase*in=production|of|these products
^have* allowed greater quantity |of| exports thus resulting*in=profits@
Some |of| *the^ most important forest products obtained *from^
Portugal {are] cork* wood pulp* paper pulp *and% paper board*
eucalyptus* cellulose *and% wood {for} furniture etc@ {it] [is] known that *in^
Portugal *the^ amount |of| land area devoted {to] forest cover [is] much
m o r e than that dedicated{to]agriculture*and%about 3 1 %|of|*the^forest
area[is]occupied{by]*the^wild pines w h i c h refer{to]*anêstimated area
|of| 976*000 hectares while *the^ cork plantations cover 2 3 % area i@e@
713*000 hectares with eucalyptus accounting{for}2 3 %|of|*the^forest
area@ *the^ abundance |of| forest resources {has] therefore resulted *in= *the^
growth |of| various industries dedicated {to] *the^ seasoning *and% packaging
{and} modification |of| these products {to] prepare them {for} sale *in= *the^
foreign markets@ *the^ most important industry that {has] evolved *is$
that |of| *the^ paper mills *and% *in= Portugal *the^ pulp *and% paper industry
*is] one |of| *the^ p r o m i n e n t players*in=*theînternational market with
Portugal occupying*the^fifth position a m o n g*the^various E u r o p e a n
countries*in=terms |of| production@
T h e Portucel Soporcel group[is]*the^major c o m p a n y*in=Portugal

devoted{to]paper production*and%{it][is]one|of|*the^largest manufacturers
|of| uncoated woodfree paper *in= Europe@ However* according {to] *the^
National Forest Inventory* !a# significant shortcoming *in= this respect
*is] that despite increase *in= production* *the^ timber resources |of| *the^
country {are] not satisfactorily up {to] *the^ mark {to] meet *the^ rising
d e m a n d s {at] present@ {for} this reason* special m e a s u r e s a
Cork Oak*and%Forest Conservation

Forestry*and%forest resources o c c u p y 3 8 %|of|*the^total land surface
|of| Portugal *and% *in= recent times they {have] contributed immensely *to^
Portugal@s soaring economy *and% *in= fact *in= *the^ year 2000 *an^ estimated
2 5 % increase could b e observed*in=case |of| forest product exports

c o m p a r e d{to]*the^previous year@ O n e|of|*the^premier forest resources
obtained form *the^ forests |of| Portugal [is] cork which [is] obtained *from^
*the^ barks |of| *the^ cork oak tree *and% {it] [is] significant {to] note that certain
p r o p e r t i e s *and% f u n c t i o n s |of| *the^ c o r k o a k tree facilitate forest
conservation*in=Portugal@
The cork oak trees cover extensive areas|of|vegetation*in=Portugal
{and}{are]*anêvergreen tree with dark green foliage@ *the^ Mediterranean
climate*in=Portugal[is]extremely conducive{to]*the^growth |of| this tree
*in& abundance*and%Portugal alone[is]*the^largest producer |of| cork
accounting {for} about 5 0 % |of| total w o r l d production@ *the^ m o s t
important feature|of|*the^cork oak tree[is]that{it][is]extremely beneficial
as{it]produces cork* w h i c h[is]actually*the^bark|of|*the^cork oak tree@
After about 25 years**the^bark|of|*the^cork oak tree w h i c h [is] rugged
{and} hard* [is] scrapped off*and%w h a t [is] interesting {to] note *in= this
respect that once !a# layer [is] removed* !a# new layer begins {to] grow *in^
îts* place *and% therefore continuous production [is] assured unless *the^
plant decays@ Moreover**the^cork oak trees can survive as long as
150 {to] 200 years *and% therefore production |of| cork [is] thus certain *for^
!a# long duration@
Cork oak trees{are]extremely instrumental*in=ensuring that they

maintain *the^ ecological balance *and% do not harm *the^ ecosystem |of|
*the^ forest@ *the^ most significant output |of| *the^ cork oak tree [is] cork
which [is] used mostly *and% cork stoppers {for} wine bottles *and% {it] [is] *to^
be noted that even *in= {its] production* no mechanical or chemical
process [is] involved*and%therefore *the^ forest environment r e m a i n s
unaffected@
Cork*and%Forest Conservation
Among *the^ various forest products that {are] obtained {from] *the^
forests |of| Portugal* one |of| *the^ foremost [is] *the^ cork which [is] gathered
^from**the^b a r k|of|*the^cork oak trees w h i c h{are]cultivated*in=abundance
*in& Portugal@ Portugal a c c o u n t s {for} about 5 0 % |of| *the^ total cork
production*in=*the^world*and%[is]*the^leading exporter*in=*the^world as
well@ {it] [is] derived that *an^ estimated 720 hectares |of| forest land *is$
devoted {to] *the^ production |of| cork oak trees@
The Mediterranean type climate|of|Portugal immensely facilitates
*the^ production |of| cork oak trees*and%*the^bark|of|*the^cork oak tree
*is] k n o w n as cork@
The cork oak tree can survive {for} over 150 years *and% when {it] *is$
about 25 years old* *the^ rough *and% rugged *and% thick bark |of| *the^ cork
oak tree [is] r e m o v e d {to] b e harvested {for} over!a#decade*and%after
harvesting{it][is]considered{to]b e suitable{for}use@{it][is]quite natural
^to* raise *the^ question {at] this point that *in= which way can cork aid *in^
forest conservation@ There {are] various reasons behind that@
First *and% foremost* {it] [is] {to] be remembered that as soon as *the^
bark |of| *the^ cork oak tree or *the^ cork [is] removed* {it] [is] replaced *by^
!a# new layer which begins growing once more@ Therefore* *the^ cork
*is]!a#renewable resource@ Cork[is]!a#vegetable tissue*and%{at]*the^time
|of|{its]harvesting n o chemical or artificial process[is]involved*and%as
!a# result {it] always retains {its] naturalness*and%therefore *the^ forest
e n v i r o n m e n t r e m a i n s unhampered@ Moreover* apart {from] b e i n g
ecological* corks{are]also biodegradable substances@*in=*the^present
era* when *the^ world [is] endangered {by] *the^ growing effects |of|
environmental pollution aggravated {by] *the^ growing amount |of|
garbage*and%chemical wastes that h a r m*the^natural surroundings*
cork [is] natural *and% {it] can be recycled {for} reuse later@ Thus cork *is$
extremely helpful *in= maintaining *the^ ecological balance *and% aiding
forest conservation@
Pine Nuts*and%Forest Conservation
Portugal [is] located *in= *the^ south western part |of| *the^ continent |of|
Europe *and% {it] [is] filled with picturesque locations *and% beautiful
landscapes displaying exquisite scenic beauty@{it][is]interesting{to]note
that*in=Portugal* about 3 8 %|of|*the^total land area[is]occupied{by]forest
cover w h i c h[is]even m o r e than*theâ m o u n t |of| land surface dedicated
^to* agriculture *in= *the^ country@ According {to] official estimates* *the^
major section |of| *the^ forest area [is] dominated {by] *the^ wild pine trees
which occupy 31% |of| *the^ total forest area which [is] equivalent *to^
around 976*000 hectares *and% [is] followed {by] corks *and% eucalyptus@
Of these wild pines* there exists also another species k n o w n as
*the^ stony pines which {are] cultivated *in= Portugal@ *the^ stony pines *are^
also popularly referred {to] as umbrella pines *in= *the^ country *and% *the^
statistics*and%figures revealed{by]*the^Portuguese National Forest
Inventory reveal that*the^stony pines occupy!a#total area |of| about
83*900 h a |of| forest areas@ These trees g r o w extensively*in=Portugal
{and} one|of|*the^major causes facilitating{its]cultivation [is] definitely
due {to] *the^ favorable weather conditions provided {by] *the^
Mediterranean climate |of| *the^ region@
These stony pines {are] extremely beneficial {for} maintaining *the^

ecological balance |of| *the^ forest area *and% prevent against pollution
{and} facilitate forest conservation@ First*and%foremost{it][is]{to]b e noted
that*the^stony pines{are]adaptive{to]extreme temperature conditions
{and}{its]m o s t important characteristic[is]that they{are]not prone{to]any
form |of| damage {by] pests or diseases unlike common plants and+
vegetation which can preserve *the^ forest environment@ Moreover*
one|of|*the^m o s t significant products obtained form*the^stony pine
trees{are]*the^pine nuts w h i c h{are]comprise*anîmportant ingredient
*in& Portuguese cuisine@
The pine n u t s also aid forest conservation as unlike timber
harvesting* *the^ harvesting *and% maturation |of| *the^ pine nut kernels *are^
considered more environment#friendly *and% thus {have] no negative
impact on*the^forest cover@
Paper Pulp
Paper pulp simply refers{to]*the^various m e a n s *and% devices
e m p l o y e d *in= order {to] produce paper@ *the^ paper pulp [is] usually
comprised |of| cellulose fibre*and%{has]!a#variety |of| uses@*in=Portugal
about 3 8 %|of|*the^total land area[is]dedicated{to]forestry*and%forest
resources *and% extensive areas {are] dedicated {to] *the^ cultivation |of|
timber plantations *and% eucalyptus@ *in= fact* pulp wood refers {to] *the^
timbers g r o w n specifically{for}*the^purpose |of| manufacturing w o o d
pulp@ *in= Portugal* *the^ various forest resources {have] encouraged *the^
birth |of| industries which {are] engaged *in= *the^ seasoning |of| these
products *and% one |of| *the^ premier industries so developed [is] that |of|
*the^ paper pulp@
In Portugal* paper mills {are] present *in= different parts |of| *the^
country *and% *the^ most prominent manufacturers {are] *the^ Portucel
Soporcel group@
In recent times{it]{has]b e e n observed that*the^domestic timber

plantations {have] not b e e n sufficient*in=order {to] m e e t *the^ growing
d e m a n d s |of| *the^ Portuguese paper pulp industry@ This [is] b e c a u s e
h u g e tracts |of| land{are]destroyed every year as!a#result |of| inefficient
forest m a n a g e m e n t policies*and%also m o r e importantly due{to]forest
fires@*the^data released{by]*the^National Forest Inventory*in=Portugal
^has* revealed that *the^ present state |of| indigenous production *will^
enable only !a# mere 52% |of| *the^ present demand {for} paper pulp {to] be
m e t e d while about 4 5 %|of|*the^future d e m a n d [is] estimated {to] b e
fulfilled *in= future@
As !a# result|of|*the^shortfall*in=domestic production* *the^ paper
industry[is]forced{to]d e p e n d u p o n inferior quality imports*in=order
^to* meet*the^rising production d e m a n d s w h i c h also affect*the^goodwill
|of|*theîndustry@ However*{it]cannot b e avoided as Portugal[is]Europe@s
fifth largest producer|of|uncoated w o o d free paper@ However* despite
all odds* Portuguese paper*and%pulp industry{has]m a n a g e d{to]secure
!a# 3 % increase*in=sales figures evident*in=*the^2002 statistics@
Paper*and%Paper Board
In most areas{where}forest covers exceed *the^ area devoted *for^
agriculture* *the^ forest resources obtained play !a# major role *in= *the^
export market@ This [is] especially true *in= case |of| Portugal which *is$
located *in= *the^ south western part |of| *the^ European continent *where^
*the^ forest resources comprise about 10% |of| *the^ exports@ One |of| *the^
foremost products obtained{from]*the^Portuguese forests {are] paper
{and} paperboard@*the^forest cover*in=Portugal occupies about 3 8 % of
the total land area *and% !a# major part [is] comprised |of| timber and+
eucalyptus cultivations which {are] *the^ primary raw materials {for} *the^
paper*and%paperboard industries@
Paperboard[is]usually thicker than paper*and%[is]u s e d*in=*the^form

|of| h u g e b o x e s or cartons w h i c h{are]necessary as p a c k a g e s*and%also
*in& order {to] carry heavy weights around@ *in= Portugal* paper and+
paperboard {are] among *the^ foremost forest resources which *are^
exported *and% various industries *and% mills {have] been set up *in= order
^to* season *the^ products before making {it] available {for} export@ *in= *the^
recent past* huge tracts |of| forest area {have] been lost *in= Portugal due
^to* forest fires w h i c h adversely affected*the^production |of| paperboard
as domestic production failed{to]m e e t*the^demands@
Statistics reveal that since 1997*the^paper*and%paperboard industry
^had* s h o w n*anû p w a r d rise*in=*the^production graph@*in=*the^years that
f o l l o w e d p r o d u c t i o n w a s s l a c k e n e d d u e {to] i m p r o p e r f o r e s t
management *and% natural hazards@ However* since 2003* *the^
production level {has] increased again *and% between 2003 *and% 2004*
there {has] been recorded !a# total 4% increase *in= sales@ This [is] due *to^
*the^ expansion |of| *the^ export market@ Along with *the^ countries |of| *the^
E u r o p e a n U n i o n w h i c h constituted{its]primary exports like France*
Germany *and% Spain* {at] present *the^ Middle East* Asia* America and+
Oceania too {have] engaged *in= importing Portuguese paperboards as
well w h i c h {has] positively b o o s t e d*the^market@
Wood Pulp
In Portugal!a#total |of| about 3 8 % area[is]devoted{to]forest cover
compared {to] 31% which [is] reserved {for} agricultural purposes@ *the^
forest resources *in= Portugal {are] extremely important {for} *the^ economic
growth |of| *the^ country as !a# considerable amount |of| *the^ produce *is$
exported *in= huge quantities {to] mostly various countries |of| *the^
Europeans u n i o n itself@{it]can b e estimated that about 3 1 %|of|*the^total
forestry area *in= Portugal [is] occupied {by] pines *and% around 21% *is$
acquired {by] eucalyptus@
Both|of|these{are]significant contributors{to]*the^Portuguese paper

{and} pulp industries serving as r a w materials*in=*the^mills@ W o o d pulp
*is] developed{by]employing various physical*and%chemical processes
*in& order{to]segregate*the^fibres that m a k e u p wood@ W o o d pulp itself
*is] !a# fibrous substance as well *and% {its] production [is] facilitated {by] *the^
pulp wood which refers {to] *the^ timber which [is] grown especially *for^
*the^ purpose |of| obtaining wood pulp@ *the^ various kinds |of| softwood
trees like pine *and% eucalyptus* which {are] grown extensively *in^
Portugal* help *in= *the^ production |of| wood pulp@
It[is]{to]b e noted that*in=recent times*the^w o o d pulp industry ahs
b e e n affected greatly due{to]!a#fall*in=*the^n u m b e r |of| timber plantations@
This reduction*in=vegetation{has]b e e n caused{by]forest fires mainly
along with*theâbsence|of|proper forest m a n a g e m e n t policies@ All this
^has* led{to]!a#fall |of| about 5@4 million|of|timber plantations*in=Portugal@
In case|of|eucalyptus**the^last decade or so{has]seen!a#considerable
fall*in=production due{to]around 119*000 hectares|of|eucalyptus b e e n
destroyed{by]fires*and%*theâbsence|of|proper r a w materials immensely
affected *the^ quality*and%*theîndustry as!a#whole@ However* since
2004* w o o d pulp production{has]again taken*anû p w a r d swing with
production increasing {by] about 1% *and% *the^ trend continues with *an&
increase *in= wood pulp integration since 2006@
Holm oak
Portugal [is] located *in= *the^ south western part |of| *the^ continent |of|
Europe *and% {it] [is] surrounded {by] *the^ opulence |of| *the^ Atlantic Ocean
*in&*the^south*and%west*and%*the^country |of| Spain*in=*the^north*and%east@
*in& Portugal about 3 8 %|of|*the^total land surface[is]covered{by]forests
which {are] much higher than *the^ total area devoted {to] cultivation |of|
agricultural crops *in= *the^ country@ *the^ forest resources obtained *in^
P o r t u g a l c o m p r i s e a b o u t 1 0 % |of| total e x p o r t s *and% c o n t r i b u t e
i m m e n s e l y*in=*theê c o n o m i c growth*and%development|of|*the^country@
If one looks{at]*the^total forest area |of| Portugal*{it]{will]b e seen
that*the^m a x i m u m portion [is] covered{by]*the^maritime pines or the
wild pine trees which occupy around 31% |of| *the^ forest area *and% *is$
followed {by] *the^ eucalyptus *and% cork oak plantations@ *the^ holm oak
trees{are]also prevalent*in=*the^Mediterranean regions*and%*in=Portugal
w h i c h[is]dominated{by]*the^Mediterranean type |of| climate* h o l m oak
trees g r o w*in=abundance occupying approximately*anârea|of|464*000
ha@
In fact *the^ forest cover |of| Portugal [is] divided into t w o major
parts@ *the^ first comprises |of| *the^ plantation area w h i c h includes
eucalyptus*and%*the^maritime pines while*theôther[is]*the^comprised
^by**theîndigenous species w h i c h includes cork oak*and%h o l m oak
trees@
The h o l m oak or Quercus ilex{are]prevalent*in=*the^Mediterranean
regions*and%*in=*theâreas adjoining*theÂtlantic Ocean* they{are]mostly
^to* be found@ {from] *the^ sea level they can grow up {to] *an^ altitude |of|
about 1400 meters *and% *the^ warm temperature which [is] characteristic
|of|*the^Mediterranean region [is] conducive{to]{its]growth@
In Portugal* every year forest wildfires destroy huge tracts |of|

land *and% vegetation *and% this {has] affected *the^ holm oak trees too@ *in^
*the^ absence |of| proper laws governing forest affairs*and%incompetent
firefighters {have] led{to]*the^loss |of| plantations@ However* measures
âre* being taken n o w {to] preserve forest resources@
Montado or Oak Forests *in= Portugal
In Portugal* extensive areas|of|land surface{are]devoted{to]forestry
{and} forest resources@ This[is]because*the^forest products{are]extremely
important{for}*theê c o n o m i c growth|of|*the^country as they constitute
about 1 0 %|of|exports*and%*in=recent times* profit levels{have]increased
considerably@*in=addition there[is]!a#growing international recognition
|of| montados as home {for} !a# range |of| wildlife *and% biodiversity@ !a#
variety |of| vegetation composes *the^ forest cover *in= Portugal which
*is] about 3 8 %|of|{its]land area@|of|*the^total forest area* 3 1 %[is]occupied
^by* *the^ wild maritime opine trees *and% 21% [is] accounted {by] *the^
eucalyptus plantations@ But one |of| *the^ most significant indigenous
species planted *and% cultivated *in= Portugal since antiquity {are] *the^
cork oak trees@ *the^ cork oaks *and% *the^ holm oak trees occupy extensive
areas|of|*the^forest@
There {are] many different kinds |of| oak forests *and% *in= Portugal *the^
cork *and% holm oak forests {are] extremely predominant *and% *its^
proximity {to] *the^ Mediterranean basin along with *the^ climatic
characteristics aids {its] growth@ There {are] various reasons behind *the^
widespread cultivation |of| *the^ cork oaks *and% holm oaks@ *the^ cork
oaks*and%h o l m oaks w h i c h g r o w extensively*in=*the^forests |of| Portugal
can be cultivated *in= almost any soil type *and% there {are] no hard and+
fast rules with regard {to] {its] growth though *in= order {to] occupy huge
tracts |of| lands as forests@ Especially*the^cork oak trees{are]extremely
helpful*in=preserving*theêcological balance|of|*the^forest environment@
This [is] possible as *the^ premier product which [is] obtained *from^
*the^ cork oak trees i@e@ cork [is] !a# vegetable tissue *and% !a# renewable
resource*and%recyclable*and%therefore environment friendly@*in=fact
oak trees*in=*the^forest covers|of|Portugal facilitate forest conservation
immensely@ *in= Portugal* *the^ f o r e s t d e p a r t m e n t [is] e x t r e m e l y
instrumental*in=*the^preservation |of| oak trees*and%therefore* cutting
d o w n|of|these trees{are]considered illegal*and%[is]!a#punishable offence@
Paper Mill$Portucel Soporcel Group
Most |of| *the^ forest resources *and% products obtained {from] *the^
forests |of| Portugal {are] extremely important because |of| their enriched
value*in=*theêxport market@ *the^ major products include cork* paper
pulp *and% wood pulp *and% paperboard etc@ *and% these products *are^
available as !a# result |of| *the^ swift supply |of| *the^ required raw materials
like timber* eucalyptus {from] *the^ forest cover |of| Portugal@
The leading organization *in= Portugal which trades *in= *the^
production *and% export |of| pulp *and% paper [is] *the^ Portucel Soporcel
Group which was formed {by] *the^ merging |of| *the^ Portucel *and% *the^
Soporcel@ {it] [is] {to] be remembered {at] this point that *the^ paper *and% pulp
industry [is] one |of| *the^ premier among *the^ industries |of| Portugal and+
*the^ extensive *and% efficient operations |of| *the^ Portucel Soporcel group
has m a n a g e d{to]consolidate*the^position |of| Portugal as*the^world@s

fifth largest producer |of| uncoated w o o d free paper@ *the^ company@s
profits {are] soaring h i g h accounting {to] about 1*000 million euros
annually *and% contribute greatly {to] *the^ economic development |of| *the^
country as !a# whole@
The Portucel Soporcel G r o u p o w n s !a# set |of| three paper mills

which function *in= Cacia* Figueira da Foz *and% Setubal@ One |of| *the^
reasons being *the^ successful production |of| this Group [is] that they
possess all*theû p d a t e d technological tools required {for} production
{and} seasoning*and%therefore*theôutputs{are]|of|excellent*and%superior
quality*and%this {has] earned t h e m e n o u g h goodwill*in=*the^market@
In fact they{are]well k n o w n{for}their acclaimed usage |of| eucalyptus
as *the^ primary raw material *in= case |of| pulp production *in= order *to^
meet *the^ growing demands *in= *the^ market@
The first mill |of| *the^ Portucel {had] begun functioning *in= Cacia *in^
1953 *and% since then there {has] been no looking back fro *the^ Group
w h i c h[is]*the^biggest forestry o w n e r *in= Portugal today@ T h e y also
ensure undertaking |of| m e a s u r e s{to]act as prevention against forest
fires w h i c h h a r m vegetation*in=Portugal@
Forest Area
In *the^ country |of| Portugal* extensive areas |of| *the^ total land
surface{are]dedicated{to]forestry*and%cultivation |of| forest resources@
About 38% |of| *the^ total land area [is] dedicated {to] forestry which *is$
again much more than *the^ estimated area which [is] devoted *for^
agriculture *and% farming purposes@ *the^ forest area |of| Portugal *is$
divided into t w o separate zones@ These include!a#planted area w h i c h
*is] m a d e u p|of|*the^maritime pine trees*and%eucalyptus while*theôther
section comprises|of|*theîndigenous variety comprising |of| h o l m oak
trees*and%cork oak trees@*the^h u g e expanse|of|land*in=Portugal w h i c h
*is] devoted{to]forest cover[is]occupied mostly{by]*the^maritime pine
trees followed{by]eucalyptus plantation*and%cork oak*and%h o l m oak@
It [is] i n t e r e s t i n g {to] n o t e h o w t h e s e n a t i v e p r o d u c t s are
instrumental *in= facilitating forest conservation *and% maintaining *the^

ecological balance |of| *the^ forest environment@ !a# notable example *in^
this case [is] *the^ holm oak trees which {are] considered {to] be important
stabilizers |of| *the^ dry agrosilvopastoral ecosystems thus aiding *in^
preventing *the^ destruction |of| trees@
It [is] {to] be noted that *in= Portugal one |of| *the^ dominant causes *for^
*the^ loss |of| forest resources {are] *the^ wildfires that {are] quite common
{and}{it]{has]b e e n seen*in=!a#particular year* there{has]b e e n*anâlarming
a m o u n t |of| 30*000 forest fires w h i c h [is] frightening@
While this [is] !a# major cause {for} destruction |of| forest area* *the^
absence |of| proper measures *and% safeguards against this natural
disaster further aggravates this problem@
However* *in= recent times* {it] must b e pointed out* extensive
measures{are]being devised{by]forming public opinion*and%spreading
awareness*and%thus preserve*the^natural resources@*in=recent times
afforestation [is] !a# prominent measure introduced {to] preserve *the^
existing forest area *and% increase {it] as well *and% *the^ policies |of| *the^
E u r o p e a n U n i o n Regulations* {it] can b e estimated that *the^ forest
cover*in=Portugal[is]*in=*the^process |of| expansion annually@
Forest Fires*in=Portugal
In Portugal* *the^ entire forest cover engages around 38% |of| *its^
total land surface *and% *the^ various forest products {are] extremely
important contributors{to]*theêxport market thus aiding e c o n o m i c
growth*and%prosperity@*the^various forest products like w o o d pulp*
paper pulp*and%paper board* cork* cellulose* eucalyptus {have] recorded
!a# significant increase *in= production *in= *the^ recent times *and% this *has^
positively affected *the^ economy as *in= *the^ year 2000 itself* there *has^
b e e n noticed*anêstimated rise*in=exports{by]about 2 5 % c o m p a r e d
^to* that*in=*the^year 1999@
however* despite all this* one |of| *the^ major threats lurking *in= *the^
corner {for} Portuguese forest covers {are] *the^ widespread forest fires
that {are] extremely c o m m o n*in=*the^country*and%cause widespread
devastation *and% havoc thus ruining huge tracts |of| forest land and+
destroying plantations@ *in= fact* *in= !a# widespread survey conducted
amidst Portuguese nationals *in= *the^ recent past {has] shown that !a#
whopping section |of| 97@7% |of| *the^ population [is] |of| *the^ opinion that
one |of| *the^ major threats {to] *the^ forest cover *in= Portugal {are] due *to^
forest fires@
What {has] further aggravated *the^ problem [is] *the^ absence |of|
adequate measures@ Forest wildfires *in= Portugal {have] devastative
effects on *the^ environment like causing soil erosion *and% affecting *the^
ecological balance |of| *the^ forest environment along with *the^ massive
loss |of| human lives@ Moreover* *the^ number |of| technicians and+
firefighters who {are] appointed {for} *the^ protection |of| *the^ forest resources
âre* often incompetent *and% inefficient *and% this added {to] *the^ lack |of|
proper forest management {has] added {to] *the^ problem@
In recent times* while forest fires {have] aggravated* several

measures {have] also b e e n undertaken as preventive measures@ These
include generation |of| public awareness regarding *the^ causes |of|
wildfires *and% adopt *the^ means |of| combating {it] *and% also {by] choosing
^to* plant such plants w h i c h {are] less prone {to] combustion@
Forest Transition *in= Portugal
Portugal[is]!a#premier south west E u r o p e a n country*and%around
3 8 %|of|{its]total land surface[is]covered{by]forests@ *the^ various forest
resources derived {from] this forest cover like paper pulp*and%paper
board* wood pulp* cork* cellulose {are] used *in= manifold ways *in= *the^
various industries before they {are] seasoned *and% exported *in= *the^
markets@
In fact{it][is]significant{to]refer{to]*in=this respect that*the^different
forest resources obtained form *the^ forests |of| Portugal contribute
immensely {to] *the^ economy *and% *in= recent times there {has] been *an&
upsurge *in= *the^ export |of| *the^ forest products {to] foreign markets@
But{it][is]also true that with*the^progress|of|*the^passage |of| time*
!a# c o m m o n p h e n o m e n o n{has]b e e n observed w o r l d w i d e as well as in
Portugal@ This[is]*the^continuous decrease|of|*the^forest area as!a#result

|of| deforestation caused{by]urbanization* forest fires etc@*in=Portugal@
Therefore* what [is] required [is] {to] draw up !a# full proof plan *in^
order {to] ensure that *the^ amount |of| forest area lost *in= recent times
be replaced {by] expanding *the^ current forest cover with *the^
implementation |of| various methods like conceiving !a# proper forest
m a n a g e m e n t plan* increase vegetation {by] planting n e w saplings*
prevent intrusion into forest area{for}*the^sake |of| urbanization*
prevention |of| forest fires *and% natural hazards etc@ This process *is$
theoretically referred {to] as forest transition *and% {it] {has] been
experimented*in=various countries|of|*the^world |of| w h i c h Portugal
*is] one too@
In purely technical terms* forest transition [is] !a# geographical
process w h i c h talks|of|*the^reversal|of|*the^factors governing usage
|of| land{by]m e a n s |of| recovery|of|*the^net forest area lost*in=!a#particular
period{to]*theâ m o u n t |of| forest area acquired*in=!a#period@*in=Portugal
forest transition could be observed after *the^ commencement |of|
industrialization@
Rules |of| *the^ Forestry Department *in= Portugal
Portugal located *in= *the^ south western part |of| Europe [is] *the^
premier producer |of| cork *in= *the^ world *and% {it] accounts {for} about 50%
|of| *the^ world@s total cork production *and% about 720*000 hectares |of|
land *in= Portugal [is] dedicated {to] *the^ cultivation |of| Forestry *in= Portugal
trees {from]{where}cork [is] obtained@ *the^ steadily rising graph |of| *the^
Portuguese economy {has] immense contributions {from] *the^ Portuguese
cork industry with their cork constituting 70% |of| export trade *in^
recent times@
The Portuguese cork industry [is] highly developed *and% *the^
versatility |of| cork as !a# substance together {its] ecological properties
{and}*theâbility{to]recycle*the^material{has]facilitated{its]growth@ Cork
*is] used*in=performing multifarious functions like{for}building and
architectural purposes *and% *in= floors* *in= *the^ automobile* military and+
space industries* *in= footwear *and% leather goods* as chemical
c o m p o n e n t s*in=pharmaceutical industries*and%m o s t importantly as
cork stoppers u s e d as closures{for}wine bottles@*in=Portugal* w h i c h
*is] k n o w n{for}{its]wines*and%vineyards*{it][is]doubtless that cork stoppers
âre* extremely useful {for} domestic purposes@ Cork w o o l s {are] also
used*in=mattresses*and%cushions@
It[is]{to]b e noted that*the^growth|of|*the^Forestry*in=Portugal tree

*is] greatly influenced{by]environmental factors*and%*the^Mediterranean
type climate|of|Portugal[is]conducive{to]{its]growth@ Well distributed
{and} plenty |of| rainfall together with presence |of| extensive sunshine*
mild winter weather conditions*and%suitable soil compositions aid
îts* growth*in=*the^country*and%*the^life span |of| Forestry*in=Portugal
trees extends {to] around 150{to]200 years@
Algarve produces *the^ superior quality*in=Portugal*and%certain
species {are] also produced *in= *the^ Alentejo region as well *and% {it] [is] *in^
*the^ central *and% southern parts that corks |of| *the^ best quality *are^
grown@ {it] {has] been estimated that !a# whopping 16% |of| *the^ total
foreign i n c o m e*in=Portugal[is]accumulated{from]*theêxport |of| cork@
*the^ m a i n importers |of| Portuguese cork{are]Germany* U K*and%USA@
6
Forest Structure*and%Patterns
Introduction
The interactions b e t w e e n disturbances*and%forest trees generate
!a# c o m p l e x range |of| forest structures*and%patterns@ Perhaps*the^best
route through this complexity starts with t w o contrasting stand
structures (for descriptive purposes!a#stand[is]taken{to]b e!a#compact
patch |of| w o o d l a n d |of| about 2 ha)@
1@ Even#aged* stands {are] even#aged if*the^canopy trees all started
growth *in= approximately *the^ same year@ !a# limited age spread |of|
perhaps 10 years [is] permissible within *the^ definition@ Such stands
originate after!a#stand#destroying disturbance or*anâbrupt change
*in& land use@ Colonizing trees may take longer than 10 years{to]fill
*the^ available space* but as*the^stand develops{its]age range narrows*
latecomers{will]{have]smaller* lower crowns than those that started
growth immediately*and%this disadvantage ensures that their
mortality rate[is]greater@
2@ Mixed#age* stands comprising!a#wide range|of|age#classes*{from]old
trees{to]saplings* intimately intermixed@ Such stands tend{to]form
!a# mosaic |of| even#aged groups{at]*the^scale |of| one or two canopy
trees@ They function{by]!a#process |of| relatively constant gap
formation**in=which gaps formed{by]*the^loss |of| canopy trees or
major branches {are] filled {by] groups |of| saplings@ These groups
compete amongst themselves as they grow* so that eventually only
one or two trees become established*in=*the^canopy* thereby

achieving!a#1*1 replacement|of|*theôriginal gap#forming tree@ Such
stands can only survive{where}there{has]been no catastrophic
disturbance within*theâdult lifetime|of|*theôldest canopy trees@
Even#aged stands develop through!a#sequence |of| stages* w h i c h
âre* explaine@*in=effect* they b e c o m e steadily m o r e mixed#age as they
develop* initially through recruitment *in= *the^ underwood and+
eventually through mortality |of| canopy trees *and% replacement with
individuals initiated later@*in=*theâbsence|of|catastrophic disturbance*
*an& even#aged stand eventually b e c o m e s mixed#aged*!a#stage described
as @shifting#mosaic steady#state@{by]B o r m a n n*and%Likens (1981) or
@old#growth@{by]Oliver*and%Larsen (1996)
This relatively simple m o d e l[is]complicated{by]non#catastrophic
disturbances@ G a p s c r e a t e d {by] storms* {for} example* {are] often
irregularly patchy@ C a n o p y disturbance created {by] droughts m a y
take*the^form|of|*anîrregular thinning@ Likewise* fires |of| intermediate
i n t e n s i t y c o m m o n l y l e a v e !a# fairly e v e n scatter |of| large trees@
Regeneration follows b o t h patterns |of| disturbance* so that moderate
disturbances eventually generate b o t h small#scale patches |of| younger
growth within !a# hitherto even#aged stand *and% two#storied stands *in^
which *the^ survivors {from] *the^ previous generation persist *in= !a# matrix
|of| y o u n g e r growth@
Partial disturbances give rise {to] stands intermediate between *the^
mixed#aged *and% even#aged stands defined above@ They {are] mixed
*in&*the^sense that different age#classes{are]m i x e d together{at]!a#small
scale* e v e n {at] canopy level* b u t contain distinct generations* i@e@
concentrations |of| individuals within n a r r o w age bands@ J o n e s (1945)
recognized that strong even#aged elements within mixed#age stands
^were* c o m m o n within virgin temperate forests@
At *the^ stand scale* !a# plot |of| *the^ age (and often also *the^ size) |of|
trees demonstrates pulses |of| recruitment* *and% {it] may be possible *to^
partition *the^ stand into two {to] four more#or#less distinct cohorts@ *in^
truly mixed#age stands**theâge*and%size distributions take!a#negative
exponential form@ *in= stands with strong even#aged elements* *the^
relationship remains !a# negative exponential but with peaks *and% dips@
Thus*{for}example**the^size distribution |of| Quercus mongolica *in= virgin
old#growth *in= H o k k a i d o s h o w e d !a# fairly smooth* continuous* J#
shaped distribution* even t h o u g h *the^ population comprised five
distinct generations spanning 500 years@

A second complication arises{from]*the^tendency|of|gaps{to]enlarge
once they {have] formed@ {for} example* w i n d t h r o w g a p s w i t h i n
coniferous forests b e c o m e foci {for} populations |of| *the^ beetle Ips
typographies* w h i c h then colonize*and%kill trees standing{by]*the^gaps@
*in& forests |of| all kinds* once !a# gap {has] b e e n o p e n e d {by] wind*
neighbouring trees{are]more exposed{to]subsequent w i n d s*and%thus
more likely {to] be blown down@ As gaps enlarge* so they tend *to^
coalesce* until *the^ stand ceases {to] be !a# canopy punctuated {by] discrete
gaps*and%b e c o m e s*anîrregular scatter|of|fully g r o w n trees*in=!a#matrix
|of| shorter* *and% u s u a l l y younger* individuals@ E u r o p e a n forest
ecologists* led{by]Liebundgut (1959)* {have] not recognized gaps as
distinct features b u t {have] attempted{to]represent*the^structure |of| old#
g r o w t h s t a n d s a s !a# p a t c h w o r k |of| d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s |of| s t a n d
development@ Each stage[is]defined as!a#distinct spatial arrangement
|of| trees |of| different sizes *and% ages *and% [is] represented as !a#
developmental link between two or more other stages* *the^ whole
representing!a#cycle |of| stand development with several pathways@
Several different versions |of| *the^ classification |of| stages *and% *the^
dynamic cycle {have] been published@ Maps {have] been prepared *to^
show *the^ patchwork |of| stages *in= particular forests@
In practice* neither gaps nor*the^Liebundgut cycle fully represents
*the^ c o m p l e x structure*and%d y n a m i c s |of| undisturbed old#growth@
Gaps{are]readily defined*and%delimited*in=*theêarly stages |of| canopy
break#up but become far less distinct as break#up progresses *and% *the^
stand becomes multi#layered@ Furthermore* most gaps {are] small* so
t h a t *the^ q u e s t i o n |of| w h a t c o u n t s as !a# g a p [is] c r u c i a l *in= a n y
quantification* especially*in=stands{where}*the^crowns|of|canopy trees
rarely touch* let alone overlap*{for}example Pseudotsuga menziesii old#
growth@*in=*the^case|of|*the^Liebundgut stages**the^patches so clearly
defined*and%m a p p e d on paper {are] found on*the^ground {to] b e ill#
defined*and%poorly delimited@ Intermediate conditions{are]common@
Each patch|of|!a#particular stage[is]seen{to]be internally heterogeneous*
i@e@ {to] be !a# micropatchwork |of| different structures@ *the^ stages and+
maps based on them represent reality as perceived {at] !a# particular
scale* b o t h*the^classification|of|stages*and%*the^m a p s w o u l d {have] b e e n
quite different if!a#smaller scale {had] b e e n adopted@
In so far as they can b e delimited* gaps {have] internal structure@
The distribution |of| dead wood [is] generally irregular* {for} example !a#
gap created {by] *the^ fall |of| !a# single tree {has] *an^ accumulation |of| crown
b r a n c h e s*and%debris on one margin* leaving*the^rest|of|*the^gap with
!a# clean floor@ *in= many forest types *the^ underwood |of| shrubs and+
groups |of| advance regeneration survives gap formation* {its] original
irregularities {will] b e increased{by]s o m e flattening as*the^canopy tree
falls@
In larger gaps {it] [is] common {for} one or two subcanopy trees *to^
survive* thereby retaining !a# light shelterwood within *the^ gap@
Irrespective |of| size* gaps{have]*anînternal geometry w h i c h ensures
that*in=*the^Northern H e m i s p h e r e *the^ northern side receives more
direct sunlight than *the^ southern side*and%that *the^ eastern side
b e c o m e s drier*in=afternoon sun than*the^western side* w h i c h receives
direct sunlight during*the^more#humid mornings@ Furthermore* light
intensity[is]greater{at]*the^centre |of| gaps than{at]*theêdges@*in=general*
larger gaps permit!a#larger representation |of| shade#intolerant species@
Internal heterogeneity created {by] fallen trunks *and% b r a n c h w o o d
generates irregularities*in=browsing intensity*and%small#scale shading
patterns**and%thus also contributes{to]*the^variety |of| regenerants@
Both gaps *and% *the^ representation |of| stages {have] been used *to^
quantify canopy turnover@ Gaps {are] formed* or canopy space *is$
vacated*{at]about 1% per annum@ *the^ rate varies {from] year{to]year
{and} on!a#scale|of|decades but{where}it{has]b e e n m e a s u r e d*in=different
forests* gaps {have] formed{at]0@5#2% annually@ This implies!a#residence
time |of| about 100 years {for} trees that reach *the^ canopy@{where}*the^
extent *and% duration |of| growth stages {have] been quantified* {it] *has^
been possible {to] compute *the^ duration |of| *the^ growth cycle {at] some
300 years*and%{to]determine*the^degree{to]w h i c h*theâge distribution
|of| patches departs{from]*the^theoretical steady state@
In practice* individual trees live far longer than 100 years@ Firstly*
trees take several decades {to] reach*the^canopy* particularly those
shade#tolerant species that remain virtually static when they *are^
heavily shaded@ Even fast#growing light#demanding species take 30
years or so{to]reach canopy height@ Secondly* s o m e canopy species
âre* inherently short#lived* leaving space{for}other species{to]reside
longer*in=*the^canopy@ Thirdly* gap formation [is] n o t absolutely
correlated with age |of| trees* so that s o m e individuals live far longer
than *the^ majority@ *in= temperate forests* individuals |of| oak* tulip*
h e m l o c k*and%lime regularly achieve ages |of| 300#500 years or more@

W h e n forest structure[is]considered{at]!a#landscape scale w e see that
*the^ fundamental difference b e t w e e n even#aged*and%mixed#age stands
*is]!a#matter |of| scale@!a#forested landscape m a d e up entirely|of|mixed#
age stands{has]*the^same size distribution*and%age#class distribution
as!a#landscape covered*in=even#aged stands* each|of|!a#different age@
ît*[is]only w h e n*the^forest [is] considered{at]!a#stand scale that even#
agedness[is]perceived@ !a# landscape |of| even#aged stands [is] usually
mixed#aged *in= aggregate* i@e@ *the^ various stands comprising *the^
landscape represent !a# range |of| ages@ Thus* {at] !a# very large scale all
forested landscapes{are]mixed#aged* although*the^scale|of|their even#
agedness varies {from] groups n o larger than!a#single canopy tree up
^to* patches covering several thousands |of| hectares@ S o m e historic fires
^have* burned over whole counties* leaving patches |of| hundreds |of|
thousands |of| hectares that would {have] regenerated as !a# massive
even#aged stand* {for} example *the^ widespread 500#year age#class |of|
Pseudotsuga menziesii *in= *the^ Cascades@
Variation*in=*the^scale|of|*the^patchwork{has]several consequences
^for* forest composition*and%structure@!a#very small#scale patchwork
implies!a#fairly steady rate |of| gap creation w h e n c o m p u t e d{at]!a#large
scale* which*in=turn implies that forest structure {will] remain more
or less constant@
A large#scale patchwork implies that {at] moderate scales (say
individual catchments|of|first#{to]fourth#order streams) forest structure
can change widely with time according {to] *the^ irregularities |of|
disturbances* {for} example Yellowstone@ Frelich *and% Lorimer (1991)
used growth stages *and% transition times between each stage *to^
compute *the^ state |of| *the^ landscape *in= !a# region |of| moderate disturbance*
{and} found that most |of| *the^ forest remained old#growth {for} most |of|
*the^ time@
Forest Structure
Rainforests {are] divided into different strata* or layers* with
vegetation organized into!a#vertical pattern{from]*the^top|of|*the^soil
^to**the^canopy Each layer[is]!a#unique biotic c o m m u n i t y containing
different plants*and%animals adapted{for}life*in=that particular strata@
Only *the^ emergent layer [is] unique {to] tropical rainforests* while *the^
others {are] also found *in= temperate rainforests@
Forest Floor
The forest floor* *the^ bottom#most layer* receives only 2% |of| *the^
sunlight@ Only plants adapted {to] low light can grow *in= this region@
A w a y {from] riverbanks* s w a m p s*and%c l e a r i n g s * { w h e r e } d e n s e
u n d e r g r o w t h[is]found**the^forest floor[is]relatively clear|of|vegetation
because |of| *the^ l o w sunlight penetration@ This m o r e open quality
permits*theêasy m o v e m e n t |of| larger animals such as* ungulates like
*the^ okapi (Okapia johnstoni)* tapir (Tapirus sp@)* Sumatran rhinoceros
(Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)* *and% apes like*the^western lowland gorilla
(Gorilla gorilla)* as well as many species |of| reptiles* amphibians* and+
insects@ *the^ understory also contains decaying plant *and% animal
matter* w h i c h d i s a p p e a r s quickly* b e c a u s e *the^ warm* h u m i d
conditions promote rapid decay@ M a n y forms |of| fungi growing here
help decay*theânimal*and%plant waste@
Understory Layer
The understory layer lies b e t w e e n *the^ canopy*and%*the^forest
floor@*theûnderstory[is]h o m e{to]!a#n u m b e r |of| birds* small mammals*
insects* reptiles**and%predators@ E x a m p l e s include leopard(Panthera
pardus)* poison dart frogs (Dendrobates sp@)* ring#tailed coati (Nasua
nasua)* boa constrictor (Boa constrictor)* *and% many species |of|
Coleoptera@ *the^ vegetation {at] this layer generally consists |of| shade#
tolerant shrubs* herbs* small trees**and%large w o o d y vines w h i c h
climb into*the^trees{to]capture sunlight@ O n l y about 5 % |of| sunlight
b r e a c h e s *the^ c a n o p y {to] arrive {at] *the^ u n d e r s t o r y c a u s i n g true
understory plants{to]seldom grow{to]3 m (10 feet)@ A s*anâdaptation
^to* these l o w light levels* understory plants {have] often evolved m u c h
larger leaves@ Many seedlings that {will] grow {to] *the^ canopy level *are^
*in& *the^ understory@
Canopy Layer
The canopy[is]*the^primary layer|of|*the^forest forming!a#roof over
*the^ two remaining layers@{it]contains*the^majority|of|*the^largest trees*
typically 30#45 m *in= height@ Tall* broad#leaved evergreen trees *are^
*the^ dominant plants@ *the^ densest areas |of| biodiversity {are] found *in^
*the^ forest canopy* as {it] often supports !a# rich flora |of| epiphytes*
including orchids* bromeliads* m o s s e s*and%lichens@ These epiphytic
plants attach{to]trunks*and%branches*and%obtain water*and%minerals
^from* rain*and%debris that collects on*the^supporting plants@*the^fauna
*is] similar{to]that found*in=*theêmergent layer* b u t more diverse@ It
is suggested that*the^total arthropod species richness|of|*the^tropical

canopy might b e as h i g h as 2 0 million@ Other species habituating this
layer include m a n y avian species such as*the^yellow#casqued wattled
hornbill (Ceratogymna elata)* collared sunbird (Anthreptes collaris)*
African gray parrot(Psitacus erithacus)* keel#billed toucan (Ramphastos
sulfuratus)* scarlet m a c a w (Ara macao) as well as other animals like
*the^ spider m o n k e y (Atelessp@)* African giant swallowtail (Papilio
antimachus)* three#toed sloth (Bradypus tridactylus)* kinkajou (Potos
flavus)* *and% t a m a n d u a (Tamandua tetradactyla)@
Emergent Layer
The emergent layer contains!a#small n u m b e r |of| very large trees*
called emergents* w h i c h grow above*the^general canopy* reaching
heights |of| 45#55 m* although on occasion!a#few species {will] grow
^to* 70#80 m tall@ S o m e e x a m p l e s|of|emergents include* Balizia elegans*
Dipteryx panamensis* Hieronyma alchorneoides* Hymenolobium
mesoamericanum* Lecythis ampla andTerminalia oblonga@ These trees
n e e d{to]b e able{to]withstand*the^hot temperatures*and%strong w i n d s
that occur above*the^canopy*in=some areas@ Several unique faunal
species inhabit this layer such as*the^crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus
coronatus)* *the^ king colobus (Colobus polykomos)**and%*the^large flying
fox (Pteropus vampyrus)@ However* stratification[is]not always clear@
Rainforests {are] dynamic *and% many changes affect *the^ structure |of| *the^
forest@ Emergent or canopy trees collapse* {for} example* causing gaps
^to* form@ O p e n i n g s*in=*the^forest canopy {are] widely recognized as
important{for}*theêstablishment*and%growth |of| rainforest trees@ It@s
estimated that perhaps 7 5 %|of|*the^tree species{at]La Selva Biological
Station* Costa Rica {are] d e p e n d e n t on c a n o p y opening {for} seed
germination or{for}growth b e y o n d sapling size*{for}example@
Ecology *and% Climate
Most tropical rainforests{are]located around*and%near*theêquator*
therefore having w h a t [is] called*anêquatorial climate characterized
^by* three major climatic parameters* temperature* rainfall**and%dry
season intensity Other parameters that affect tropical rainforests *are^
carbon dioxide concentrations* solar radiation* *and% nitrogen
availability@*in=general* climatic patterns consist|of|w a r m temperatures
{and} high annual rainfall@ However**theâbundance |of| rainfall changes
throughout*the^year creating distinct wet*and%dry seasons@ Rainforests
are classified {by] *the^ amount |of| rainfall received each year* which *has^
allowed ecologists {to] define differences *in= these forests that look so
similar*in=structure@ According{to]Holdridge@s classification|of|tropical
ecosystems* true tropical rainforests{have]*anânnual rainfall greater
than 800 c m*and%annual temperature greater than 24 degrees Celsius@
However* most lowland tropical rainforests can be classified as tropical
moist or w e t forests* w h i c h differ *in= regards {to] rainfall@ Tropical
rainforest ecology# dynamics* composition**and%function#{are]sensitive
^to* changes *in= climate especially changes *in= rainfall@ *the^ climate |of|
these forests [is] controlled {by] !a# band |of| clouds called *the^ Intertropical
Convergence Zone located near *the^ equator *and% created {by] *the^
convergence |of| *the^ trade winds {from] *the^ northern *and% southern
hemispheres@ *the^ position |of| *the^ b a n d varies seasonally* m o v i n g
north *in= *the^ northern summer *and% south *in= *the^ northern winter* and+
ultimately controlling *the^ wet *and% dry seasons *in= *the^ tropics@ These
regions {have] experienced strong w a r m i n g{at]!a#m e a n rate |of| 0@26
degrees Celsius per decade which coincides with !a# global rise *in^
temperature resulting {from] *the^ anthropogenic inputs |of| greenhouse
gases into*theâtmosphere@ Studies {have] also found that precipitation
^has* declined*and%tropical Asia {has] experienced*anîncrease*in=dry
season intensity whereas A m a z o n i a{has]n o significant pattern change
*in& precipitation or dry season@ Additionally* El N i n o # S o u t h e r n
Oscillation events drive *the^ interannual climatic variability *in^
temperature *and% precipitation *and% result *in= drought *and% increased
intensity |of| *the^ dry season@ As anthropogenic warming increases *the^
intensity *and% frequency |of| ENSO {will] increase* leaving tropical
rainforest regions susceptible {to] stress *and% increased mortality |of|
trees@
Soil Types
Soil types {are] highly variable *in= *the^ tropics *and% {are] *the^ result |of|
!a# combination |of| several variables such as climate* vegetation*
topographic position* parent material**and%soil age M o s t tropical
soils {are] characterized {by] significant leaching*and%poor nutrients~
h o w e v e r there {are] s o m e a r e a s t h a t c o n t a i n fertile soils@ Soils
throughout*the^tropical rainforests fall into t w o classifications w h i c h
include*theûltisols*and%oxisols@ Ultisols{are]k n o w n as well weathered*
acidic red clay soils* deficient *in= major nutrients such as calcium and+
potassium@ Similarly* oxisols {are] acidic* old* typically reddish* highly
weathered *and% leached* however {are] well drained compared *to^

ultisols@ *the^ clay content |of| ultisols [is] high* making {it] difficult *for^
water {to] penetrate *and% flow through@ *the^ reddish colour |of| both soils
*is] *the^ result |of| heavy heat *and% moisture forming oxides |of| iron and+
aluminum* which {are] insoluble *in= water *and% not taken up readily
^by* plants@
Soil chemical *and% physical characteristics {are] strongly related *to^
above ground productivity *and% forest structure *and% dynamics@ *the^
physical properties |of| soil control*the^tree turnover rates w h e r e a s
chemical properties such as available nitrogen*and%phosphorus control
forest growth rates@ *the^ soils|of|*theêastern*and%central A m a z o n as
well as *the^ Southeast Asian Rainforest {are] old*and%mineral poor
whereas *the^ soils |of| *the^ western Amazon (Ecuador *and% Peru) and+
volcanic areas |of| Costa Rica {are] young *and% mineral rich@ Primary
productivity or wood production [is] highest *in= western Amazon and+
lowest *in= eastern Amazon which contains heavily weathered soils
classified as oxisols@ Additionally* Amazonian soils greatly weathered*
making them devoid|of|minerals like phosphorus* potassium* calcium*
{and} magnesium* w h i c h c o m e {from] rock sources@ However* not all
tropical rainforests occur on nutrient poor soils* but on nutrient rich
floodplains *and% volcanic soils located *in= *the^ Andean foothills* and+
volcanic areas |of| Southeast Asia* Africa* *and% Central America@ Oxisols*
infertile* deeply weathered*and%severely leached*{have]developed on
*the^ ancient Gondwanan shields@ Rapid bacterial decay prevents *the^
accumulation |of| humus@ *the^ concentration |of| iron *and% aluminum
oxides{by]*the^laterization pro cess gives *the^ oxisols!a#bright red
colour *and% s o m e t i m e s p r o d u c e s m i n a b l e deposits@ O n y o u n g e r
substrates* especially |of| volcanic origin* tropical soils m a y b e quite
fertile@
Nutrient Recycling
This high rate|of|decomposition[is]*the^result|of|phosphorus levels
*in&*the^soils* precipitation* h i g h temperatures*and%*theêxtensive
m i c r o o r g a n i s m communities@*in=addition{to]*the^bacteria*and%other
microorganisms* there{are]*anâbundance |of| other decomposers such
as fungi*and%termites that aid*in=*the^process as well@ Nutrient recycling
*is] important because below ground resource availability controls *the^
above ground biomass *and% community structure |of| tropical
rainforests@ These soils{are]typically phosphorus limited* which inhibits
net primary productivity or*theûptake |of| carbon@ *the^ soil contains

tiny microbial organisms such as bacteria* w h i c h break d o w n leaf
litter*and%other organic matter into inorganic forms |of| carbon usable
^by* plants through !a# process called decomposition@ During *the^
decomposition process *the^ microbial community [is] respiring* taking
u p o x y g e n*and%releasing carbon dioxide@*the^decomposition rate can
b e evaluated{by]measuring*theûptake |of| oxygen@ H i g h temperatures
{and} precipitation increase decomposition rate* w h i c h allows plant
litter {to] rapidly decay *in= tropical regions* releasing nutrients that *are^
immediately taken up {by] plants through surface or ground waters@
*the^ seasonal patterns*in=respiration {are] controlled{by]leaf litter fall
{and} precipitation**the^driving force m o v i n g*the^decomposable carbon
^from* *the^ litter {to] *the^ soil@ Respiration rates {are] highest early *in= *the^
wet season because *the^ recent dry season results *in= !a# large percentage
|of| leaf litter*and%thus!a#higher percentage |of| organic matter being
leached into*the^soil@
Buttress Roots
A common feature|of|many tropical rainforests[is]*the^distinct buttress
roots|of|trees@ Instead|of|penetrating{to]deeper soil layers* buttress roots
create!a#wide spread root network{at]*the^surface{for}more efficient
uptake|of|nutrients*in=!a#very nutrient poor*and%competitive environment@
Most|of|*the^nutrients within*the^soil|of|!a#tropical rainforest occur near
*the^ surface because |of| *the^ rapid turnover time *and% decomposition |of|
organisms *and% leaves@ Because |of| this* *the^ buttress roots occur {at] *the^
surface so*the^trees can maximize uptake*and%actively compete with *the^
rapid uptake |of| other trees@ These roots also aid *in= water uptake and+
storage* increase surface area {for} gas exchange* *and% collect leaf litter *for^
added nutrition@ Additionally* these roots reduce soil erosion and+
maximize nutrient acquisition during heavy rains{by]diverting nutrient
rich water flowing down*the^trunk into several smaller flows while also
acting as!a#barrier{to]ground flow@ Also**the^large surface areas these
roots create provide support*and%stability{to]rainforests trees* which
commonly grow{to]significant heights@ This added stability allows these
trees {to] withstand *the^ impacts |of| severe storms* thus reducing *the^
occurrence |of| fallen trees@
Forest Succession
S u c c e s s i o n [is] *an^ e c o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s that c h a n g e s *the^ biotic
c o m m u n i t y structure over time t o w a r d s !a# m o r e stable* diverse
c o m m u n i t y structure after*anînitial disturbance{to]*the^community@

*the^ initial disturbance [is] often!a#natural p h e n o m e n o n or h u m a n
c a u s e d event@ Natural disturbances include hurricanes* volcanic
eruptions* river m o v e m e n t s or*anêvent as small as!a#fallen tree that
creates gaps*in=*the^forest@*in=tropical rainforests* these same natural
disturbances {have] been well documented *in= *the^ fossil record* *and% *are^
credited with encouraging speciation *and% endemism@
Structural Weakness*in=*theÂgricultural Sector

A j o i n t analysis |of| *the^ levels |of| agricultural *and% agri#food
employment highlights *the^ special situation *in= Ireland* Greece and+
Portugal*{where}agriculture plays !a# dominant role *in= terms |of|
processing *and% marketing jobs@ This [is] also true {to] !a# lesser extent *in^
Spain* Austria* Finland*and%Italy@
C h a n g e s*in=*the^n u m b e r |of| agricultural jobs do not correlate with
changes *in= *the^ number |of| agri#food jobs@ *the^ countries *where^
agricultural employment {has] fallen sharply {are] different {from] *the^
o n e s { w h e r e } a g r i # f o o d e m p l o y m e n t {has] fallen@ D e n m a r k[is]*the^
exception* however~ {for} reasons*{it]{has]experienced !a# fall*in=*the^
n u m b e r |of| jobs*in=b o t h sectors@
E m p l o y m e n t*in=agriculture[is]generally higher than agricultural
G V A*in=*the^M e m b e r States*in=percentage terms* with*theêxception
|of| D e n m a r k (where{it][is]lower)**and%*the^Netherlands*and%*theÛnited
K i n g d o m (where{it][is]almost*the^same)@ *the^ gap b e t w e e n *the^ two
variables[is]particularly wide*in=*the^case|of|Portugal (where agriculture
accounts{for}1 3 %|of|jobs*and%4 % |of| G D P )*and%Ireland ( 1 1 % |of| jobs
{and} 5 % |of| GDP)@
This c o m p a r i s o n highlights b o t h*the^possible n e e d{for}structural
adjustment *in= *the^ agricultural sector *in= certain regions *and% *the^
importance |of| farming jobs *in= some rural areas@ This view [is] supported
^by* other variables related {to] *the^ structure |of| holdings* such as *the^
average SGM per AWU *and% *the^ proportion |of| *the^ total agricultural
labour force w o r k i n g on small holdings (holdings |of| less than 8
ESUs)@ Thus* Portugal{has]*the^lowest average S G M per A W U (4 E S U s
c o m p a r e d{to]*the^C o m m u n i t y average |of| 20 ESUs)*and%*the^highest
proportion|of|{its]agricultural labour force w o r k i n g o n small farms
( 7 4 % c o m p a r e d{to]*the^C o m m u n i t y average|of|38%)@
T w o a g r i c u l t u r a l j o b s *and% o n e agri#food j o b p e r h u n d r e d
inhabitants@ T h e r e {were] on average twice as m a n y jobs*in=agriculture
as*in=*theâgri#food sector*in=*theÊ U*in=1997@*the^ratio{has]b e e n falling

since 1983**and%there{are]major variations across*the^M e m b e r States@
ât* opposite ends |of| *the^ spectrum {are] *the^ United Kingdom (with !a#
ratio |of| 1*1) *and% Greece (with !a# ratio |of| 7*1)@
There {were] o n average t w o agricultural j o b s*and%one agri#food
job per h u n d r e d E U inhabitants*in=1997@*the^n u m b e r |of| farmers per
h u n d r e d inhabitants{has]tended{to]fall while*the^n u m b e r |of| agri#food
jobs per h u n d r e d inhabitants{has]r e m a i n e d static@ Portugal lost four
j o b s per h u n d r e d inhabitants*in=*the^t w o sectors c o m b i n e d b e t w e e n
1987*and%1997* while Greece*and%Spain lost two@
Forest Canopy Structure*and%{its]Ecological Functions

W i n d river slide Forest structure**the^spatial arrangement |of| b o t h
live*and%dead tree*and%plant material* strongly influences*the^spatial
patterns |of| forest co#habitants due{to]*the^fundamental organization
|of| food* shelter* *and% space@ S t r u c t u r e [is] c l o s e l y l i n k e d with
composition* age**and%history* including disturbance@ C o m p o n e n t s
|of| forest structures{are]leaves* reproductive parts* branches* trunks*
butts* roots**and%dead wood**and%*theâirspace a m o n g them@ G@ Parker
wrote*anêxcellent r e v i e w*and%synthesis*in=*the^1995 Forest Canopies
text* w h i c h I use as*the^basis{for}this lecture@ I s u m m a r i z e*the^general
structural features*and%microclimates peculiar {to] forest canopies*
c o m p a r e h o w some forests differ*in=these characteristics**and%explore
how structure affects microclimate@ I focus on structure and+
environment |of| closed* continuous forests@
Several themes* 1) forest canopy structure{has]b e e n poorly defined*
{and} r a r e l y r e p r e s e n t e d {to] a l l o w c r o s s # s i t e c o m p a r i s o n ~ 2)
measurements |of| microclimate usually focus on mean values* {at] !a#
few locations *and% short time scales # variation {has] not been assessed~
3) studies on*the^relation |of| structure*and%function{are]uncommon@
Lots |of| theory* b u t little measured@
Definitions |of| Canopy Structure
C a n o p y definitions C a n o p y [is] combination |of| all leaves* twigs*
{and} small branches *in= !a# stand |of| vegetation~ *the^ aggregate |of| all *the^
crowns@ *the^ canopy [is] !a# region as well as !a# collection |of| objects@
Forest c a n o p y structure [is] *the^ o r g a n i z a t i o n *in= space *and% time*
including *the^ position* extent* quantity* type *and% connectivity |of| *the^
aboveground components |of| vegetation@ {it] [is] often useful {to] consider
the open spaces b e t w e e n c a n o p y e l e m e n t s*and%*theâtmosphere

contained within*and%b e t w e e n c r o w n as part|of|*the^canopy@
Terms Many terms {have] been used *in= *the^ past* Physiognomy *for^
shapes |of| individual crowns~ architecture {for} growth patterns and+
forms |of| stems~ organization {for} statistical distribution |of| canopy
components~ texture {to] *the^ sizes |of| crown units composing *the^
overstory@ Units |of| canopy structure* usually* crowns |of| trees* but
ultimately* [is] leaves*and%twigs@ B u t often deal w i t h statistical
distribution |of| millions |of| leaves@ M a n y scales{are]evident* foliage
m a y b e climbed or clustered~ c r o w n s{are]grouped into stands~ stands
into landscapes@ Descriptors M a n y descriptors* eg@ M a x i m u m tree
height (hmax) or mean height (h)* number or biomass density |of|
elements (stems ha#1)~ canopy cover (fraction |of| sky not covered *by^
canopy)~ or leaf area index* ratio |of| total one#sided leaf area *to^
projected ground area (LAI* m2/m3)@ Less c o m m o n{are]specifying 3¬
D organization |of| canopy elements@ Almost always described *by^
mean conditions* not *an^ assessment |of| variation@
Quantification |of| Canopy Structure
White profile diagram {for} many years our view |of| forests *has^
been two#dimensional (2#D) *and% *the^ structure *and% dynamics |of| forest
ecosystems {have] b e e n studied*and%analyzed using data expressed
as stem m a p s that indicate*the^X*and%Y coordinates |of| individual
trees along with species*and%size information (e@g@* diameter{at]breast
height)@ $Stand structure$ usually referred{to]*the^species composition
{and} tree size distribution |of| forest stands**and%sometimes included
information on*the^2#D spatial distribution |of| trees*and%tree height@
Because h u m a n s{are]confined{to]*the^ground* we {have] b e e n unable
^to* study*in=detail*the^3#D structure |of| forests including *the^ forest
canopy@ Instead* w e inferred tree growth {from] diameter increment
ât* breast height* *and% competitive interactions among trees *from^
analysis |of| *the^ relationship between horizontal spatial distribution
{and} diameter growth or mortality patterns@ However* we {have] always
known that *the^ dynamics |of| forest ecosystems* including growth and+
competitive interactions among individual trees* occur *in= *the^ canopy
{and} not {at] breast height@ Canopy access tools {have] provided *the^
means {to] quantify canopy structure *in= !a# more 3#d way@@ Early
characterizations |of| canopy structure {were] caricatures|of|*the^c r o w n s
|of| larger trees |of| forests # profile diagrams@ O l d e m a n*and%others did
more sophisticated images@ But they tend {to] reflect only *the^
peculiarities |of| *the^ plot *and% provide little quantification |of| *the^ vertical
organization|of|*the^whole@
Leaf distribution # jess W h o l e canopy L z (leaf#height density)
can b e estimated{by]assembling structural measurements |of| individual
crowns m a d e {from] observations{from]*the^g r o w n or harvested stems@
Lots|of|m e a s u r e m e n t s*in=crop plants* very few{for}w h o l e forests@ This
s h o w s vertical stratification |of| leaf distribution {for} *an^ e a s t e r n
deciduous forest* gathered with crane data@ Fish eye Optical point
measurements more common@ Hemispheric fisheye photography uses
potential light environment{at]!a#point {to] assess canopy structure@
Several devices n o w estimate L A I{from]in#canopy light measurements*
relying on Beer@s l a w*and%*theâbsorbance |of| light@
R e m o t e sensing{has]done!a#lot@ Use*the^spectral quality |of| canopy
light**the^ratio |of| red/far red light transmitted through*the^canopy@
Several measures calculated {from] combining different reflectance
bands relate {to] *the^ amount |of| green canopy biomass* such as *the^
$normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) or $greenness$ index@
Index takes advantage|of|*the^strong reflectance*in=*the^near infrared
b u t w e a k reflectance*in=*the^red wavelengths |of| green canopies@ Other
remote sensing techniques use !a# similar approach* with sensors |of|
different wavebands on several satellite platforms@ (LIDAR) Also
^from* !a# profiling airborne laser # {to] sense *the^ elevation |of| both *the^
ground *and% canopy* yielding *the^ contour |of| canopy height over !a#
long transect@ So advances*in=quantifying*and%visualizing canopy
structure [is] growing*in=sophistication@
O l d growth m e s s y*the^term $structural complexity$ w a s coined
as *an^ integrative concept {to] represent *the^ complex 3#D structure |of|
old#growth forests@ However* many |of| *the^ measures *and% indices
used{to]characterize structural complexity such as species composition*
tree#size distribution *and% abundance |of| snags *and% woody debris *are^
derived {from] 2#D* ground#based measurements@ Ishii young old
forest O n e |of| *the^ objectives{for}developing indices |of| structural
complexity [is] {to] quantitatively distinguish old#growth forests *from^
younger stands *and% {to] establish criteria {for} enhancing old#growth
forest structure*in=m a n a g e d stands{for}conservation purposes* such
as creating wildlife habitat@ *in= order {to] m e e t such m a n a g e m e n t
objectives* w e must integrate various aspects |of| forest structure
including canopy*and%below#ground processes into future ecosystem

m a n a g e m e n t strategies@
Vertical Organization
C a n o p y elements can b e nonuniformly distributed with height@
This pattern derives {from] species differences *in= growth form and+
shade tolerance* *and% stand developmental stage@ Jess species
distribution {at] {its] simplest* w e can use *an^ e x a m p l e {from] m i x e d
deciduous forest@ Vertical sorting |of| species leaf area@ This[is]!a#foliage
height profile {for} *an^ Appalachian mixed species forest* giving *the^
percentage |of| leaf area {for} *the^ major species@
M o r e generally* *the^ v e r t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n |of| microclimate*
structures**and%biota *in= forests[is]!a#recurring t h e m e *in= scientific
investigations*and%forest description@{for}example* Leaf characteristics
such as size* shape* mass* inclination* chlorophyll content* N content*
{and} photosynthetic capacity vary within!a#tree c r o w n along gradients
|of| light *and% other microenvironmental conditions so that *the^
individual plant maximizes carbon gain@ Vert strat definition One
aspect |of| this[is]*the^concept |of| vertical stratification@ Stratification
proposes predictable vertical separation |of| canopy c o m p o n e n t s such
as forest leaves*and%other structures* species* or individual organisms
into distinct horizons* layers or gradients@
L o n g history |of| vertical organization@ Early naturalists* such as
Allee (1949) s a w stratification*in=*the^b i g picture* as !a# general
p h e n o m e n o n |of| animal*and%plant communities*in=aquatic (freshwater
lakes* oceans* inter#tidal zones)*and%terrestrial (grasslands* deserts*
forests) environments@ Smith (1973) c o n c l u d e d that stratification
optimizes light utilization* CO 2 concentrations* pollination and+
dispersal* reduces predation on flowers* fruits *and% leaves* and+
increases structural integrity |of| *the^ forest@ Strict adherence{to]*the^
proposition |of| stratification{has]b e e n criticized as too limiting w h e n
*in& fact there{are]ecological gradients*in=three dimensions {from] forest
floor t h r o u g h *the^ c a n o p y t h a t {are] c o m p l e x m o s a i c s |of| biota*
microclimate* gaps* *and% *the^ growth* mortality* *and% development |of|
trees@
Horizontal Variation
Light gap Forests{are]not spatially uniform* b u t{are]horizontally
heterogeneous{at]various scales@ M o s t w o r k {has] dealt with foliage#
free spaces@ Light gaps{are]holes*in=*the^canopy extending{to]*the^forest

floor that permit *the^ penetration |of| unscattered light (Runkle and+
Canham)@ Gaps |of| various sizes originate {from] !a# variety |of| causes@
Lots |of| w o r k done on this* as{it]influences bird flight* regeneration*
s e e d germination@ C r o w n s h y n e s s *in= s o m e forests* i n d i v i d u a l
subcrowns*and%crowns {are] clearly separate* with vegetation free
borders*in=between@ This $ c r o w n shyness$[is]m o s t c o m m o n*in=single#
species*and%single#cohort stands**and%on w i n d y sites@ Probably
maintained {by] wind#induced abrasion b e t w e e n adjacent crowns@
$ C r o w n asymmetry$*{where}*the^c r o w n centre[is]offset{from]*the^stem
base* results {from] plasticity*in=*the^directional growth |of| tree crowns@
Broad#leaved trees s h o w great plasticity*in=c r o w n growth that allows
trees{to]grow toward open areas|of|*the^canopy*and%avoid competition
^from* neighboring crowns@ C r o w n a s y m m e t r y can buffer negative
effects |of| c r o w n competition* reducing tree mortality*and%increasing
*the^ m e a n*and%variation*in=tree size within stands@ Coniferous trees
^have* less plasticity *in= crown form *and% directional growth |of| *the^
crown@
Temporal Changes
Light e n v over year C a n o p y structure changes seasonally*in=all
forest* b u t[is]m o s t dramatic*in=deciduous stands@ But even evergreen
forests* *the^ quantity |of| leaf area varies over *the^ year@ G e n stand
development M o r e substantial changes occur on!a#succession time
scale@ T o t a l a m o u n t stabilizes* b u t {its] v e r t i c a l *and% h o r i z o n t a l
distribution change slowly@ B o b v p stands This difference {has] b e e n
shown through comparative studies |of| 2#D stand structure@ {at] *the^
individual tree level* can be seen@ Jess images |of| stand ages But *at^
*the^ stand level* can also be quantified@ Species composition *and% tree
size distributions b e c o m e m o r e diverse with increasing stand age
{and} specific structural elements such as large* old trees*and%snags
characterize older stands
Deterministic Processes that Drive Development |of| Canopy Structure
In early stages |of| stand development* deterministic processes
such as timing|of|establishment following disturbance* height#growth
rate**and%c r o w n interactions determine canopy structure@*in=mixed#
species natural forests* differences among species *in= timing |of|
establishment *and% initial height#growth rates result *in= vertical
stratification |of| species within*the^canopy@ Early#successional* fast#

growing species can establish soon after disturbance* reach*theûpper
canopy**and%dominate during early stages |of| succession@
The vertical development |of| canopy structure with increasing
stand age can b e inferred{by]comparing stands |of| different ages* i@e@*
!a# chronosequence approach@ B o b vp leaves*in=Douglas#fir*and%western
h e m l o c k forests|of|*the^Pacific Northwest Coast |of| North America*
development |of| vertical canopy structure during early#successional
stages begins with*the^dominance|of|*the^fast#growing* pioneer species*
Douglas#fir**in=*theû p p e r canopy |of| mixed#species stands@*in=late#
successional stands* canopy height reaches over 70 m@ Douglas#fir
continues{to]dominate*in=*theû p p e r canopy as more shade#tolerant
species such as western hemlock *and% western red cedar invade *the^
mid# {to] lower#canopy@ This results *in= *the^ development |of| !a# deep*
continuous canopy comprising b o t h early#*and%late#successional
species As forests mature* canopy height reaches maximum and+
species differences *in= height#growth rate become less important *in^
determining structural development@ Species with similar levels |of|
shade#tolerance {will] occupy similar positions *in= *the^ canopy@ Late#
successional species that can reach *the^ u p p e r canopy eventually
catch up*and%take*the^place |of| less shade#tolerant* early#successional
species *in= *the^ upper canopy@ However* *in= regions{where}there *are^
few physical limitations {to] canopy height (e@g@* typhoons *and% poor
soil conditions)* physiological limitations{to]height growth*and%crown
expansion m a y reduce competition a m o n g*the^tallest trees* allowing
early successional species {to] coexist *in= *the^ upper canopy with *the^
late#successional species@ {for} example* *in= *the^ old#growth Douglas#
fir#western h e m l o c k{at]*the^W i n d River C a n o p y Crane Research*
mild climate*and%abundant rainfall allow canopy trees{to]reach heights
over 60 m@ *in= this forest* upper#canopy trees (tree height > 40 m) |of|
all species {have] attained maximum crown size *and% show very little
crown expansion growth@*in=*theâbsence|of|crown competition* long#
lived pioneer species such as Douglas#fir m a y b e able{to]coexist with
*the^ late#successional species*in=*theû p p e r canopy@
Stochastic processes *and% development |of| structural complexity

W i t h increasing stand age* stochastic or r a n d o m processes such
as mortality |of| individual trees that create gaps *in= *the^ canopy and+
small#scale disturbances that cause damage *and% die#back |of| crowns
play increasingly important roles*in=creating structural complexity

|of| *the^ forest canopy@ As trees reach maximum size* limitations *to^
crown expansion *in= *the^ upper canopy enhance structural complexity
|of|*the^canopy surface@*in=Douglas#fir#western h e m l o c k forests* gaps
created*in=*theû p p e r canopy after individual tree mortality {are] not
filled{by]neighboring trees*and%*theûpper#canopy surface b e c o m e s
increasingly heterogeneous with increasing stand age@ Many trees *in^
old#growth forests show evidence |of| past damage *and% regrowth*
such as forks *and% crooks *in= *the^ main stem@ *in= tropical forests and+
monsoon regions that {are] frequently affected {by] windstorms and+
typhoons* c r o w n d a m a g e [is] c o m m o n l y observed@ oughts* fungal
infections* insect outbreaks**and%forest fires can also cause defoliation
{and} die#back |of| *the^ c r o w n*and%{are]often followed {by] regrowth@
Stochasticity |of| small#scale disturbances followed {by] regrowth |of| *the^
crown adds variability {to] *the^ otherwise deterministic architecture |of|
trees *and% enhances structural complexity |of| *the^ forest canopy@
Reiteration contributes {to] prolonging tree longevity *by^
reproducing dead *and% dying crown components@ Many long#lived*
late#successional species can reiterate architectural units*and%maintain
*the^ crown**in=contrast{to]short#lived early#successional species w h i c h
tend{to]{have]less ability{to]reiterate c r o w n components@ Reiteration
|of| various architectural units ranging {from] shoots*and%twigs{to]entire
branches *and% vertical axes (reiterated trunks) {has] been observed *in^
some large* old trees |of| long#lived species* including redwoods and+
Douglas#fir@
U n d e r s t o r y trees |of| E u r o p e a n beech* !a# shade#tolerant* late#
successional species* maintain *the^ c r o w n {by] m e a n s |of| reiteration
w h e n growth [is] suppressed due{to]limited light conditions@*in=old
Douglas#fir trees* reiteration enhances structural complexity |of| *the^
crown {by] increasing branch size variability@ Reiteration also
contributes{to]enhancing structural complexity{by]creating specific
structural features such as reiterated trunks* fan#shaped clusters |of|
epicormic branches* *and% platform#shaped forks within branches*
m a k i n g*the^c r o w n |of| e a c h tree $highly individualistic*and%irregular
Marbled m u r r e l e t W h y [is] this important# These developmental
processes |of| canopy structure drive*and%enhance various ecological
functions such as c o m m u n i t y d y n a m i c s*and%stand productivity@
S p o t t e d o w l D e v e l o p m e n t |of| s t r u c t u r a l c o m p l e x i t y e n h a n c e s
biodiversity |of| forest e c o s y s t e m s {by] creating specific structural

elements that provide food*and%habitat{for}other organisms@
Forest Micro#Environmental Gradients
Mv cloud Canopy microclimate [is] ultimately determined {by] *the^
stand macroclimate~ *the^ rhytms |of| change above *and% within *the^
forest{are]set{by]*the^cycles|of|annual*and%diurnal heating*and%{by]*the^
m o v e m e n t s |of| air m a s s e s*and%clouds@ V e r y short term events (time
scale |of| less than !a# minute) {are] important *in= exchange process and+
ventilation |of| canopy layers@ Some environmental variables *are^
influenced {by] broadscale canopy features (wind)* whereas others
(light) {are] depended on *the^ local arrangements |of| elements@ *the^
vertical pattern |of| microenvironmental conditions within forests *is$
important because {it] influences *the^ distribution |of| forest biota*
b e h a v i o r |of| vertebrates* *the^ d e v e l o p m e n t *and% g r o w t h |of| tree
structures* amount |of| gas exchange*and%water release{by]forest leaves*
infection potential{for}n u m e r o u s tree parasites* invasiveness|of|lianas
into tree crowns* growth*and%productivity |of| epiphytes* biological
activity levels|of|microbes**and%n u m e r o u s other aspects|of|ecosystem
function@ *the^ forest influences microclimate**and%m i c r o c l i m a t e
influences h o w*and%{where}*the^forest{will]grow* so that*theînteraction
|of|*the^t w o results*in=m e a s u r e d patterns*in=!a#dynamic state@
T h e t h r e e # d i m e n s i o n a l m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t (light* humidity*
temperature**and%wind) |of| forests[is]spatially heterogeneous b a s e d
on composition*and%structure|of|*the^forest@ W i n d distribution Wind*
^for* example*{has]higher p e a k s*in=*theû p p e r canopy* than d o w n near
*the^ forest floor@*in=general* w i n d [is] rapidly decelerated*in=*the^layer
just above*the^forest *the^ velocity profile*in=this layer [is] c o m m o n l y
described as though *the^ w i n d {were] reacting{to]!a#r o u g h surface
displaced above *the^ ground {by] !a# distance d@ This [is] equivalent {to] *the^
mean height |of| *the^ momentum absorption* with !a# gradient controlled
^by* *the^ roughness |of| *the^ surface@ Both *the^ roughness *and% *the^
displacement height |of| canopies depend on *the^ amount and+
distribution |of| canopy material* *and% also on wind speed itself@
Estimates{are]often b a s e d on*the^canopy height@*in=s o m e stands* w i n d
speeds do not decline monotonically with depth* but{have]!a#secondary
m a x*in=*the^l o w e r m o s t canopy levels@ This[is]seen*in=stands |of| simple
structure that lack vegetation layers{at]*the^bottom* or {at] forest
boundaries*{where}winds m a y b l o w through{for}distances equal to
several canopy heights@*the^canopy acts as!a#filter |of| high frequency

gusts* arresting small#scale fluctuations* but permitting*the^penetration
|of| large eddies@ *the^ depth {to] w h i c h eddys penetrate depends on
canopy density* strength |of| *the^ eddy* stability |of| *the^ canopy air
column@ M u c h|of|*the^total transport occurs during!a#small fraction
|of|*the^time@ Periods |of| relative quiescence{are]punctuated with gusts
that can penetrate deeply@ W i t h high#frequency sensors* rapid vertical
m o t i o n s *and% t e m p e r a t u r e d e v i a t i o n s m a y b e o b s e r v e d a l m o s t
simultaneously {at] several canopy levels@
Trace gases*and%particle concentrations {have] relatively w e a k
gradients within*the^canopy* b u t m e a n concentrations{are]typically
lower*in=*theûnderstory than*in=*theôverstory@ {for} CO2* however*
*the^ active layer |of| *the^ c a n o p y [is] *an^ e n o r m o u s sink**and%C O 2
concentrations{are]often slightly depressed*in=*theôverstory during
*the^ daytime@ *the^ ground[is]!a#source due{to]root*and%soil respiration
{and} decomposition@ !a# pronounced co2 max develops *in= *the^
understory late {at] night* especially under stable conditions@
Light[is]perhaps*the^m o s t influential*and%c o m p l e x |of| all canopy
microclimatic variables@ M o s t microenvironmental factors correlate
with light intensity@ Therefore**theêffect |of| microclimate on plant
physiology*and%growth as well as on animal behavior*and%occurrence
*is] difficult {to] separate {from] that |of| light alone@ This makes light !a#
suitable universal indicator {for} just about every aspect |of| forest
canopy ecology* but{it][is]very difficult{to]measure*in=three#dimensional
space@ Parker proposed!a#vertical subdivision |of| canopies into three
zones b a s e d on*the^patterns|of|*the^m e a n*and%variance|of|vertical light
transmittance~ bright* transition**and%dim@ *the^ bright zone (upper
canopy)[is]characterized{by]h i g h transmittance*and%l o w variability*
*the^ transition zone (mid canopy) [is]{where}transmittance [is] m o s t
variable*and%*the^m e a n changes rapidly with height* while *the^ dim
zone (lower canopy) [is] characterized {by] low transmittance and+
variability@ Based on work {by] Parker *an^ age class sequence |of| Douglas#
fir forests near*the^WRCCRF**the^bright zone[is]wide*and%dim zone
narrow *in= older stands due {to] *the^ vertical differentiation |of| *the^
canopy with age@ Younger forests {have] !a# narrow bright zone and+
wide dim zone@
Canopy Soil Characteristics

C a n o p y soils{are]!a#particularly interesting habitat due {to] their
patchy spatial distribution*and%vertical organization@ Soils develop

^where* there[is]!a#perch that allows*theâccumulation |of| litter* such
as u n d e r*and%around epiphytes* o n large branches**and%*in=b r a n c h
crotches@ D O M [is] e s p e c i a l l y interesting b e c a u s e {it] can capture
i n c o m i n g nutrients bystoring t h e m on*the^negatively charged sites*
lots |of| recalcitrant nutrients*and support |of| invertebrates* *and% *its^
ability {to] store water {for} !a# long time@ Several studies {have] examined
differences b e t w e e n c a n o p y*and%forest floor soil #*in=Monteverde*
c o m p a r e d n u t r i e n t s *and% pH@ A l s o s t u d i e d d i f f e r e n c e s *in= soil
temperature *and% soil moisture soil temp@ Not much difference *for^
temperature* but striking idfferences {for} moisture@ Severe drydowns
occur *in= *the^ forest canopy* not *the^ soil@ This could {have] !a# role *in^
determining *the^ composition *and% abundance |of| vertical gradient@
Soil moisture
Forest Conditions*and%Area
The area covered{by]forests[is]very likely{to]change u n d e r climate
change* with shifts occurring b e t w e e n forest types due {to] changing
temperature*and%precipitation regimes* while*in=some regions* forest
area [is] expected {to] expand (e@g@ temperate regions) *and% *in= others *to^
contract (e@g@ boreal* tropical *and% mountain forests)@ Such changes
^have* been occurring *in= *the^ past following *the^ natural changes *in^
temperature *and% precipitation that accompanied *the^ different ice
ages@ Currently* however*{it][is]very difficult{to]separate forest area
change due{to]climate change {from] area changes due{to]other factors@
Globally* planted forests*and%natural regeneration {have] increased
*the^ forest areas*in=*theÛnited States* Europe* China**and%some countries
*in& Latin America *and% *the^ Caribbean e@g@ Chile* Uruguay* Cuba and+
Costa Rica@ On *the^ other hand* some countries *in= Africa* Asia and+
*the^ Pacific *and% *the^ tropical countries |of| Latin America continue *to^
be subject {to] deforestation* mainly due {to] conversion {to] small# and+
large#scale agriculture*and%livestock while deforestation*in=*the^boreal
forests |of| Siberia[is]mainly due{to]forest fires@ A l t h o u g h*the^boreal
forests {are] expected {to] move northward* temperate forests *are^
expected {to] increase their area northward {to] !a# greater extent than
*the^ boreal forests* thus reducing *the^ total area |of| boreal forests@
In *the^ future* {it] [is] expected that *the^ combination |of| climate
change* land u s e conversion*and%un#sustainable land use practices
will interact@ Changes*in=water availability{are]considered{to]b e!a#key

factor{for}*the^survival*and%growth |of| m a n y forest species* although
*the^ response {to] prolonged droughts {will] vary among species and+
also among different varieties |of| *the^ same species@ Climate change
^will* increase*the^risk |of| frequent*and%m o r e intense fires* especially
^where* changing climate [is] accompanied {by] lower precipitation or
longer dry periods as*in=*the^boreal * Mediterranean*and%sub#tropical
forests *and% traditional land clearing practices as *in= *the^ Amazon@ *in^
*the^ northern Atlantic region |of| Nicaragua* {for} example* Rodriquez
et al@* (2001) found that *the^ combination |of| *the^ a m o u n t |of| rainfall
d u r i n g *the^ p r e v i o u s t h r e e m o n t h s *and% *the^ a v e r a g e m o n t h l y
temperature|of|*the^current m o n t h s h o w e d!a#strong relation with 6 4 %
|of|*the^fires b e t w e e n 1996*and%1999@
Although data{are]not conclusive*{it][is]expected that frequency
|of| strong hurricanes {will] increase*in=hurricane prone areas such as
Central A m e r i c a*and%*theÂsia Pacific region@ Hurricanes m a y destroy
forest areas completely or cause heavy degradation@ If left untouched*
however* s u c h a r e a s {will] e c o l o g i c a l l y r e c o v e r o v e r t i m e (e@g@
V a n d e r m e e r et al@* 2000~ V a n d e r m e e r et al@* 2001)* albeit slow*in=terms
|of| biomass@ *the^ m a i n effect[is]likely{to]b e economic (infrastructure*
crops*and%timber lost)*and%social (lost lives*and%livelihoods)@ Together
with land use changes* however* *the^ effects m a y b e m u c h longer
lasting*and%devastating # degraded *and% y o u n g forests {are] easily
converted into agricultural land*and%pastures@
Health*and%Vitality |of| Climate Change
Climate change may {have] profound impacts on *the^ health and+
vitality |of| *the^ world@s forests@ *in= some cases* vitality may increase
due {to] !a# combination |of| !a# more favourable climate {for} growth and+
CO fertilization@ *in= most cases however* increasing temperatures
2
favour *the^ growth |of| insect populations that [is] detrimental {to] *the^
health |of| forests@
This [is] more likely{to]occur*in=forests dominated {by] few tree
species or{where}specific temperatures or moisture levels control
insect populations@{for}example**the^spread |of| *the^ mountain pine
beetle* Dendroctonus ponderosae**in=boreal forests*{has]b e e n largely
attributed {to] *the^ absence |of| consistently low temperatures over !a#
long period |of| time* which allowed *an^ existing outbreak {to] spread
across montane areas*and%into*the^colder boreal forests@
Similarly* Finland[is]expecting*anîncrease*in=infestation |of| root

{and} bud rots *in= their coniferous forests* due {to] *the^ spread |of| !a#
virulent fungus* Heterobasidion parviporum* favoured {by] longer
h a r v e s t i n g periods* i n c r e a s e d storm d a m a g e *and% l o n g e r spore
production season@*in=*the^tropics* on *the^ other hand* increased
warming reduces *the^ life cycle |of| many insect pests* while {at] *the^
same time increased fire damage makes trees more susceptible *to^
insect attacks *and% vice versa@
Biological Diversity |of| Climate
Species growth*and%survival depends{for}!a#large part on climate
variables@ M o s t species{have]!a#particular climatic range within which
they g r o w best* {are] competitive*and%{are]able {to] adapt {to] slight
environmental changes *and% respond {to] insect attacks* diseases and+
other adverse environmental *and% human influences@
Many |of| *the^ ecological processes that {are] needed {for} tree and+
other plant *and% animal species {to] live together {are] influenced *by^
climatic conditions@ *the^ importance |of| climate {for} forest ecosystems
{and} their composition*and%diversity [is] exemplified{by]*the^various
g l o b a l *and% r e g i o n a l v e g e t a t i o n classifications@ *the^ H o l d r i d g e
ecological life zones * {are] limited {by] temperature* precipitation and+
humidity@ Several researchers {have] attempted {to] estimate *the^ impact
|of| climate change on *the^ forests |of| Central America* b a s e d on
estimated shifts|of|*the^life zone boundaries@ Such studies* however*
fall short|of|projecting real changes that m a y occur* since geographical
shifts due {to] climate change {are] likely {to] occur on *an^ individual
species level* rather than on forest type level@ This[is]mainly because
some species{will]be able{to]adapt better{to]changing conditions than
others* resulting*in=changes |of| composition |of| forest types* rather
than geographic shifts |of| forest types@
In general* m a n y species {have] !a# tendency {to] m o v e {to] higher
latitudes or higher altitudes@ Lucier et al@* (2009) *in= their revision |of|
climate change impacts on forests* found reports |of| phenological
changes*in=!a#n u m b e r |of| species* with more*and%greater changes
observed *in= higher latitudes@ Common changes observed *were^
changing flowering times *and% changing time |of| bud break* affecting
productivity*and%carbon sequestration potential@ Phenological changes
observed*in=oak * apple*and%pears*and%!a#range |of| 29 Mediterranean
species * did not affect ecosystem processes other than bringing them
a few days forward* although such b e h a v i o u r w a s easier{to]predict

*in& insect#pollinated species than*in=wind#pollinated species@ Ecological
processes such as pollination* flowering*and%fruit setting m a y b e
m o r e affected*in=tropical systems*{by]changes*in=*the^phenological
cycles because species interactions m a y b e m o r e c o m p l e x*and%involve
m o r e than one species* while{at]*the^same time seasonality[is]not as
clearly marked@
7
Land*and%Farm Resources*in=Forestry
Introduction
L a n d [is] a m o n g *the^ m o s t i m p o r t a n t resources u s e d {by] U@S@
agriculture$and {its] chief finite resource@ Decisions on land use *are^
made daily {by] operators |of| *the^ Nation@s 2@1 million farms* contingent
on market conditions* public policies**and%farm/ranch characteristics@
This chapter examines land use* farm real estate values* *and% *the^
relationship between land ownership* farm size* *and% other
characteristics@ A m o n g *the^ findings*
• Land continues {to] shift between agriculture*and%other uses@
Cropland {has] declined over recent decades* but losses do not
threaten*the^Nation@s capacity{to]produce food*and%fibre@
• Real estate[is]!a#major asset{for}farm households@ Values{have]been
rising steadily since 1987* but *the^ inflation#adjusted (real) value |of|
U@S@ farm real estate [is] still below {its] 1982 peak@
• Small family farms account{for}most land owned{by]farms@
Land Use* Environment *and% *the^ Sustainability
Land#use changes can affect *the^ environment *and% *the^
sustainability |of| production@ Because impacts on *the^ environment$
including erosion* water quality**and%wildlife h a b i t a t $ a r e typically
not reflected*in=private profit calculations* land#use choices that are
optimal{for}*anîndividual m a y not b e optimal {for} society@ T h i s

difference suggests*the^possibility|of|public policies that m o r e closely
align land#use decisions with social objectives@ *the^ allocation |of| !a#
fixed land base among competing uses [is] determined {by] *the^ relative
returns{to]*the^different uses* w h i c h vary according{to]land quality
{and} location@!a#l a n d o w n e r seeking{to]m a x i m i z e profits {will] allocate
!a# land parcel{to]*theûse that yields*the^highest expected e c o n o m i c
return* after*the^costs|of|conversion@ A s relative returns change along
with market conditions* technological advancements* or g o v e r n m e n t
policies* land#use patterns tend{to]adjust accordingly@ Land#use change
*is] dynamic@ With *the^ exception |of| urban land* changes occur {to] and+
^from* major land uses@ {for} example* 44 million acres left *the^ cropland
{and} pasture category {from] 1992{to]1997 while 21 million acres shifted
into*the^category* resulting*in=!a#net loss |of| 23 million acres@
Land used{for}Recreation*and%Wildlife Areas

Special uses include rural transportation~ rural parks*and%wildlife~
defence *and% industrial uses~ *and% farmstead* farm roads/lanes* and+
other onfarm uses@ These special uses increased {from] 85 million acres
(4 percent|of|*the^land area|of|*the^contiguous 4 8 States)*in=1945{to]153
million acres (8 percent)*in=2002@ L a n d*in=transportation uses (highways
{and} roads* railroads**and%airports *in= rural areas) increased {by] 4
million acres (17 percent) b e t w e e n 1945*and%1982@ Transportation
uses declined {by] about 0@5 million acres {from] 1982 {to] 1992 due *to^
*the^ abandonment |of| railroad facilities *and% rural roads* *and% *the^
classification |of| some transportation u s e s as u r b a n areas@
L a n d u s e d{for}recreation*and%wildlife areas (Federal*and%State
parks* wilderness areas**and%wildlife refuges) e x p a n d e d 3 4 4 percent
^from* 1945{to]2002 (an increase|of|78 million acres)@*theîncrease came
mostly {from] conversion |of| Federal lands* previously *in= forest and+
grassland pasture *and% range@ Land *in= defence *and% industrial uses
d e c l i n e d {by] 10 m i l l i o n a c r e s (40 p e r c e n t ) {from] 1 9 4 5 {to] 2002@
Farmsteads* farm roads**and%other farm u s e s declined{by]4 million
acres (29 percent) b e t w e e n 1945*and%1997@ This decline reflects trends
t o w a r d fewer farms*and%larger* m o r e consolidated farms* as well as
*an& increasing tendency {for} farm households {to] live off *the^ farm@ *in^
response {to] expanding U@S@ population* land *in= urban uses$including
homes* schools* office buildings* shopping sites**and%other commercial/
industrial u s e s $ i n c r e a s e d {from] 15 million acres*in=1945{to]25 million

acres*in=1960* 4 7 million acres*in=1980**and%59 million acres*in=2002@
While *the^ U@S@ population nearly doubled* *the^ a m o u n t |of| land
urbanized quadrupled@ However* u r b a n uses still comprise only 3
percent|of|*the^total land area|of|*the^contiguous States@
Miscellaneous other land uses decreased {from] 1945 {to] 1964* and+
^have* since trended upward* showing !a# 54#percent increase {from] 1964
^to* 2002 reflecting improved data *and% reclassification |of| grazing and+
forest lands@ These uses include marshes *and% open swamps not
included *in= other major land uses* bare rock areas* deserts* some
rural residential areas* *and% other uses not inventoried@ Wetlands *are^
defined {by] soil *and% hydrological characteristics *and% may occur on
land*in=m a n y different uses@
Regional Changes *in= Land Use
While land*in=every use occurs*in=all 10 regions|of|*the^contiguous
States* some uses {are] more concentrated *in= some regions than *in^
others@ Regions with *the^ largest cropland acreage {are] *the^ Northern
Plains* Corn Belt**and%Southern Plains@ Grassland pasture*and%range
*is] concentrated*in=*the^Mountain*and%Southern Plains regions@ Acreage
*in& forest use* special *and% miscellaneous other uses [is] highest *in= *the^
Mountain region@
The Northeast* Appalachian* Southeast* Delta States**and%Lake
States regions lost cropland b e t w e e n 1945*and%2002@ *the^ largest
increases occurred*in=*the^Northern Plains*and%M o u n t a i n regions*
with smaller increases*in=*the^Corn Belt* Southern Plains**and%Pacific
regions@ Western increases m a y {have] resulted*in=part {from] federally
subsidized irrigation water@
Nine|of|*the^10 regions lost grassland pasture*and%range b e t w e e n
1945 *and% 2002@ W h i l e grassland pasture*and%range increased 11
million acres (10 percent)*in=*the^Southern Plains**the^Northeast region
lost about 70 percent |of| {its] grassland pasture *and% range* *and% *the^
Appalachian *and% Lake States regions lost more than 50 percent@ *the^
Northeast*and%Appalachian regions saw*the^reforestation |of| grassland*
loss |of| some grassland {to] urbanization* *and% concentration |of| *the^
dairy industry@ Decreases *in= *the^ Corn Belt* Northern Plains* and+
Mountain regions {were] likely associated with *the^ conversion |of| some
grassland pasture*and%range {to] cropland@
Land Ownership*and%Farm Structure

Ownership |of| U@S@ Land
The land surface|of|*theÛnited States covers 2@3 billion acres@
Private o w n e r s h e l d 61 percent*in=2002**the^Federal G o v e r n m e n t 28
percent* S t a t e *and% l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s 9 percent* *and% I n d i a n
reservations 3 percent@ Virtually all cropland[is]privately owned* as
*is] three#fifths |of| grassland pasture *and% range *and% over half |of|
forestland@ Federal* State* *and% local government holdings consist
primarily |of| forestland* rangeland* *and% other land@ Most land *in^
Federal ownership$largely *in= *the^ West$is managed {by] *the^
Department |of| *the^ Interior (68 percent) *and% *the^ Department |of|
Agriculture (28 percent)@
F a r m operators do n o t o w n all *the^ land u s e d *in= agriculture@
A c c o r d i n g{to]*the^1999 Agricultural E c o n o m i c s*and%L a n d O w n e r s h i p
Survey (AELOS)* farmers held 58 percent |of| *the^ land *in= farms *in^
1999@ These landowning farmers also made up 58 percent |of| *the^ 3@4
million farmland owners@
N o n o p e r a t o r landlords accounted{for}*the^remaining 4 2 percent
|of| land *in= farms@ Ninety#five percent |of| nonfarm landlords *were^
individuals/families or partnerships@ |of| these unincorporated
landlords* 55 percent {were] {at] least 65 years old@ M a n y nonfarm
landlords{have]!a#historic connection{to]farming@ A m o n g*the^people
who {have] exited farming or inherited farmland since *the^ number |of|
farms peaked during *the^ Great Depression* !a# number {have] retained
ownership |of| some or all their land@
Farm Numbers* Farm Types**and%Conservation Programmes
The number |of| farms {has] declined dramatically since {its] peak |of|
6@8 million *in= 1935* with most |of| *the^ decline occurring during *the^
1940s* 1950s**and%1960s@ *the^ decline*in=farm n u m b e r s {has] levelled
off since*the^1970s@{by]2002* 2@1 million farms remained@*the^remaining
farms {have] !a# m u c h larger average acreage* b u t a v e r a g e s m a s k
differences a m o n g farms@ Today@s farms range {from] very small
retirement*and%residential farms {to] industrialized operations with
sales*in=*the^millions@ Part |of| this diversity stems{from]*the^very l o w
sales threshold ($1*000) necessary {for} *an^ operation {to] qualify as !a#
farm {for} statistical purposes@
One w a y{to]address*the^diversity |of| farms[is]{to]categorize t h e m
into m o r e h o m o g e n e o u s groups@ *the^ farm t y p o l o g y developed b y
E R S identifies five groups |of| small family farms (sales less than
$250*000)* limited#resource* retirement* residential/lifestyle* farming#
occupation/low#sales* *and% farming#occupation/high#sales@ *the^
typology also includes large family farms* very large family farms*
{and} nonfamily farms@*in=addition* very small farms (sales less than
$10*000) m a k e u p m o r e than half |of| all farms@ V e r y small farms
account{for}!a#particularly large share |of| farms*in=*the^limited#resource
(72 percent)* retirement (76 percent)**and%residential/lifestyle (76
percent) groups@ Production* however*[is]concentrated a m o n g larger
farms~ small farms account {for} only 27 percent |of| *the^ total value |of|
production@
The smallness |of| m o s t farms {has] implications{for}conservation
{and}*theênvironment@ *an^ E R S study found that smaller corn farms
âre* less likely {to] use conservation tillage than {are] larger farms@ *the^
practice [is] more practical {for} larger farms because they {have] more
acres over which{to]spread*the^cost |of| n e w or retrofitted equipment
necessary{to]adopt conservation tillage@ Small farms w h o s e operators
âre* retired or farm part#time{are]also less likely{to]adopt conservation
tillage* possibly because |of| hesitancy{to]change familiar production
practices@ Small farms* however* participate widely *in= *the^
Conservation Reserve Programme (CRP) *and% *the^ Wetlands Reserve
P r o g r a m m e (WRP)@
Distribution |of| Conservation Programme Payments {by] Type |of| Farm
These farms harvest most |of| *the^ land planted {to] p r o g r a m m e
c o m m o d i t i e s*and%therefore receive three#quarters |of| c o m m o d i t y
p r o g r a m m e payments@ However* C R P*and%W R P $ t h e t w o major
conservation p r o g r a m m e s $ a r e targeted{at]particular types |of| land*
not commodities@ Since small farms o w n 70 percent|of|*the^land held
^by* farms* they play!a#large role*in=natural resource*and%environmental
policy@ Retirement* residential/lifestyle**and%low#sales farms account
^for* nearly two#thirds |of| conservation p a y m e n t s*and%!a#similar share
|of|*the^land farmers enrolled*in=*the^C R P*and%WRP@ Participating
farmers*in=e a c h|of|*the^three groups tend{to]enroll large shares |of| their
land *in= these programmes* 46 percent |of| *the^ land operated on
retirement farms* 28 percent on residential/lifestyle farms**and%23
percent on low#sales farms@ *in= contrast* enrollment ranges {from] 5 *to^
9 percent {for} participating high#sales* large* *and% very large farms@
Because their m a i n j o b[is]off#farm* residential/lifestyle operators
are limited*in=*theâ m o u n t |of| time they can spend farming@ As!a#result*

residential/lifestyle farmers find C R P*and%W R P attractive* since these
p r o g r a m m e s require little time@ Given their life#cycle position* m a n y
retired farmers {have] land available {to] put into conservation uses@ *the^
same forces may also be acting on low#sales operators* who average
57 years |of| age*and%m a y b e scaling d o w n their operations@ If*anôff#
farm j o b*and%advanced age{are]major determinants |of| land going into
conservation uses* {it] may be relatively easy {to] get smaller farms *to^
enrol land *in= *the^ programmes@ Getting larger farms {to] enrol more
|of| their land might require higher payments* if*theôpportunity cost
|of| idling their land [is] higher@
Land Tenure
F a r m operators leased 38 percent |of| their total farmland*in=2002*
down {from] 40 percent *in= 1997 *and% 43 percent *in= 1992* according *to^
*the^ census |of| agriculture@ This decline may reflect increasing rental
costs as parcels|of|land b e c o m e smaller@ Parcels|of|farmland available
^to* rent tend{to]b e c o m e subdivided with time due{to]division a m o n g
heirs@ S m a l l e r p a r c e l s i n c r e a s e t r a n s a c t i o n c o s t s {to] o p e r a t o r s
assembling land {to] expand their operations@ Still* rented land as !a#
share |of| total farmland [is] higher than *the^ 35#percent rate that prevailed
in*the^1950s*and%1960s@
A b o u t 38 percent |of| all farms rented land*in=2003* 32 percent as
part owners *and% 6 percent as tenants@ Land leasing {has] changed *from^
!a# way {for} beginning farmers {to] enter agriculture {to] !a# way *for^
established farmers {to] access additional land@ Renting allows farms
^to* e x p a n d without *the^ debt*and%c o m m i t m e n t |of| capital associated
with ownership@
In fact* about 17 percent |of| very large family farms {are] tenants*
!a# larger percentage than*in=any other group@ Conventional w i s d o m
holds that farmland owners{have]!a#long#term interest*in=their land
{and} thus{are]m o r e likely than renters{to]adopt conservation practices@
Soule*and%others (1999*and%2000) found this{to]b e true a m o n g corn
farmers*{at]least*in=*theâdoption |of| conservation practices that provide
only long#term benefits* s u c h as g r a s s e d w a t e r w a y s *and% strip
cropping@
The situation w a s different{for}conservation tillage* w h i c h can
increase profits*in=*the^short run{by]maintaining or increasing yields
while reducing machinery* fuel**and%labour costs@ Cash#renters are
less likely than owner#operators{to]use conservation tillage* b u t share#

renters appear{to]act like owner#operators*in=adopting conservation
tillage@ Share#renters m a y{have]*anîncentive{to]adopt conservation
tillage* if*the^landlord b e a r s some |of| *the^ costs that m a y increase
u n d e r conservation tillage* such as herbicide expenditures@ Share#
landlords{are]also more likely{to]b e involved*in=m a n a g e m e n t decisions
than cash#landlords* w h i c h m a y m a k e share#renters act m o r e like
owners@
Land Policy*in=Urban Planning

S i n c e u r b a n p l a n n i n g *in= I n d i a [is] l a r g e l y c o n c e r n e d with
d e v e l o p m e n t |of| land*{it]w o u l d b e relevant{to]briefly consider h o w
perceptions about land *and% real estate property {have] evolved@ *the^
Indian Constitution initially recognised @to acquire* hold *and% dispose
|of| property@ as!a#fundamental right@ Consequently w h e n land w a s
^to* b e compulsorily acquired @compensation@ {at] m a r k e t price w a s
payable@ Subsequently *the^ term compensation was replaced {by] *the^
term @amount@@ This ideology culminated *in= *the^ enactment |of| Urban
Land (Ceiling*and%Regulation) Act 1976 that attempted nationalisation
|of| vacant urban land {by] paying nominal amount@ Finally *the^
fundamental right {to] property was deleted {from] *the^ Constitution@
*the^ first articulation |of| *the^ Urban Land Policy was proposed {by] *the^
Urban Land Policy Committee (Ministry |of| Health) appointed {by] *the^
Government|of|India*in=1965@*the^Committee articulated*the^following
L a n d Policy Objectives
1@ To achieve optimum social use |of| urban land~
2@ To make land available *in= adequate quantity* {at] right time *and% *for^
reasonable prices {to] both public authorities *and% individuals~
3@ To encourage cooperative community effort*and%bona fide
individual builders *in= *the^ field |of| land development* housing and+
construction~
4@ To prevent concentration|of|land ownership*in=!a#few private hands
{and} especially{to]safeguard*theînterests|of|*the^poor*and%under¬
privileged sections|of|*theûrban society@
Further *the^ C o m m i t t e e observed that {to] realise*theôbjectives
$there[is]n o escape {from] large scale public acquisition if*the^question
|of| guiding u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t or*the^provision |of| adequate housing
{and} other facilities[is]{to]b e tackled effectively*and%large scale advance
acquisition |of| land w o u l d really b e*in=*theînterests|of|*the^society as
a whole@{it][is]{by]far*the^best*and%perhaps*theônly w a y{to]put*anênd
^to* speculation*in=land*and%{to]capture subsequent increases*in=land
values@ These surpluses*{where}realised{by]*the^public authorities*
should benefit*the^community*in=more ways than one@$ Not surprising
*the^ role m o d e l s |of| Indian T o w n Planners $ Delhi M a s t e r Plan*
Chandigarh* Gandhinagar*and%Navi M u m b a i {were] all based on public
ownership |of| land@ Whether public ownership *in= fact achieved *the^
land policy objectives *in= such cases may be !a# matter |of| debate@ But
!a# verdict on Delhi experience was~
1@ It{has]not been possible{for}DDA{to]provide land{at]affordable
prices{to]low income beneficiaries resulting*in=large scale jhuggi
jhopadi colonies@
2@ In*theâbsence|of|price signals land{has]been sub optimally used*
resulting*in=over provision{to]powerful groups* and
3@ DDA@s policy {to] auction very few plots {at] !a# time *and% treating *the^
maximum price quoted *in= such biding as *the^ real market price *has^
*in& fact meant artificially increasing *the^ land price through deliberate
scarcity@$
However* securing large#scale public ownership |of| land implied
c o m p u l s o r y acquisition |of| land@ There w a s considerable discontent
a m o n g s t *the^ original l a n d o w n e r s a b o u t *the^ m a n n e r *in= w h i c h
compensation w a s determined*and%paid@*the^L a n d Acquisition A c t
1894 initially provided*the^date |of| declaration|of|intention{to]acquire
*the^ land as*the^reference date {for} determining *the^ market value@
However no time limit was laid down {for} actual payment |of|
compensation@ 1984 amendments introduced *the^ time limit |of| three
years *and% also provided {for} payment |of| interest {from] *the^ date |of|
award {to] actual payment or possession |of| land *and% solatium |of| 30%
|of| market value@ However *the^ market value [is] {to] be reckoned *at^
current use value {at] *the^ exclusion |of| expected rise *in= value on account
|of| future use@ *the^ proposed changes *in= *the^ LA Act *and% *the^ R and+
R Policy attempt {to] remove many |of| these lacunae@ But planned
urban development [is] not being recognised as !a# public purpose *for^
which powers |of| eminent domain could be used *and% *in= practical
terms *the^ proposed method |of| deciding compensation and+
rehabilitation package would make recourse {to] compulsory
acquisition |of| land expensive{for}lands that also require substantial
investment *in= trunk infrastructure@ This would compel search *for^
new paradigm *in= respect |of| urban land@ *the^ thinkers *in= *the^ first
world too {were] e n a m o u r e d{by]*the^socialistic notion |of| c o m m u n i t y

ownership |of| land@
H o w e v e r on practical considerations they sought solutions short
|of| nationalisation|of|u r b a n land@*the^t w o extreme proposals{had]one
thing *in= common@ Both considered right {to] own land *and% right *to^
develop (or build upon) as separate rights@ Henry George argued
that !a# private landowner may {have] right {to] own both land and+
development rights@ But he {has] no rights on *the^ rents accruing *to^
land* as they {are] results |of| monopoly *and% not efforts |of| *the^ owner@
H e therefore argued that *the^ state {has] legitimate right {to] recover
1 0 0 % |of| such rents{by]w a y |of| taxes@ H e allowed*theô w n e r{to]retain
*the^ returns on his investments*in=improvements@ H e w a s also prophetic
about*theîlls |of| public ownership |of| land@
In 1879 he stated* $I do not propose {to] purchase or confiscate
private property*in=land@{it][is]not necessary{to]confiscate land $ only
^to* confiscate rent@ Taking rent{for}public use does not require that
*the^ state lease land~ that would risk favouritism* collusion* and+
corruption@$ On *the^ other hand !a# committee under *the^ chairmanship
|of| Justice Uthwatt*in=U K suggested that*the^betterment occurring on
account |of| development |of| land should be balanced with *the^
compensation {to] be paid {for} acquiring land {for} public purposes@ *to^
enable recovery |of| betterment *the^ Committee proposed nationalisation
|of| development rights (by paying compensation)@
D e v e l o p m e n t required planning permission subject{to]p a y m e n t
|of| betterment@ Despite three attempts {to] recover betterment since
1947{it]{has]still not succeeded@!a#cryptic c o m m e n t on this reads* $The
state expropriates property rights**and%then charges those {from] w h o m
ît* {has] taken those rights {for} granting permission {to] use them on *its^
terms@ !a# betterment levy [is] wrong *in= principle* *and% like most things
that {are] fundamentally wrong* {it] {will] always fail *in= practice$ *the^
Indian urban planning thought under *the^ pre 1991 macroeconomic
framework was oblivious |of| property rights *and% resultant land and+
real estate market@ Hernando de Sotto argued *the^ importance |of|
clarity |of| property rights *and% labelled poorly recorded property
rights as*the^@dead capital@ unable{to]ensure finance{for}poor@ B u t his
arguments {have] e v o k e d little debate*in=India@ Lack |of| conceptual
clarity about land*and%property rights {have] given rise {to] m a n y
expedient policy initiatives@
Instrument |of| Nationalising Development Rights

F A R essentially!a#zoning tool*in=U S cities rationalises*theîntensity
|of| d e v e l o p m e n t that could b e permitted considering *the^ existing
level |of| development* accessibility*and%use@ *the^ F A R*in=U S cities
varies considerable{from]less than one{to]15@ H o w e v e r*in=m o s t Indian
cities such considerations {are] not u s e d *in= defining FAR@ *in= m a n y
states common FSI values {are] prescribed across all cities as part |of|
state wide building regulations *and% do not form part |of| master plan
|of| individual city@
There{has]b e e n two#fold a r g u m e n t justifying this position@ First*
varying F S I within!a#city w o u l d b e seen as discriminatory b e t w e e n
different land o w n e r s*and%second* varying F S I across cities w o u l d
lead{to]d e m a n d {from] political quarters{to]increase rationally defined
FSI{to]*anârbitrary level proposed*in=another city@*the^general tendency
^has* b e e n{to]prescribe l o w uniform F S I (around one)@ This{has]m e a n t
scarcity |of| d e v e l o p m e n t rights particularly*in=cities that experience
faster economic *and% population growth *and% resultant increase *in^
demand {for} per capita floor space@ Instead |of| adopting measures *to^
reduce scarcity |of| development rights {by] rationalising FSI pattern*
retaining existing low FSI regime [is] being implicitly used as *an&
instrument |of| nationalising development rights beyond prescribed
FSI (without paying compensation)@
A r m e d with such nationalised d e v e l o p m e n t rights *the^ state
administrators could allot these rights on conditions |of| p a y m e n t or
fulfilling other obligations like providing free houses{to]slum dwellers@
(Hyderabad Master Plan proposed!a#base FSI*and%permissible increase
subject {to] payment@ Maharashtra Government increased FSI *in^
Mumbai subject {to] payment that would be equally shared between
Municipal Corporation*and%*the^state government@ Extra FSI[is]similarly
allowed*in=Chennai@ Similarly extra F S I[is]allowed{for}rehabilitating
existing occupants |of| rent controlled buildings *and% slums* free |of|
cost)@ *in= this context *the^ objectives |of| raising revenue or helping !a#
class (not necessarily poor) {will] succeed when base FSI [is] low and+
scarcity |of| development rights [is] created@ Creating scarcity [is] not !a#
healthy w a y |of| m a n a g i n g any market@
Landscape structure*and%Data Analysis

L a n d s c a p e s t r u c t u r e ( c o m p o s i t i o n *and% c o n f i g u r a t i o n ) w a s
characterized{for}*the^six aforementioned m a p s using F R A G S T A T S
and*the^results {from] 1947*and%1999{were]compared@!a#set|of|landscape

indices {were] u s e d{to]quantify elements|of|landscape structure b a s e d
on *the^ assumption that limited predictions regarding ecological
processes (i@e@ response variables) can be made{by]analyzing landscape
structure (Forman*and%Gordon 1986* Tischendorf 2001)@*in=this context*
criteria u s e d {to] assess sustainable forest m a n a g e m e n t with respect
^to* ecological restoration include landscape composition*and%landscape
configuration@ Landscape composition refers{to]*theârea**in=percent
or hectares*|of|*the^landscape analysis unit comprised|of|!a#particular
stratum**and%[is]typically u s e d {to] estimate *the^ extent |of| available
habitat*and%{by]inference *the^ degree |of| biodiversity@ L a n d s c a p e
configuration refers {to] *the^ arrangement |of| these strata across *the^
landscape* *and% can be interpreted as indices |of| fragmentation (Forman
{and} G o d r o n 1986* McGarigal*and%M a r k s 1995)@ A r e a{by]stratum was
used as*anîndicator|of|landscape composition@ Specifically* class area
(ha) tabulates*theâmount|of|*the^landscape composed|of|each stratum@
Habitat loss [is] !a# fundamental concern with landscape change* and+
ît* [is] important {to] understand *the^ amount |of| habitat (to *the^ limits |of|
what can be inferred {from] *the^ vegetation type *and% seral stage) that
exists on *the^ landscape@ Percentage |of| *the^ landscape occupied *by^
each stratum was computed {to] quantify area *in= relative terms as
percent |of| total landscape area@
The complexity |of| patch shapes as compared{to]!a#standardized
shape (i@e@!a#circle) w a s analyzed using m e a n shape index@ Patch
shape influences several ecological processes* h o w e v e r *the^ m o s t
important influence appears{to]be related{to]edge effects@ *the^ edge
|of| !a# patch can {have] !a# significantly different environment than *the^
patch interior* resulting *in= !a# different array |of| species@ Different
organisms show variable responses{to]changes*in=*theêdge|of|!a#patch@
^for* example**theÂ m e r i c a n marten (Martes americana)* *an^ interior
forest species* demonstrates !a# negative response {to] *an^ increase *in^
edge*{where}other species such as white#tailed deer (Odocoileus
virginianus) thrive w h e n edge habitat[is]increased@ *the^ co#variation
|of| Euclidean nearest neighbor ( E N N ) distance refers{to]*the^distance
b e t w e e n two patches|of|*the^same cover type b a s e d on*anêdge#to#
edge comparison@ *the^ most significant interpretation co#variation |of|
ENN relates {to] patch isolation *and% patch connectivity@ {it] {has] been
demonstrated that*anîncrease*in=patch isolation* demonstrated b y
an i n c r e a s e *in= co#variation |of| ENN* e x p l a i n s w h y fragmented

landscapes contain fewer bird species that contiguous habitats@
As road d e v e l o p m e n t that occurred*in=conjunction with timber
harvesting m a y{have]significant (and independent) ecological impacts*
!a# p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s |of| r o a d d e v e l o p m e n t o n *the^ J P R F w a s
conducted@ {to] access changes *in= road development resulting *from^
industrial land use between 1947 *and% 1999* road length (km) was
m e a s u r e d*and%c o m p a r e d b e t w e e n*the^t w o time periods@
Land Use* Land#use Change*and%Forestry

L a n d use* land#use change*and%forestry [is] defined{by]*theÛ N
Climate C h a n g e Secretariat as $ A greenhouse gas inventory sector
that covers emissions*and%r e m o v a l s |of| greenhouse gases resulting
^from* direct human#induced land use* land#use change*and%forestry
activities@$
L U L U C F {has] impacts on *the^ global carbon cycle*and%as such
these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide {from] *the^
atmosphere* contributing {to] climate change@ LULUCF {has] been *the^
subject |of| t w o major reports{by]*theÎntergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change@ Additionally* land use [is] |of| critical importance *for^
biodiversity@
Land#use change can b e!a#factor*in=C O atmospheric concentration*
2
{and}[is]thus!a#contributor{to]climate change@ I P C C estimates that land#

use change contributes !a# net 1@6 ± 0@8 Gt carbon per year {to] *the^
atmosphere@ {for} comparison* *the^ major source |of| CO * namely 2
emissions{from]fossil fuel combustion*and%cement production amount

^to* 6@3 ± 0@6 Gt carbon per year@ This decision sets out*the^rules that
govern h o w K y o t o Parties with emission reduction c o m m i t m e n t s
account{for}changes*in=carbon stocks*in=land use* land#use change
{and} forestry@ {it] [is] mandatory {for} parties {to] account {for} changes *in^
carbons stocks resulting {from] afforestation* reforestation and+
afforestation*and%voluntary {to] account {for} emissions {from] forest
management* cropland management* grazing land management and+
revegetation@
The rules governing*the^treatment |of| land use* land#use change
{and} forestry{for}*the^second c o m m i t m e n t period {are] currently b e i n g
renegotiated as part|of|*the^Bali Action Plan under*theÂd#Hoc Working
Group on Further C o m m i t m e n t s{for}parties under*the^K y o t o Protocol@
The most recent options {for} rule changes under consideration *are^
summarized *in= !a# $Non#Paper$ *the^ co#chairs |of| *the^ contact group on
LULUCF@
The extent**and%type |of| land use directly affects wildlife habitat
{and} thereby impacts local*and%global biodiversity@ H u m a n alteration
|of| landscapes {from] natural vegetation {to] any other use typically
results*in=habitat loss* degradation**and%fragmentation* all |of| w h i c h
can {have] devastating effects on biodiversity@ Land conversion [is] *the^
single greatest cause |of| extinction |of| terrestrial species@ *an^ example
|of| land conversion b e i n g!a#chief cause|of|*the^critically e n d a n g e r e d
status|of|!a#carnivore[is]*the^reduction*in=habitat{for}*theÂfrican Wild
Dog* Lycaon pictus@ |of| particular concern [is] deforestation* *where^
logging or burning {are] followed {by] *the^ conversion |of| *the^ land *to^
agriculture or other land uses@ Even if some forests {are] left standing*
*the^ resulting fragmented landscape typically fails{to]support m a n y
species@
Lake Winnipesaukee Ice#Oui
Lake W i n n i p e s a u k e e Ice#Out occurs w h e n all*theîce on Lake
Winnipesaukee**the^largest lake*in=N e w Hampshire*{has]b r o k e n u p
after winter@ O v e r*the^years this{has]b e e n decided u p o n{by]!a#variety
|of| means~ as |of| 2010* D a v e E m e r s o n m a k e s*the^call@ E m e r s o n flies
two {to] three times !a# day over Lake Winnipesaukee {to] check on *the^
ice@ Ice#Out [is] declared when *the^ MS Mount Washington can make
ît*{to]every one|of|{its]ports* Centre Harbor* Wolfeboro* Alton* Weirs
Beach *and% Meredith@ {it] [is] also considered *the^ unofficial start {to] *the^
boating season as well as *the^ end |of| winter *in= New Hampshire@ *the^
earliest Ice#Out recorded was *in= 2010 on March 24* *and% *the^ latest *it^
occurred was *in= 1888 on May 12@ Because *the^ Ice#Out designation
*is] decided u p o n{by]one man*{it][is]highly unscientific@ *the^ call does
not m e a n that *the^ lake [is] entirely devoid |of| ice* nor does*the^M S
M o u n t W a s h i n g t o n actually go {to] each |of| {its] ports@ {it] [is] simply
believed that*the^ship could@ Ice#Out records {have] b e e n kept since
1887 as!a#w a y{to]keep track |of| w h e n b o t h commercial*and%passenger
transportation lanes b e c a m e usable*in=*the^lake@*in=1974* Dr@ William
K@ W i d g e r t compiled data {from] k n o w n records{to]create!a#list |of| past
dates@
Originally *the^ Ice#Out designation w a s decided {by] people on
shore@ Later*{for}roughly 50 years**the^call w a s m a d e{by]B o b Aldrich*
then* starting*in=*theêarly 1980s*{it]w a s called{by]A l a n Emerson@ Since

his death*in=2002{it]{has]b e e n exclusively called{by]his son Dave@ Ice#
Out {has] occurred earlier on average *in= *the^ last two decades |of| *the^
20th century than any |of| *the^ preceding decades records {have] been
kept* culminating*in=*theîce#out{for}2010 registering four days earlier
than *the^ 124#year#old record@ This* as well as maple syrup season
moving earlier over *the^ same time span {have] led some {to] *the^
conclusion global warming [is] involved@
Keeling Curve
The Keeling Curve [is] !a# graph showing *the^ variation *in^
concentration |of| atmospheric carbon dioxide since 1958@ {it] [is] based
on continuous m e a s u r e m e n t s taken{at]*the^M a u n a L o a Observatory
*in& Hawaii u n d e r*the^supervision |of| Charles D a v i d Keeling@ Keeling@s
m e a s u r e m e n t s s h o w e d *the^ first significant e v i d e n c e |of| rapidly
increasing carbon dioxide levels*in=*theâtmosphere@ M a n y scientists
credit Keeling@s graph with first bringing *the^ world@s attention {to] *the^
effects that human activity was having on *the^ Earth@s atmosphere
{and} climate@ Charles David Keeling* |of| *the^ Scripps Institution |of|
Oceanography {at] UC San Diego* was *the^ first person {to] make frequent
r e g u l a r m e a s u r e m e n t s |of| *the^ a t m o s p h e r i c c a r b o n d i o x i d e
concentration* taking readings {at] *the^ South Pole *and% *in= Hawaii *from^
1958 onwards@ Prior {to] Keeling* *the^ concentration |of| carbon dioxide
*in&*theâtmosphere w a s thought{to]b e affected{by]constant variability@
Keeling {had] perfected *the^ m e a s u r e m e n t techniques*and%observed
strong diurnal behaviour with steady values |of| about 310 ppm *in= *the^
afternoon {at] three locations@ {by] measuring *the^ ratio |of| two isotopes
|of| carbon* Keeling attributed *the^ diurnal change {to] respiration *from^
local plants *and% soils* with afternoon values representative |of| *the^
$free atmosphere$@{by]1960* Keeling*and%his group established *the^
m e a s u r e m e n t record that w a s long e n o u g h{to]see not just*the^diurnal
{and} seasonal variations* but also!a#year#on#year increase that roughly
m a t c h e d*theâ m o u n t |of| fossil fuels b u r n e d per year@*in=*the^substance*
that made him famous* Keeling observed* t *the^ South Pole *the^
observed rate |of| increase [is] nearly that {to] be expected {from] *the^
combustion |of| fossil fuel@ D u e {to] funding cuts*in=*the^mid#1960s*
Keeling was forced {to] abandon continuous monitoring efforts {at] *the^
South Pole* but he scraped together enough money {to] maintain
operations{at]M a u n a Loa* w h i c h {have] continued{to]*the^present day@
The measurements collected{at]M a u n a L o a s h o w!a#steady increase

*in& m e a n atmospheric C O 2 concentration {from] about 315 parts per
million{by]v o l u m e*in=1958{to]385 p p m v as|of|J u n e 2008@ This increase
*in& atmospheric C O [is]considered{to]b e largely due{to]*the^c o m b u s t i o n
2
|of| fossil fuels**and%{has]b e e n accelerating*in=recent years@ Since carbon

dioxide [is] !a# greenhouse gas* this {has] significant implications *for^
global warming@ Measurements |of| carbon dioxide concentration *in^
ancient air b u b b l e s trapped *in= polar ice cores s h o w that m e a n
atmospheric C O 2 concentration {has] historically b e e n b e t w e e n 275
{and} 285 p p m v during*the^H o l o c e n e e p o c h but started rising sharply
ât* *the^ beginning |of| *the^ nineteenth century@ However* analyses |of|
stomatal frequency *in= tree leaves indicate that mean atmospheric
CO 2 concentration m a y {have] reached 320 p p m v during*the^M e d i e v a l
W a r m Period*and%350 p p m v during*theêarly Holocene@
Though Mauna Loa [is] not *an^ active volcano* Keeling and+
collaborators made measurements on *the^ incoming ocean breeze and+
above*the^thermal inversion layer{to]m i n i m i z e local contamination
^from* volcanic vents@*in=addition**the^data[is]n o r m a l i z e d{to]negate any
influence {from] local contamination@ M e a s u r e m e n t s {at] m a n y other
isolated sites {have] confirmed *the^ long#term trend shown {by] *the^
Keeling Curve* though no sites {have] !a# record as long as Mauna Loa@
*the^ Keeling Curve also s h o w s!a#cyclic variation |of| about 5 p p m v
*in& each year corresponding{to]*the^seasonal change*in=uptake |of| C O 2
^by* *the^ world@s land vegetation@ Most |of| this vegetation [is] *in= *the^
Northern hemisphere* since this [is]{where}most |of| *the^ land [is] located@
*the^ level decreases {from] northern spring o n w a r d s as n e w plant
g r o w t h t a k e s c a r b o n d i o x i d e o u t |of| *the^ a t m o s p h e r e through
photosynthesis *and% rises again *in= *the^ northern fall as plants and+
leaves die off *and% decay {to] release *the^ gas back into *the^ atmosphere@
D u e*in=part{to]*the^significance |of| Keeling@s findings**the^N O A A
b e g a n monitoring C O levels w o r l d w i d e*in=*the^1970s@ Today* C O
2 2
levels {are] monitored {at] about 100 sites around *the^ globe@ Keeling
died*in=2005@ Supervision|of|*the^m e a s u r i n g project w a s taken over
^by* his son* R a l p h Keeling*!a#climate science professor{at]*the^Scripps
Institution@
Land Alienation*and%Pauperization
The colonial state i m p o s e d*the^land laws based on this worldview
on*the^traditional communities@ This imposition affected*the^dominant

castes as well as *the^ tribal communities@ But many |of| *the^ former *had^
access {to] education *and% other modern inputs@ So they {had] some
preparation {to] deal with *the^ changes@ Most traditional tribes* on *the^
contrary* lived on mineral *and% forest rich land that *the^ colonialist
required as r a w materials@ That turned*theîmposition|of|*the^formal
system on*theînformal societies into*anûnequal encounter@ L a n d
alienation {from] *the^ traditional {to] $modern$ communities was !a#
consequences since *the^ latter {were] unable {to] deal with *the^ changes
i m p o s e d on them@
This unequal encounter continues{to]b e*the^basis|of|!a#disjunction
{and}|of|conflicts b e t w e e n*the^t w o systems because*the^colonial laws
continue {to] be *in= force *in= *the^ country@ One |of| {its] consequences *is$
environmental degradation@ *the^ legal system that recognises only
individual ownership[is]!a#major cause|of|land loss*and%environmental
degradation@ Since*the^C P R S{are]not recognised as their sustenance*
*the^ communities depending on them cannot prevent outsiders *from^
encroaching on that land@ {for} example* *in= Tripura *in= North Eastern
India* *the^ tribal proportion {has] declined {from] 58 percent *in= 1951 *to^
31 percent *in= 2001 because immigrants {have] encroached on 60 percent
|of| their c o m m u n i t y o w n e d land with*the^help |of| individual#based
laws@ Equally important [is] loss |of| forests w h i c h catered {to] m a n y
n e e d s |of| *the^ tribal*and%other rural poor communities@ *the^ state
handed many |of| them over {to] industry as raw material@ They *were^
treated as sources |of| profit *and% destroyed with no concern {for} their
dependants or{for}conservation@ That impoverished people (Gadgil
1989@
The third source |of| land loss [is] acquisition {for} development
projects@*the^l a w that e m p o w e r s*the^state{to]acquire land recognises
only individual ownership@ M o r e than 25 million hectares {have] b e e n
used*in=India{for}such projects 1947#2000* around 14 million |of| them
forest *and% other CPRs@ Their inhabitants* most |of| them tribal and+
other rural poor like fish *and% quarry workers {are] considered
encroachers*and%{are]not c o m p e n s a t e d*and%often not even counted
a m o n g*the^displaced (Fernandes 2008* 92)@
Often records|of|*the^C P R s{are]not kept since they{are]considered
state property*and%their inhabitants {are] encroachers@ {for} example*
according {to] official accounts**in=A s s a m *the^ state used 159*017@37
hectares |of| land {for} development projects*and%displaced 343*262

persons {from] them 1947#2000@ *the^ reality [is] 1@9 million persons
displaced {from] 567*281@29 hectares (Fernandes*and%Bharali 2006*
107)@ M o r e than 1@5 millions displaced persons*and%410*261 hectares
^were* not counted b e c a u s e according{to]*the^law these C P R s{are]state
property*and%their inhabitants {are] encroachers with n o right{to]live
there@
The Vicious Circle
One can mention many other modes |of| land alienation@ *the^
above examples {are] given only {to] show *the^ processes that lead *to^
alienation |of| *the^ people@s livelihood@ Because |of| *the^ unequal nature
|of|*theêncounter* also*the^reaction |of| these systems{to]*the^p r o b l e m s
that*the^process causes differs@ That too[is]b a s e d on their worldview
on land *and% *the^ natural resources all |of| whose dependants feel *the^
negative impact |of| *the^ transition {from] *the^ traditional {to] *the^ modern
e c o n o m y*and%n e w values@ But*the^rural poor* particularly*the^tribes
{and} other forest dwellers feel {its] impact m o r e than *the^ remaining
groups do because{it][is]*anâttack on their tradition |of| judicious use
|of| resources*and%on*the^systems they{had]developed{to]m a n a g e land*
forests*and%C P R s as their r e n e w a b l e sustenance@ L o s s |of| their
sustenance b e g i n s*the^vicious circle |of| impoverishment that forces
*the^ d e p e n d a n t s |of| these resources {to] overexploit them*and%cause
further environmental degradation*and%m o r e poverty@ A s*the^former
Brazilian President Fernando Henrique Cardoso (1998) said**the^first
danger {to] *the^ environment {from] people@s impoverishment [is] loss |of|
biodiversity *and% linked {to] it* loss |of| *the^ values through which *the^
communities depending on{it]{had]managed*the^resource as renewable@
Studies show that loss |of| this value system or ideology [is] basic *to^
*the^ vicious circle that leads {to] further environmental degradation@
But reaction {to] this process differs according{to]*the^class one
b e l o n g s{to]*and%one@s ideology or culture@{to]*theû r b a n middle class
land alienation*and%environmental degradation {are] loss |of| their
recreational spaces while{to]*the^rural* particularly tribal* communities
ît* results*in=loss |of| their livelihood*and%consequent i m p o v e r i s h m e n t
^from* w h i c h follows further land alienation*and%destruction |of| m o r e
n a t u r a l resources@ Conflicts {are] !a# n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e |of| this
contradiction@ *the^ first step |of| this process [is] impoverishment |of| *the^
economic status they {are] reduced {to] {by] *the^ alienation |of| their
sustenance@ {it] begins with landlessness@ Then comes joblessness@ *for^

example* studies |of| families displaced {by] development projects show
that*in=A n d h r a Pradesh*in=South India**the^proportion|of|*the^landless
rose {from] 10@9 per cent before *the^ project {to] 36@5 per cent after {it] and+
*in& Assam *in= *the^ Northeast {from] 15@56 {to] 24@38 per cent@ Even among
those w h o retain land**theâverage area o w n e d declined*{for}example
*in& A s s a m {from] 1@2{to]0@6 hectares per family@*in=every state most
small*and%marginal farmers b e c a m e landless**and%m e d i u m farmers
joined*the^ranks |of| small*and%marginal farmers@ T h e y also witnessed
!a# decline*in=*the^support m e c h a n i s m s such as*the^n u m b e r |of| irrigation
ponds *and% wells* poultry* cattle* *and% draught animals that used *to^
supplement their agricultural income declined@
Joblessness[is]*the^next step@ *the^ land*and%other resources that
âre* alienated {from] t h e m used{to]provide t h e m work@ T h e y lose this
resource with n o alternative{to]take{its]place@ Joblessness resulting
^from* {it] takes two forms@ *the^ first [is] lower access {to] work *and% *the^
second [is] downward occupational mobility@ *in= Andhra Pradesh* *for^
example* 83@72 per cent |of| *the^ land losers used {to] work on their land
or elsewhere before{its]loss@ After land loss access{to]w o r k declined
^to* 41@61 per cent@*in=W e s t Bengal {it] declined {from] 91@02 {to] 53@18
percent *and% *in= Assam {from] 77@27 {to] 56@41 percent@ *the^ second *is$
downward occupational mobility@ *in= most states* more than 50 percent
|of|*the^land losers w h o {were] cultivators before{it]b e c a m e landless
agricultural labourers or daily w a g e earners after land loss@
Also displacement can continue as !a# result |of| environmental
degradation@ {for} example* !a# new industry often forces people *to^
move out |of| {its] neighbourood because after {its] construction
e n v i r o n m e n t a l or other c o n s e q u e n c e s such as fly ash*and%dust
generated{by]*the^thermal* aluminium* nuclear* c e m e n t*and%other
plants destroy *the^ land around {it] *and% render {it] unusable@ *its^
dependants cannot sustain themselves on {it] *and% {are] forced {to] move
out@ Also *the^ noise *and% dust pollution *and% constant blasts *in= *the^
coalmines often force people {to] leave their homes@
Absorbing !a# New Culture
The changes do not r e m a i n external b u t enter *the^ c o m m u n i t y
itself through*theînternalisation|of|*the^dominant culture@ *the^ major
change [is] *the^ culture *the^ community *in= general *and% {its] elite *in^
particular internalise* |of| viewing their sustenance as commodity
alone@{it][is]seen firstly*in=*the^d e m a n d*the^leaders m a k e that individual

ownership become *the^ norm *in= their communities@ {for} example* *in^
*the^ Garo tribe |of| East Garo *in= Meghalaya *in= Northeast India *the^
leaders accepted*the^culture |of| individual ownership*in=*the^1980s@
!a# study t w o decades later shows that 30 percent|of|*the^tribal families
*in& this district{had]b e c o m e landless since their elite{had]m o n o p o l i s e d
m u c h |of| their land@
These changes also {have] gender implications@ A s stated above*
even*the^matrilineal societies{are]patriarchal@ Their leaders absorbs
*the^ culture |of| greater patriarchy*and%express{it]*in=their land relations@
That can b e seen a m o n g *the^ Garo w h o{are]!a#matrilineal tribe b u t
individual ownership[is]through men@ A m o n g*the^Khasi|of|M e g a l a y a
who too {are] !a# matrilineal tribe* *the^ male leaders who control *the^
village council exploit their power {to] their own advantage *and% turn
community#owned land into their private property ( M u k h i m
forthcoming)@ Such change |of| gender attitudes[is]seen*in=other tribes
too *in= *the^ manner *in= which men interpret their customary law and+
property relations *in= their own favour@
C o m m u n i t i e s thus deprived |of| their resources absorb*the^same
culture*in=another form@*the^first[is]*the^vicious circle|of|viewing their
resources as!a#c o m m o d i t y alone@ O n c e they {are] deprived |of| their
resource*and%{are]impoverished*{for}sheer survival they overexploit
*the^ same resource{for}*anîncome@{for}example* studies*in=all*the^tribal
areas show that once they lose their land**the^deprived families fall
b a c k on their forests that they {had] preserved{for}centuries*and%cut
trees{for}sale as firewood or timber**and%cause m o r e deforestation@
The second{to]view their o w n bodies as!a#commodity@{for}example*
49 percent|of|*the^families displaced{by]development projects*in=West
Bengal*and%5 6 percent*in=A s s a m pulled their children out |of| school
*in& order {to] turn t h e m into child labourers@ W o m e n b e g a n {to] view
their b o d i e s only as!a#source |of| income@ Because |of| {it] prostitution
g r e w enormously a m o n g*the^families that {had] lost their land@
All these instances point{to]!a#major change*in=subaltern culture@
These communities lose hope *in= their future *and% think only |of| *the^
present@ As !a# result* children who {are] *an^ asset {for} *the^ future become
c o m m o d i t i e s only{for}*the^present*and%{are]used as!a#source |of| income
^for* survival@*the^same[is]*the^v i e w|of|women@s bodies@*in=other words*
w o m e n*and%children b e c o m e c o m m o d i t i e s m o r e than m e n do@
This chapter which[is]*anôverview|of|*the^changes*in=land relations*

^has* s h o w n*the^n e w culture that g r o w n as their result@{it]s h o w s that
imposition |of| another culture on !a# traditional group can result *in= !a#
culture that [is] destructive |of| !a# community *in= general *and% |of| women
*in& particular@ *the^ solution[is]n o t either going b a c k{to]their tradition
^by* opposing modernisation or absolutising*the^m o d e r n system@ O n e
cannot prevent all individual ownership either@ One {has] {to] find *an&
alternative *in= beginning with *the^ tradition community values and+
combining them with *the^ traditional community@ Tradition {has] {to] be
m o d e r n i s e d*and%not replaced completely@
Small Farms*and%Part#time Farming

The nature* social bases* *and% socioeconomic consequences |of|
$small$ farms *and% part#time farming are* *in= !a# sense* among *the^ most
l o n g s t a n d i n g foci *in= rural s o c i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h o n agriculture@
Nevertheless* sociological analysis |of| small#scale agriculture and+
part#time farming received substantially increased attention and+
exhibited considerable theoretical reformulation*in=*the^1970s and+
1980s {for} several reasons@ First* spearheaded {by] *the^ writings |of|
Hightower *and% others on *the^ demise |of| $small$ farms* there was !a#
startling renaissance |of| concern with *the^ status *and% prospects |of|
small family farms* which {had] greatly subsided !a# few decades earlier
*in&*theâftermath|of|*theâpparent resolution|of|*the^depression#induced
increase*in=tenancy@
Second* quite ironically* several observers b e g a n {to] d o c u m e n t
*the^ fact that*the^1970s{had]witnessed*anû n p r e c e d e n t e d trend toward
*the^ stability *and% persistence |of| small farms~ *in= most regions *the^
absolute number |of| farms with fewer than 50 acres {has] increased
over*the^past one {to] t w o decades@ Third*{it]b e c a m e apparent that
much |of| *the^ reason {for} *the^ enhanced viability |of| small farms was *the^
growing access |of| farm households {to] off#farm jobs *and% income~
indeed* *the^ U@S@ Department |of| Agriculture began {to] note that* *in^
most years* *the^ majority |of| farm households@ aggregate income came
^from* nonfarm sources*and%that there {had] b e e n!a#slow b u t steady
increase*in=*the^prevalence |of| off#farm labour m a r k e t participation
a m o n g farm families since W o r l d W a r II@
Small*and%part#time farms{are]treated here as!a#particular focal
point*in=*the^n e w sociology|of|agriculture*!a#tack that{has]b e e n taken
b y m a n y others@ W h e r e a s there[is]!a#k e y connection b e t w e e n small#

scale agriculture*and%part#time farming $ *the^ fact that part#time
farming{has]*in=recent decades b e e n m u c h m o r e c o m m o n a m o n g
$small$ than a m o n g $medium#size$ or $large$ farms $ *the^ two
phenomena* however*{are]{by]n o m e a n s equivalent@ *in= particular*
some $small farms$#which provisionally can b e referred{to]here as
low#sales#volume farms* with about $50*000 or less*in=gross annual
sales volume#have little or n o off#farm income and* accordingly*
^have* long been overrepresented among rural poverty groups *in= *the^
United States *and% elsewhere@
Moreover**in=all advanced capitalist societies* especially*theÛK*
part#time farming occurs across*the^whole spectrum |of| sizes|of|family#
proprietor farms~*in=*theÛ K{it]{has]b e e n quite c o m m o n{for}*theôperators
|of| very large farms {to] {have] off#farm occupations* especially *the^
operation |of| small businesses related {to] agriculture@ Thus small#scale
{and} part#time farming* although tending{to]b e significantly related*
âre*{by]n o m e a n s coterminous@ Further**theânalysis |of| neither small
nor part#time farming {has] b e e n dominated or influenced {by] neo#
Marxist postures nearly as m u c h as other areas*in=*the^n e w sociology
|of| agriculture@*in=*the^h u g e literature on these topics there {have] b e e n
theoretical*and%empirical neo#Marxist works* b u t these approaches
^have* b e e n!a#distinct minority c o m p o n e n t|of|*the^literature@
It[is]useful{to]b e g i n with!a#very generalized m o d e l|of|*the^recent
evolution |of| U@S@ agriculture{to]situate*the^theoretical*and%empirical
issues relating{to]small*and%part#time farms@ O v e r*the^past decade
or so there {has] b e e n growing acceptance |of| *the^ notion that U@S@
agriculture{has]followed!a#dualistic or bimodal pattern |of| development
since*theêarly 1970s@ There[is]evidence that prior{to]*the^late 1960s
(and thus preceding*the^phase |of| dualistic development) there w a s
!a# singular pattern |of| increased concentration *and% differentiation *in^
U@S@ agriculture *in= which there was !a# direct association between size
|of| farm*and%{its]persistence or viability~ thus large farms increased
*in& numbers* acreage* assets**and%so on{at]*theêxpense |of| small farms*
particularly small tenant farms without *the^ m e a n s {to] acquire off#
farm income@ Farm operators with access {to] off#farm income *were^
thought {to] be largely *in= !a# transitional status* either into or out |of|
agriculture@{it][is]n o w suggested that!a#m o r e complicated or dualistic
pattern|of|concentration*and%differentiation{has]emerged@*the^stylized
facts |of| this association are* first* that large farms $ including large
family#type* larger#than#family**and%industrial farms*in=Rodefeld@s
terms $ are* m u c h as*in=previous decades* exhibiting!a#demonstrable
increase*in=their shares|of|aggregate production* sales* assets* profits*
use |of| hired labour**and%so on@
Second* however* {it] [is] argued that small farms {are] increasing *in^
numbers *and% holding their own *in= terms |of| acreage *and% aggregate
production@ This bolstered status |of| small farms[is]considered{to]be
m a d e possible largely{by]access |of| their operators*and%other family
m e m b e r s {to] off#farm w a g e income@ U@S@ small farmers {have] b e e n
noted{to]have* on average* total family i n c o m e s*in=excess |of| those
|of| medium#sized farmers*and%*theÛ@S@ median family income because
|of| *the^ higher than average educational attainments |of| members |of|
small farm households *and% their consequent ability {to] acquire highly
remunerative off#farm work@ While outside|of|*the^South small farmers
^have* tended{to]{have]higher educational levels than larger* full#time
operators{for}several decades**theêducational disparities b e t w e e n
small* part#time *and% larger* full#time operators {are] suggested {to] *have^
increased@ This {has] often been explained *in= terms |of| *the^ 1970s
$population turnaround$ *in= which well#educated persons* many |of|
urban origin* {were] attracted {to] farm residential situations {for} lifestyle
reasons@
Finally*{it][is]asserted that there{has]b e e n!a#$disappearing middle$
$ that medium#size (traditional family#type) farms {have] decreased
*in& numbers *and% *in= shares |of| aggregate output* assets* profits* and+
*the^ like@ {it] {has] been suggested that these medium#size farms enjoy
neither *the^ advantages |of| bigness or |of| smallness@ *in= particular*
$middle farmers*$ because they {have] operations too large {to] b e
farmed on!a#part#time basis* tend{to]lack*the^labour resources (and
often*theêducational qualifications){to]participate effectively*in=off#
farm labour markets@ T h u s $the middle$[is]tending {to] $disappear*$
albeit slowly@ Approximately 5* 70* *and% 25 percent |of| U@S@ farms *are^
seen {to] lie* respectively* *in= *the^ $large*$ $small*$ *and% $medium$
categories@
These stylized facts appear {to] b e largely accurate* although
Ehrensaft et al@**and%Barlett {have] raised empirical*and%theoretical
objections{to]*the^disappearing middle thesis@ S a l a m o n*and%Davis#
Brown@s findings suggest that*the^$disappearing middle$ m a y have
c o m e more {from] certain segments|of|*the^farm population (the more

risk#accepting* entrepreneurial farmers)*and%less{from]other segments
(the $yeoman$ farmers w h o s e key goals{are]preserving their family
farms)@ Similarly* this conclusion m a y not hold{for}black farmers
whose limited access{to]credit{for}land purchases*and%mechanization
led{to]rapid declines*in=*the^total n u m b e r|of|black farmers@ Nonetheless*
there {has] been general confirmation |of| this empirical model {for} *the^
U@S@ farm sector* which provides !a# preliminary framework {for} placing
*the^ p h e n o m e n a |of| small*and%part#time farming*in=historical context@
As C o u g h e n o u r*and%W i m b e r l e y {have] noted* $most A m e r i c a n
farm families live on small*and%part#time farms@$ T h u s*in=*the^sense
|of| understanding*the^composition|of|*theÛ@S@ farm sector*{it][is]essential
^to* account{for}*the^status|of|*and%trends*in=small#scale*and%part#time
agriculture@ !a# dramatically different context |of| research on small
farms e m e r g e d*in=*the^mid#{to]late 1970s@ This context can n o w be
seen as contradictory~{at]*the^same time that there{had]been!a#rekindling
|of| concern with*the^status*and%prospects|of|*the^small#scale farm that
^had* been unprecedented since *the^ Great Depression* there was !a#
correspondingly unprecedented increase *in= *the^ numbers |of| small
farms*in=most regions|of|*the^country@
The changing context|of|*the^decline*and%persistence |of| smallscale
agriculture strongly influenced *the^ conduct |of| research on small
farms@ There e m e r g e d !a# n u m b e r |of| studies examining *the^ factors
leading {to] small farm decline* persistence* survival* adaptation* and+
so on@ *the^ dominant finding *in= this research was that small farmers
pursue multiple strategies{for}survival $ access{to]off#farm income~
minimizing debt~ direct marketing |of| high#value* specialty crops~
{and} so on $ *and% that *the^ choice |of| strategies was related {to] *the^
socioeconomic characteristics |of| *the^ farm* farm operator* *and% farm
household members@
Recognition|of|*the^diversity |of| small farmers*and%their survival
strategies set forth!a#related line|of|inquiry* documenting*theînternal
differentiation among small farmers *and% generating typol ogies |of|
small farms *and% small farming households@ Major studies *in= this
genre include Buttel*and%Gertler* S c h u l m a n et al@* Mufioz* Schroeder
et al@**and%Heffernan et al@@ These studies {have] typically found that
gross sales (or other indicators |of| scale)* age* education* motivations
^for* farming* household composition* off#farm occupation**and%off#
farm income{are]important dimensions|of|internal stratification among

small farmers@
A third cluster |of| research activities relating {to] small farms *has^
been {to] explore small farmers@ sociopolitical attitudes@ One major
area |of| inquiry {has] b e e n*in=documenting *the^ motivations |of| small
scale farm operators*and%their family members@
Another focus |of| attitudinal research {has] b e e n on*the^political
orientations |of| small farmers@ Research {to] date {has] generally not
reported that small farmers {have] dramatically different political
orientations than large farmers on either general dimensions |of|
political ideology or orientations toward agricultural politics@ {it] *has^
been demonstrated* however* that there {are] major differences *in^
political o r i e n t a t i o n s a m o n g s m a l l f a r m e r s t h a t {are] p r i m a r i l y
accounted{for}{by]off#farm occupation* total family income**and%race@
Finally* there{has]b e e n!a#nagging concern among rural sociological
researchers as{to]h o w small farms should b e defined@ Gross farm
sales{has]{for}!a#very long time b e e n*the^principal scale variable u s e d
^by* *the^ Census |of| Agriculture *in= collecting *and% reporting data* and+
our macro#sociological knowledge base on trends *in= *the^ structure |of|
small#scale farming [is] largely based on gross sales data@ Nonetheless*
ît*[is]widely recognized that gross farm sales{have]significant limitations
as!a#m e a s u r e |of| scale or $smallness@$
For example* m a n y economists w o u l d prefer value#added over
gross sales as!a#m e a s u r e |of| scale@ But*in=*theâbsence|of|!a#convenient
measure |of| value#added (or s o m e other concept preferable {to] gross
annual sales){for}census*and%survey research purposes* some arbitrary
criterion b a s e d on gross sales* sometimes c o m b i n e d with !a# total
family i n c o m e criterion* {has] c o n t i n u e d {to] b e *the^ m e a s u r e m e n t
convention*in=small#farm research@ Nonetheless* as Carlin*and%Crecink
^have* shown* alternative definitions |of| small farms {have] significant
implications{for}*the^n u m b e r s*and%characteristics|of|farmers*and%farm
households included*in=that category@
Part#time farming research*in=*theÛnited States w a s initiated
during *the^ Great Depression |of| *the^ 1930s* mainly {by] agricultural
economists*and%{to]!a#lesser extent{by]rural sociologists**and%w a s part
|of| *the^ concern about $agricultural adjustment$ that prevailed *in^
USDA *and% land#grant university circles@ {it] was observed that many
farmers {were] attempting{to]survive depression conditions*and%avoid
(or extricate themselves from) tenancy{by]acquiring off#farm income@

As w a s also{to]b e c o m e*the^case*in=*the^1980s* part#time farming came
^to* be widely advocated as!a#partial solution{to]*the^difficult p r o b l e m s
|of|*theâgricultural depression|of|*the^1930s@
In*the^decades u p until*theêarly*and%mid#1970s* however*{it]w a s
r e c o g n i z e d t h a t $ a g r i c u l t u r a l recovery*$ w h i c h t y p i c a l l y w a s
conceptualized*in=t e r m s |of| increased owner#operation |of| farms* did
not correspond{to]!a#decrease*in=part#time farming@ Indeed* coincident
with agricultural recovery {from] *the^ late 1930s {to] *the^ 1960s was *an&
unprecedented exodus |of| farmers {from] *the^ land $ !a# new $agricultural
adjustment$ problem b o r n|of|expansion* dynamism**and%w h a t latter#
day neo#Marxists w o u l d refer {to] as differentiation* rather than
depression*and%decline $ that again called{for}part#time farming as
*an& adjustment mechanism@
W h e r e a s*in=*the^1930s farm size*and%part#time farming did not
appear{to]b e strongly correlated*{by]*the^1950s{it]was widely recognized
that there {had] e m e r g e d!a#strong inverse association |of| gross farm
sales *and% various indicators |of| *the^ involvement |of| *the^ operator *in^
off#farm work@ Among many researchers* especially agricultural
economists* *the^ principal research concern* on which there was !a#
decade |of| conflicting results* was with whether part#time farmers
^were* as efficient as full#time farmers@
W h e r e a s rural sociologists{were]!a#minority a m o n g researchers
on part#time farming during this period* Fuguitt*in=particular m a d e
several important contributions{to]*the^literature that continue{to]b e
d r a w n u p o n today@ Fuguitt first demonstrated that part#time farming
represented !a# combination |of| $push#pull$ factors $ that *the^
prevalence |of| part#time farming was positively related {to] off#farm
employment opportunities *and% inversely related {to] opportunities *in^
agriculture@ Fuguitt then established that there {were] categories |of|
part#time farmers (based on farm *and% nonfarm origin *and% on farmers@
aspirations) with distinctly different social characteristics@
Fuller {has] noted that after 1975 research attention {to] part#time
farming increased dramatically*and%that several n e w issues occupied
*the^ attention |of| rural sociologists*and%k i n d r e d social scientists@
Definitional matters received major attention after 1975~*in=particular*
there c a m e {to] b e dissatisfaction w i t h conceptualizing part#time
farming*in=terms|of|*the^presence or absence* or*the^n u m b e r |of| days*
of off#farm w o r k{by]*theôperator $*the^w a y that off#farm employment

data{have]traditionally b e e n collected*and%reported*in=census sources@
!a# consensus b e g a n{to]e m e r g e on conceptualizing part#time farming
*in& terms |of| *the^ activities |of| *the^ farming household rather than *the^
farm operator@ There also continued {to] be typological research*
following Fuguitt@s efforts@
Further* there was!a#significant a m o u n t |of| research on mobility
into*and%out |of| part#time farming* on*the^significance |of| differences
*in&*theôff#farm occupations that{are]held* on*theîmplications |of| part#
time farming{for}rural communities**and%especially on*the^motivations
|of| part#time farmers@ Finally* there{has]e m e r g e d!a#significant political
economy tradition *in= small *and% part#time farming research that *has^
explored issues such as *the^ rooting |of| part#time farming *in= *the^
concentration*and%differentiation process**the^roles that part#time
farming plays*in=accumulation*and%legitimation*in=*theâgricultural
{and} larger economy**the^role |of| off#farm w o r k*in=*the^sexual division
|of| farm h o u s e h o l d labour**and%*the^$embourgeoisiement$ thesis $
t h a t part#time farming* {by] e n a b l i n g s m a l l e r f a r m e r s {to] a v o i d
proletarianization* may blunt *the^ emergence |of| radicalism *by^
subordinate groups *in= *the^ agrarian class structure@
In light |of| excellent review articles on *the^ status |of| part#time
farming research* there[is]!a#less pressing n e e d {to] summarize w h a t
^has* b e e n!a#v o l u m i n o u s literature@ Instead* w e {will] c o m m e n t on s o m e
$metathemes$ *in= this literature that {have] not yet been *the^ subject |of|
thorough reviews@
First* there[is]!a#general tendency{for}*the^literature on part#time
farming {to] be polarized into highly structural (if not structuralist *in^
*the^ Althusserian#Marxist sense) *and% highly voluntarist accounts@
Structuralist accounts see part#time farming *in= almost teleological
fashion $ that*the^dynamics |of| capitalism lead inexorably{to]agrarian
proletarianization*in=(among others)*the^form |of| part#time farming*
w h i c h p r o v i d e s !a# m e c h a n i s m {for} s u s t a i n i n g profitable capital
accumulation*in=farm**and%especially nonfarm* industry{by]providing
!a# low#wage labour reserve@ *the^ subjective motivations and+
experiences |of| part#time farming households {are] thus ignored and+
viewed {to] b e e p i p h e n o m e n a |of| larger laws |of| m o t i o n |of| capitalist
development@ This approach{has]historically b e e n prominent*in=Italian
rural sociology circles@

Trees A Handbook of Forest Botany

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Trees A Handbook of Forest Botany

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TREES

© 2018 Tritech Digital Media

Ebook ISBN* 978#1#64452#885#3

sinks~ however* failure {to] resolve international debates on legal

species*in=m o r e heterogeneous m a n a g e m e n t m e c h a n i s m s*in=Europe

O t h e r data requested*in=*the^guidelines* w h i c h p r o v e d difficult

verification process w a s undertaken with e a c h participating country@

area{to]*the^end|of|1972 was about 2@1 Mha@ Establishment |of| plantations

Growth *and% Yield

c o m m u n i t y {are] seen {to] {have] evolved*

Factors Affecting Growth |of| Production Forestry

reflected*in=surveys*and%assessment figures thereof@ O n l y*the^annual

Development |of| Forest Plantations

introduced {from] California{to]N e w Zealand*and%other countries such

reliable global figures{for}plantation areas because forests |of| native

It was estimated {from] reported figures that 5 7 %|of|*the^forest

2 5 %|of|*the^area while other* often slow#growing pines (e@g@ P@ kesiya*

Coniferous Forests*and%Temperate Broadleaf

regions |of| North*and%South America* Europe* Asia*and%Australia*

M u c h |of| N e w Zealand [is] temperate broadleaf evergreen forest@

and Russia@{at]*the^other extreme{are]*the^temperate coniferous rain

Further{to]*the^south* evergreen broadleaf trees b e c o m e more

spp@*and%Corylus spp@{are]found{to]*the^north**and%Machilus thunbergii

Tilia spp@*and%Ulmus spp@

eastern Eucalyptus forests) {have] been described above@ Webb and+

New Zealand@ *the^ climate|of|N e w Zealand ranges {from] subtropical

cliffortoides@ *the^ former occupies warm* dry lowland environments

River*in=western Turkey*and%*the^Turkey#Georgia border@ B e t w e e n

mountains{to]*the^west@ A s{its]n a m e implies**the^principal species

a n d Tilia americana {are] dominant@ O t h e r a s s o c i a t e s {are] t h o s e

Picea glauca *and% Pinus contorta@

Oregon@ Central America *and% Mexico@ Geographically speaking* *the^

American conifers Picea sitchensis *and% Pseudotsuga menziesii *in= *the^

the far western portion@ Populus tremula*and%Quercus robur {are] present

south*{where}summer droughts {are] more extended* grow *the^

common* though lower#stature* associates |of| N@ obliqua@ {at] higher

Plantation Substitutes{for}Natural Forest Products

A s i a also u n d e r strain@ *in= contrast* N e w Z e a l a n d {has] surplus

plantations as carbon sinks* although*the^legal*and%policy instruments

forest clearing[is]often followed{by]*the^establishment |of| production

Forest Plantations{to]Wood Supply

devoted{to]service functions such as conservation@{it]{has]b e e n believed

successional forests* provide!a#variety|of|foraging* nesting*and%roosting

vertebrates may encompass several hundred hectares or more* and+

of similar size@ Mobility facilitates movement between patches and+

a foreign concept@ Asian studies show that forest#based supply can

Selected Forest Plantation Topics

drought c o m b i n e d with poor soils@ S o m e species such as Gmelina

experiments@ Experiments *and% protocols {for} obtaining data need *to^

Use Desirable Main end# Matching valuable Comments

Long#rotation* slow#growing but valuable hardwood species *have^

deforestation*and%changing fashions that often occur with decorative

uniform plantations {have] b e e n established* later silvicultural tending

mechanical operations* inappropriate harvesting techniques*and%poor

Impacts|of|*the^Forest Plantation Estate

Special Forest Plantations

Windbreaks *and% Shelterbelts

the advantage |of| occupying less land@*the^shape|of|*the^cross#section

the m o s t effective windbreaks*and%shelterbelts{are]those consisting

Sand Dune Stabilization

of stabilizing*the^sand surface{by]covering{it]with!a#continuous crust

In practice* {it] [is] often n e c e s s a r y {to] p l a n t r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e

to increase water seepage through*the^sides*and%b o t t o m|of|*the^canal

speciesin=m o r e heterogeneous m a n a g e m e n t m e c h a n i s m sin=Europe

O t h e r data requestedin=the^guidelines* w h i c h p r o v e d difficult

reflectedin=surveysand%assessment figures thereof@ O n l y*the^annual

2 5 %|of|the^area while other often slow#growing pines (e@g@ P@ kesiya*

regions |of| Northand%South America Europe* Asiaand%Australia

and Russia@{at]the^other extreme{are]the^temperate coniferous rain

Further{to]the^south evergreen broadleaf trees b e c o m e more

spp@and%Corylus spp@{are]found{to]the^north**and%Machilus thunbergii

cliffortoides@ the^ former occupies warm dry lowland environments

Riverin=western Turkeyand%*the^Turkey#Georgia border@ B e t w e e n

Oregon@ Central America and% Mexico@ Geographically speaking *the^

American conifers Picea sitchensis and% Pseudotsuga menziesii in= *the^

south{where}summer droughts {are] more extended grow *the^

A s i a also u n d e r strain@ in= contrast N e w Z e a l a n d {has] surplus

plantations as carbon sinks* althoughthe^legaland%policy instruments

experiments@ Experiments and% protocols {for} obtaining data need to^

the advantage |of| occupying less land@the^shape|of|the^cross#section

to increase water seepage throughthe^sidesand%b o t t o m|of|*the^canal

been beautifiedand%protected{by]wisely selected treesand%shrubs@ Tree

than 1 0 %and%area |of| m o r e than 0@5 hectare@the^trees should b e able

However{it]w a s onlyin=*the^1970s that greater impetus w a s given

woodlands@the^principal cause|of|the^reduction* however*{has]b e e n

ofthe^pottery kiln fired bricks* metallurgy*and%other industrial arts

An anomalous situation {has] come about in= some countries@ the^

petitioned{for}protection|of|their landand%w o o d supplyand%!a#forestry

period 1980#95@ the^ annual rate |of| forest lossin=*the^period 1980#90

Southern Oscillation (ENSO)@ in= 1997#98 these caused large#scale

Periodicityand%Patternin=Individual Tree Growth

postgermina#tion vigourand%subsequent growth rate@ Small seedlings

growth m o d e l s{for}applied forestry@{for}*the^construction |of| single

b ythe^Prussian Research Station led{to]the^yield tables{for}even#aged

the differential equations@in=the^1960sand%1970s B u c k m a n (1962)*

climate change@ in= the^ context |of| environmental instability* high#

the studyand%m o d e l representation|of|the^growth dynamics |of| pure

m o d e l s u n d e r discussion* these{are]the^ones that providethe^highest

are treatment* riskand%site factors@ the^ m o d e l simulates*the^effects

Likewisethe^only capital equipment required[is]!a#weaving needle

m a n a g e m e n tand%maintenance|of|the^u r b a n forest*[is]m o r e closely

m a n a g e m e n tand%maintenance@ the^ m e t h o d s usedand%the^research

anthropogenic emissions {for} the^ county |of| Sacramento California@

in street canyons@the^extent|of|the^influences|of|these factors depends

u r b a n areas**the^quality|of|the^u r b a n environment including green

ofthe^trees{to]d a m a g e{by]s n o wand%sleetand%the^incidence|of|disease@

example{are]clear#cutin=patches or b l o c k s|of|!a#size that {will] permit

limited{to]the^ignoble orthe^conquered*and%r e w a r d e d with poverty

values@the^learned monksand%their students made careful manuscript

In effect{to]n a m e!a#plant y o u{had]{to]describe it~the^m o r e kinds y o u

groups{are]the^less stableand%less distinct subdivisions |of| species*