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Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research

Keshav Bhattarai
Dennis Conway

Contemporary
Environmental
Problems in
Nepal
Geographic Perspectives
Advances in Asian Human-Environmental
Research

Series Editor
Marcus Nüsser, South Asia Institute, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany

Editorial Board Member

Eckart Ehlers, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
Harjit Singh, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
Hermann Kreutzmann, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Kenneth Hewitt, Waterloo University, Waterloo, ON, Canada
Urs Wiesmann, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Sarah J. Halvorson, The University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
Daanish Mustafa, King’s College London, London, UK
The Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research series aims at fostering the
discussion on the complex relationships between physical landscapes, natural
resources, and their modification by human land use in various environments of
Asia. It is widely acknowledged that human-environmental interactions become
increasingly important in Area Studies and development research, taking into
account regional differences as well as bio-physical, socio-economic and cultural
particularities. The book series seeks to explore theoretic and conceptual reflection
on dynamic human-environment systems applying advanced methodology and
innovative research perspectives. The main themes of the series cover urban and
rural landscapes in Asia. Examples include topics such as land and forest degrada-
tion, vulnerability and mitigation strategies, natural hazards and risk management
concepts, environmental change, impact studies and consequences for local com-
munities. The relevant themes of the series are mainly focused on geographical
research perspectives of Area Studies, however there is scope for interdisciplinary
contributions from various spheres within the natural sciences, social sciences and
humanities. Key themes: Human-Environment Interaction - Asian regional studies -
Asian geography - Impact studies - Landscape - Society - Land use and land cover
change - Natural resources Submit a proposal: Proposals for the series will be
considered by the Series Editor and International Editorial Board. An initial
author/editor questionnaire and instructions for authors can be obtained from the
Publisher, Dr. Robert K. Doe (robert.doe@springer.com).

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8560

Keshav Bhattarai • Dennis Conway

Contemporary Environmental
Problems in Nepal
Geographic Perspectives
Keshav Bhattarai Dennis Conway
School of Geoscience, Physics, Department of Geography
and Safety Indiana University
Warrensburg, MO, USA Bloomington, IN, USA

ISSN 1879-7180 ISSN 1879-7199 (electronic)

Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research
ISBN 978-3-030-50166-2 ISBN 978-3-030-50168-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50168-6

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
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Cover image: Nomads near Nanga Parbat, 1995. Copyright © Marcus Nüsser (used with permission)

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Foreword

When Professor Keshav Bhattarai asked me to write a foreword to the book

Contemporary Environmental Analysis of Nepal co-authored by him and Professor
Dennis Conway, I was thrilled at the opportunity. Going through their insightful
book brought back memories of my own work in Nepal during 1975–2000, when I
was heavily engaged in subjects related to the environment, ecology, planning, and
economic development of the country. During that period, for a total of 12 years, I
had worked in education, urban planning, environmental management, and devel-
opment arenas as the Country Representative in Nepal for IUCN (International
Union for Conservation of Natural Resources), Associate Professor at the Institute
of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, and as a consultant to international firms and
institutions.
I have been fortunate to know Professor Bhattarai for more than a decade. We
have many common interests including urban planning, geography, economic
development, and many other Nepali issues. We also share a somewhat similar
background and career trajectory as both of us came from isolated villages in Nepal
and now work in the vastly urbanized areas of the USA. Professor Bhattarai is a keen
student of urban and regional development, environmental issues, and climate
change–related challenges that Nepal faces, and he uses his vast international
experience to regularly write and speak on Nepali problems. Born in the remote
district of Arghakhanchi and having completed his higher education in India, the UK
and USA, he has experienced the dramatic differences in educational opportunities
that exist between the remote villages of Nepal and major universities of the Western
world. Bhattarai has first-hand experience of working in Nepal, and as a student, he
has personally witnessed Nepal’s sometimes dire socio-economic and environmental
conditions. He also maintains emotional and personal connections to many places
and people in Nepal. These factors impart to Professor Bhattarai unparalleled
insights into the situation in Nepal, enabling him to think of programs that are likely
to succeed there.
The book’s co-author Professor Dennis Conway is an eminent scholar of devel-
opmental geography and tourism. He is an expert on the Caribbean and also has

v
vi Foreword

firsthand experience of environmental as well as tourism- and development-related

issues of Nepal. His research interests include sustainable development, alternative
tourism, migration, and urbanization and development. He brings a comparative
perspective and insight in dissecting Nepal’s environmental and developmental
problems and opportunities and uses the analysis to recommend useful approaches
to help Nepal create environment- and development-friendly policies.
With their vast combined experience, enviable accomplishments, and impeccable
qualifications in the field, Bhattarai and Conway are highly qualified to write on
Nepal’s environmental and developmental challenges. In this book, they have
produced a decidedly readable and explanatory treatise on Nepal, which provides
valuable analyses, insights, and recommendations for students and policy makers on
how to design strategies that balance economic development and environmental
conservation.
The first thing I noticed about the book was its data-rich content. Bhattarai and
Conway provide amazing statistics related to the environment and development in
Nepal. Some dramatic examples are on the visualization of the population size of
Nepal compared to China and India, its only two adjoining neighbors. For example,
the authors show that Nepal’s population is only 2.2% of that of India and 2.1% of
that of China, and geographically India is 46 times bigger and China 49 times larger
than Nepal. Similarly, although Nepal emits only 0.027% of global greenhouse
gases, it faces a disproportionate brunt of the adverse impacts of climate change.
The book reveals several interesting facts about the environment and develop-
ment landscape in Nepal. For example, Nepal is the fourth most vulnerable country
to the impacts of climate change based on Maplecroft’s ranking (2011). Similarly,
33% of the Nepali population is landless. And, despite a relatively high population
density of 200 persons/square kilometer, in spite of the fact that some 40% of the
country is covered by forests or lies in very high altitudes and is mostly
uninhabitable, Nepal has designated more than 18% of its land as protected areas.
The authors also provide important data on Nepal’s water resources, stating that, for
example, “over 210 billion cubic meters (bm3) of surface waters flow annually
within Nepal, which amounts to 118,200 m3km 2, four times the world average.”
Overall, the book contains encyclopedic body of data and information related to
Nepal’s environment, ecology, geography, geopolitical status, and political evolu-
tion. It is a gold mine of comparative data on water resources, population, level of
infrastructure, physiography, and the environment in the South Asian region.
The book deals with important subjects at the intersection of key current issues
Nepal faces: challenges related to the environment, climate change, geo-politics, and
economic development. The authors examine the peculiar geo-political situation of
Nepal, a country straddled between the largest and second largest countries by
population, and the largest and third largest economies in 2018 as measured in
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP). The authors provide a comprehensive assessment of
Nepal’s physiographic, environmental, climatic, and political landscape and offer an
interesting discourse for Nepal’s development and environmental management
process in this dramatic geographic context.
Foreword vii

The authors provide valuable insight into Nepali culture, which has been shaped
by history, isolation, self-reliance, and the existence of close-knit communities. That
culture shapes the worldview and aspirations of the Nepali people, who seem happy
with minimal amount of success and are prone to lead a contented and peaceful
lifestyle.
Reading this book, I was reminded of an incident I encountered in the late 1980s
while a graduate student in Cambridge, Massachusetts. A fellow American student
remarked that Nepali students there appeared relaxed and easy going, often indulg-
ing in parties, while students from Nepal’s next-door neighbors China and India,
along with the American students, were in the top three groups dominating science
and technology education at the local elite universities. In some ways, this observa-
tion indicates that many Nepalis are more relaxed compared to the Chinese and
Indians. The other side of this characteristic is that Nepali culture may also exhibit
resiliency, community orientation, and building of a high social capital. Although
this culture may sometimes thwart the ambitions of rapid development, it also makes
Nepal and the Nepali society an attractive destination for visits and investments by
foreigners and creates a more tolerant and peaceful society.
Since 1956, Nepal has adopted 5-year plans to spur development programs. The
periodic plans have continued to evolve for more than six decades during Nepal’s
experiment with different political systems: authoritarian, the Panchayat, and two
democratic periods. However, the results have not met the plan goals and people’s
expectations.
During the Panchayat era (1960–1990), centralized politics and lack of real
engagement of the people made rhetoric planning easy but its implementation
difficult. Moreover, planning was often more theoretical, elitist, and based on the
fully state-controlled paradigm of the then Soviet Union. The plans were perhaps not
suitable for Nepal as it had part-authoritarian but semi-democratic system with
mixed economy and later democratic regimes with market economy. The 5-year
plans did not motivate the private sector and ordinary people to pursue market
demand. Further, the infrastructure and industrial base in the country was severely
inadequate to bring about transformative changes in the economy and to stimulate a
high rate of economic growth. People were not seriously engaged or motivated to
support the state-sponsored programs. The limited number of elites who supported
the system did not have strong grassroot-level support to mobilize the people, and
the nascent private sector was unable to help deliver on the plan.
After the advent of the second democratic era in Nepal in 1990, development in
economic and other sectors has been more pronounced. However, the economy still
lacks a high and sustained growth rate to lift the country to the level of a mid-income
society. Based on World Bank data, in 2017, Nepal’s per-capita income of US$835
in current dollars was only about 43% of India’s and about 9% of China’s in the
same year. World Bank data shows that in the 45 years until 2014, Nepal’s average
annual economic growth rate has only been around 4%. This average trend has
continued even between 2014 and 2018. Although Nepal has shown excellent
improvement in key socio-economic indicators, for the country to graduate from
the status of least developed country, Nepal’s policy makers have felt that the pace of
viii Foreword

economic growth rate must be sustained at a significantly higher level. To reach a per
capita income level of US$2,000 (same as that of India in 2017 and without adjusting
for inflation) by 2027, Nepal needs a sustained annual economic growth rate of 7%.
For sustainability and for improving quality of life, the economic growth scenario
described above must be achieved while protecting the environment and preserving
natural resources. In this book, Bhattarai and Conway make astute analysis of the
status of the environment and ecology in the country. They show how important it is
to manage its deteriorating environment, especially in the urban areas and tackle the
adverse impacts of climate change.
The book provides a clever analysis related to the nexus between economic
development, ecology, climate change, natural environment, and political landscape.
It deals with geographic setting, environmental sustainability, urbanization, smart
cities, integration of technologies, agriculture, energy, infrastructure, and economic
growth. Comprehensive data and analysis based on firsthand empirical observations
provide the reader authentic data and easy-to-understand synthesis. The analysis,
data, and suggestions in the book provide important inputs for development planners
aiming to improve Nepal’s socio-economic development and environmental state of
affairs.
Bhattarai and Conway provide several important conclusions in the book, which
include that any geographical analysis and developmental study needs location-
specific assessment and observation. Because of the drastic changes in ecology at
different altitudes, the geographic diversity within Nepal can defy generalization or
easy categorization. Specific analysis of smaller areas is thus important in Nepal. For
this reason, the authors suggest that to create the most effective strategies for socio-
economic development for Nepal, geo-spatial analysis needs to be made on a more
granular level than is generally done now. Technologies such as GIS, remote
sensing, and computer modelling can simplify the analysis and reviews needed for
development planning.
This book will help Nepali policy makers to create and design workable policies
and programs which emanate from the knowledge of Nepal’s history and which
balance the environment and economic growth. This book will be a valuable
reference for students, researchers, scholars, and policy makers interested in the
topics of environment and development in Nepal.

Gilbert, Arizona, USA Ambika P. Adhikari

Principal Planner (Long Range)
Tempe, AZ, USA
Sr. Sustainability Scientist, Arizona
State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
Former Country Representative, IUCN
Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal
January 2019
Acknowledgements

Many people deserve appreciation for their help during the preparation of this book.
Dr. Dinesh Bhattarai reviewed the manuscript and suggested ideas to keep the
manuscript up to date. Without his insightful suggestions, this book would not
have come to this form. We fully appreciate the cooperation of Mr. Narayan
Bhattarai, Madhab P. Koirala, and Ms. Sita K. Bhattarai for their help in acquiring
historical facts on Nepal. We are very thankful to Dr. Ambika P. Adhikari for his
foreword to this book. We would also like to thank Drs. Jagriti and Nimisha
Bhattarai for their valuable time going over the manuscript and suggesting some
changes for clarity. Dr. Suniti Bhattarai and Sujata Bhattarai deserve thanks for their
help in gathering rare facts on information technology and for their continuous
inspiration while preparing this manuscript. Drs. Shiva P. Gautam, Krishna Paudel,
Sameer Khanal, Oscar Perez-Hernandez, Anil Giri, Mahmoud Yousef, Keshab
Sharma, Sushil Thapa, and Sanam Aksha deserve special thanks for their sugges-
tions on various aspects of the manuscript. We would like to thank Abhishek
Pakhira, Amid Paudyal, and Eric Hampton for their valuable suggestions in clarify-
ing some concepts. Rojesh Koirala, Surabhi, Sugat, Sudheesh Bhattarai, and Santosh
Aryal deserve many thanks for their help in gathering, cleaning, and graphing data
and providing pictorial information for this research. We offer our heartiest thanks to
many Nepali scholars and officials for their help in making highly important
information available to us on the Nepali socio-demography and physical geogra-
phy. More specifically, we would like to thank to Dr. Nanda R. Shrestha, Deva Raj
Dahal, Dhruba Hari Adhikari, Yuva Raj Bhusal, Bikas Sharma, Krishna Gyawali,
Laxman Aryal, Gopi Mainali, Suman Aryal, Aswin Dhakal, Sharada Ghimire, Lauri
Vaseli, Jibram Bhandari, Madhukar Pandey, Kiran Marahatta, and Arun K. Suvedi
for their help on different aspects of this manuscript, including permissions to re-use
some institutional information. Likewise, we would like to express our special
thanks to Drs. Govinda Pokharel, Uttam B. Shrestha, Tek Maraseni, Basant
Shrestha, Pem Kandel, and Satis Devkota for their help in getting many important
facts for the manuscript.

ix
x Acknowledgements

Provost, Dr. George Wilson, and Dean, Dr. Alice Greife, of the College of Health,
Science, and Technology at the University of Central Missouri (UCM) deserve
special thanks for granting sabbatical leave for me to work on this book. Dr. Leigh
Ann Blunt, Chair of the School of Geoscience, Physics, and Safety deserves thanks
for granting funds to hire student workers to assist in this research and for providing
a working environment in the School. We would like to thank the Office of the
Sponsored Program of UCM for providing grants for this research. Many students of
UCM assisted in this research, among them Sharad Shrestha, Basant Rijal, Nabina
Nepal, Sharmila Pokharel, Ashmita Phuyal, Amber Petty, and Nabin Lama deserve
thanks for devoting long hours to this work.
Socio-demographic information used in Chap. 2 comes from the publications of
the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) and National Planning Commission (NPC) of
Nepal. Likewise, a lot of information used in Chap. 6 comes from the publications of
the International Center for Integrated Mountain Development ( ICIMOD), Kath-
mandu, Nepal. We appreciate the cooperation extended by the scholars and other
personnel of CBS, NPC, and ICIMOD for making the publications available to us
and granting us permission to use them. Chapter 8 utilizes information from the
Forest Research Survey (FRS) of the Government of Nepal. We give full credit to
FRS for some statistical facts used in Chap. 8 of this book.
Putting information together from multidisciplinary subjects is a time-consuming
process. We want to offer our special thanks to Ruth Conway and Meena Bhattarai
for their understanding and relieving us from household responsibilities. Without
their inspiration, support, and understanding, this research would not have been in its
present form. They are our true pillars whom we will not be able to thank enough.
Alisha and Aayush Paudel, Aaryan and Aadri Pakhira, Subhani Pokharel and Aavya
Nia Paudyal, and Mya Hampton Bhattarai were there to refresh our tired minds and
provide new vigor.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to Dr. Robert Doe, Rajeswari
Balachandran, Corina van der Giessen, Carmen Spelbos, and Ishwariam Murugan
from Springer for their patience, understanding, and conscientious help in the
production and copyediting of this book. Rajeswari Balachandran was kind enough
to answer our queries within a short time interval. She deserves wholehearted thanks.
Without her very kind understanding and patience, this project would not have
materialized. Last but not least, many silent and invisible contributors who played
a critical role in bringing this book to fruition also deserve heartiest thanks from us.

University of Central Missouri Keshav Bhattarai

Warrensburg, MO, USA
Indiana University Bloomington Dennis Conway
Bloomington, IN, USA
September 25, 2019
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Nepal’s Environmental Problems in the South Asian Context . . . . 7
1.3 Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Physiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 Complex Environmental Problems and Human Adaptation . . . . . 14
1.6 The Need for Location-Specific Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7 The Border Disputes Between Nepal and India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7.1 The Border Issues and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.8 Organization of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2 Demography, Caste/Ethnicity, Federalism, and Socioeconomic
Conditions in Relation to Contemporary Environment . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2 Population Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.1 Changing Demography Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.2 Aging Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.3 Historical Precedent of the Origin of Caste and Ethnicity . . . . . . . 61
2.3.1 Distributions of Caste/Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.3.2 Awareness Against Social Exclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.3.3 The Tarai Uprising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.4 Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.4.1 The Issue of Brain Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.4.2 The Nepali Diaspora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.5 Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.6 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

xi
xii Contents

2.7 Federalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.7.1 A Basis for Federating Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.8 Population and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3 The Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.2 Social Construction of Environmental Knowledge:
A Historic Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.3 Global Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.4 Environmental Problems in South Asian Countries . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.5 Climate Change in Nepal: A Contemporary Analysis . . . . . . . . . 142
3.5.1 Land Use Dynamics and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.5.2 Glacier Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.5.3 Earthquakes and Developmental Activities . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.5.4 Road Construction and Landslides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.6 Attempts Made to Ameliorate Environmental Problems . . . . . . . . 165
3.7 How Can Nepal Deal with Climate Change Issues? . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.7.1 Location-Specific Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.7.2 Go-Green Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.7.3 Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation (REDD+) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
3.7.4 Community Resilience and Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4 Urban Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4.2 Historical Precedent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.2.1 Origin and Growth of Urban Centers Around
the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.2.2 Growth of Cities in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.2.3 South Asian Urban Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.2.4 Nepal’s Urbanization Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.2.5 Urban Development Around Chowks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.3 Rural to Urban Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.4 Countrywide Urban Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
4.4.1 Classifications of Urban Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4.4.2 Urbanization for Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.5 Urban Heat Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.6 Increased Urban Vulnerabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
4.7 Open Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.8 Urban Sprawl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.8.1 Spontaneous and Unauthorized Settlements . . . . . . . . . . 241
Contents xiii

4.8.2 Building Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

4.8.3 Substandard Urban Places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
4.9 Solid Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
4.9.1 Increasing Throughputs: A Serious Environmental
Threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.9.2 Impact of Waste Mismanagement on Watersheds . . . . . . 252
4.10 Atmospheric Pollution: A Serious Health Threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
4.10.1 Methane Gas: A Challenge and Opportunity
for a Clean Development Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.10.2 Poor Drainage and Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
4.11 Potable Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
4.12 Electricity Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.13 Urban-Based Spatial Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.13.1 Urbanization: An Engine for Economic Growth . . . . . . . 262
4.14 Smart City Dream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
4.15 Urban Transit System: Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) System . . . . . . . 272
4.15.1 Working Mechanism of Rapid Bus Transit (BRT)
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
4.15.2 Conceptual Framework of BRT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
4.15.3 The Case Example of the Greater Kathmandu
Urbanized Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
4.15.4 Improving Urban Transit System Improves Urban
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
4.15.5 How Apps Can Help to Improve the Proposed BRT? . . . 298
4.16 Countrywide Application of Prototype Transit Tracker . . . . . . . . 311
4.16.1 Limitations of the Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
4.17 Discussion on BRT System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
4.18 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
4.19 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
5 Agriculture and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
5.2 Climate Change and Its Impacts on Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
5.3 Agriculture in the Nepali Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
5.4 Climate Change and Physiographic Divisions of Nepal . . . . . . . . 344
5.4.1 High Mountain (Above ~4500) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
5.4.2 Middle Mountain (~4000–4499.99 m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
5.4.3 Middle Mountain (~3000–3999.99 Meters) . . . . . . . . . . 354
5.4.4 Lower Mountain (2000–2999.99 Meters) . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
5.4.5 Mid-Hills (Mahabharat Range)
(1000–1999.99 Meters) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
5.4.6 Churia, Bhabar, and Tarai Subregions
(Below 999.99 Meters) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
xiv Contents

5.5 Major Cereal Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

5.5.1 Rice Paddy (Oryza sativa L.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
5.5.2 Maize (Zea mays L.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
5.5.3 Wheat (Triticum spp. L.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
5.5.4 Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
5.5.5 Millet (Eleusine coracana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
5.5.6 Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) . . . . . . . . 379
5.6 Cash Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
5.6.1 Oilseed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
5.6.2 Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
5.6.3 Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
5.6.4 Jute (Corchorus spp. L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
5.6.5 Cotton (Gossypium spp. L.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
5.6.6 Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
5.6.7 Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
5.6.8 Apples (Malus domestica Borkh.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
5.7 Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
5.7.1 Climate Resilience Program and Food Security . . . . . . . 397
5.8 Food Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
5.8.1 Import and Export of Food Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
5.9 Agriculture and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
5.9.1 Agriculture and Ecodemographic Interactions . . . . . . . . 426
5.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
6 Environmental Changes, Glacial Morphologies, and Hydropower
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
6.2 Historical Antecedents and Hydro-project Development
in South Asia and Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
6.2.1 Nepal’s Hydropower Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
6.2.2 The Period of 1970–1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
6.2.3 Post-1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
6.3 Impacts of Climate Change on Nepal’s Glaciers and Water
Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
6.4 Major River Basins and Sub-basins of Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
6.4.1 Mahakali Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
6.4.2 Karnali Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
6.4.3 Gandaki Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
6.4.4 Koshi Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
6.5 Southern Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
6.5.1 Babai-Madi-Rapti River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
6.5.2 Bagmati-Kamala Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
6.5.3 Kankai-Mechi Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Contents xv

6.6 Impact of Climate Change on Water Discharge

and Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
6.7 Hydroelectricity and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
6.8 Hydropower Potential in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
6.9 Status of Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
6.10 Nepal Hydropower in the Global Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
6.11 Vision to Tap Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
6.12 Large Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
6.13 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Appendix 6.1: Hydropower Under Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Appendix 6.2: Hydropower Under Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Appendix 6.3: Hydropower Under Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
7 Impacts of Economic Growth, Transportation, and Tourism
on the Contemporary Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
7.2 History of Nepal’s Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
7.2.1 The Gap Between Export and Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
7.2.2 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
7.3 Structural Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
7.4 What Creates Income Inequality? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
7.4.1 Income Inequality and Its Impact on Contemporary
Environmental Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
7.4.2 Income Inequality in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
7.5 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
7.5.1 Road Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
7.5.2 Connectivity with China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
7.5.3 Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
7.5.4 Railway and Economic Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
7.5.5 Connectivity with India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
7.6 Air Transportation and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
7.6.1 Airports in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
7.7 Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
7.7.1 Tourism as a Source of Foreign Exchange Earnings
and Employment Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
7.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
xvi Contents

8 Forestry and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
8.2 Theoretical Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
8.2.1 The Effect of Increased Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
8.2.2 The Effect of Elevated CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
8.2.3 The Effect of Changes in Rainfall Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . 674
8.3 Distribution of Forest Resources in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
8.4 Evolution of Forest Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
8.5 Protected Areas and Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
8.6 Forest Cover and Carbon Sequestration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
8.6.1 The Global Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
8.6.2 Nepali Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
8.6.3 Community Forestry and Carbon Sequestration . . . . . . . 709
8.7 Forest Management, Livelihood, and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . 712
8.8 Linking of Churia and Tarai Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
8.8.1 Past Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
8.8.2 Reasons for CFUG’S Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
8.9 Ecosystem Services (ES) Concepts for Downstream
Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
8.9.1 Methodological Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
8.9.2 Land Use and Cover Scenarios in Churia
and Tarai-Madhesh: 1980–2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
8.9.3 Prioritizing the Management of Service
Providing Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
8.10 Model Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
8.10.1 Timber Volume and Carbon Sequestration Model . . . . . 737
8.10.2 Litter Biomass Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
8.10.3 Above-Ground Tree Biomass and Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . 739
8.10.4 Above-Ground Sapling Biomass and Carbon . . . . . . . . . 740
8.10.5 Leaf Litter, Herb, and Grass (LHG) Biomass . . . . . . . . . 740
8.10.6 Below-Ground Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
8.10.7 Soil Sampling and Soil Organic Carbon (SOC)
Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
8.11 Total Carbon Stock Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
8.12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
9 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Proposed Railway line between Shigatse/Kyurung (Tibet) and

Kathmandu-Lumbini and Raxaul (India) to Kathmandu. Also,
seen on the map are 7 provinces and 77 districts in 3
physiographic regions of Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 1.2 Map showing disputed border locations between Nepal and
India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 2.1a Population dynamics over four decades (1981–2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fig. 2.1b Percentages of population distribution in three ecological zones
(1971–2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fig. 2.2 Nepal with erstwhile 75 administrative districts and 5
development regions in 3 ecological regions . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Fig. 2.3 Caste/ethnic groups distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig. 2.4 Migrant workers from Nepal (2008–2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Fig. 2.5 Various economic activities in Nepal. Remittance contributes
significantly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Fig. 2.6 Major destinations countries and deaths of Nepali emigrants . . . 83
Fig. 2.7 Bases of federalism .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 84
Fig. 2.8 Nepal seven federal provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Fig. 2.9 Existing health facilities in all provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fig. 2.10 Children mortality in seven provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Fig. 2.11 Distribution of population at various geographic spaces by
gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Fig. 2.12 Percentage of population migrated to major destinations by
Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 3.1 (a and b) Carbon emission from various sources and temperature
variations in various years. (a) Temperature variations (increase)
in various periods. (b) Carbon emissions by various countries in
different years . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . 133
Fig. 3.2 South Asian countries and their surroundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

xvii
xviii List of Figures

Fig. 3.3 Average annual temperature (maximum) at different elevations:

(a) at 1000 m; (b) between 1000 and 2000 m; (c) between 2000
and 3000 m; (d) between 3000 and 4000 m; (e) at 4500 m at
81.30 E longitude; and (f) at 4500 m at 85.450 E longitude . . . . . 144
Fig. 3.4 Rainfall patterns in Nepal at different elevations (1000–2000 m;
2000–3000 m; 3000–4000, and above 4500 m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Fig. 3.5 Great Himalayan Trail. Interviews with local people revealed
that vegetation phenology has been changed overtime . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Fig. 3.6 Average flow patterns in various rivers of Nepal from 1963 to
2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fig. 3.7 Limited meteorological and hydrological stations in varied
topography. These stations are not representatives of the varied
topography of Nepal .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . 149
Fig. 3.8a Locations of glacier lake outburst floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fig. 3.8b Occurrences of different climatic hazards in various
physiographic regions of Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig. 3.9 Physiographic divisions of Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Fig. 3.10 Rainfall trends (1975–2006) and location of glacial lakes that are
likely to cause GLOFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Fig. 3.11 Bio-economic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Fig. 4.1 Growth of world and urban population (1950–2030) . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Fig. 4.2 Four city models: (a) Friedrich Engels’s Concentric City Model
(1934); (b) Homer Hoyt’s Sectoral Model (1930s); (c) Chauncey
Harris and Edward Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model (1945); and
(d) South Asian Colonial City Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Fig. 4.3 Trends show a decrease in primary activities, but growth in
secondary, tertiary, quaternary, and quinary activities increase
with urban growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Fig. 4.4 Urban environmental risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Fig. 4.5 Urban primacy in some Asian countries (UN 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Fig. 4.6 Historic cities in the Kathmandu Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Fig. 4.7 Development of urban centers in the south along the Nepal India
border . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . 219
Fig. 4.8 Origins and development of urban centers in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Fig. 4.9 Formation of urban centers due to rural-to-urban migration . . . . . 223
Fig. 4.10 Locations of municipalities in Nepal .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. 225
Fig. 4.11 Population growth and urban development in Nepal by
development regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Fig. 4.12 Urban corridors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Fig. 4.13 Urban heat island in Kathmandu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Fig. 4.14 Average monthly temperature in the Kathmandu Valley . . . . . . . . 231
Fig. 4.15a Schematic three-dimensional diagram of irregular buildings in
Kathmandu Valley .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . 234
List of Figures xix

Fig. 4.15b Distance to houses from heavy-duty vehicle routes in

Kathmandu Valley .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . 235
Fig. 4.16 Period of Melamchi water supply to Kathmandu Valley . . . . . . . . . 261
Fig. 4.17 Special economic zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Fig. 4.18 Urbanizing Nepal after the promulgation of Nepal’s Constitution
of 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Fig. 4.19 Proposed smart cities along the Hulaki (Postal) Road and
Madhya Pahadi (Middle Mountain) Rajmarga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Fig. 4.20 Old and proposed ring road in the Kathmandu Valley . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Fig. 4.21 Unplanned housing in Kathmandu with infilled open spaces . . . . 274
Fig. 4.22 Earth with latitude (parallels) and longitude (meridians) . . . . . . . . . 280
Fig. 4.23 Measuring latitudinal and longitudinal values on four quadrants
of the globe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Fig. 4.24 Kathmandu Valley. Inner streets and feeder roads are seen in
white color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Fig. 4.25 Carbon emissions (tons) by various vehicles (2009–2034) . . . . . . 295
Fig. 4.26 The hypothetical great circle distance on the earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Fig. 4.27 (a) Opening of a Transit Tracker. (b) Locating different buses
using RTI . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . 302
Fig. 4.28 User can apply to be a driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Fig. 4.29 Application platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Fig. 4.30 (a) Status of the application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Fig. 4.31 (a) Sub-administrator’s portal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Fig. 4.32 (a–b) Sub-administrator portal to create notices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Fig. 4.33 The complete model of a Transit Tracker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Fig. 4.34 The proposed BRT operating steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Fig. 4.35 Projected gas emission with a BRT system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Fig. 4.36 Emissions comparison between the current transit and the
proposed BRT systems . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . 310
Fig. 4.37 (a-b) (a) Kathmandu existing ring road. (b) Bus routing in the
inner city areas of Kathmandu valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Fig. 5.1 Wheat and rice production areas in South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Fig. 5.2 Decadal changes in agricultural areas in Nepal at national level
and at the Mountain, Hill, and Tarai regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Fig. 5.3 Physiographic divisions of Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Fig. 5.4 Cross-sectional view of physiographic divisions of Nepal . . . . . . . 347
Fig. 5.5 Agro-climatic zones of Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Fig. 5.6 Distribution of agricultural land by elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Fig. 5.7 Population density corresponding to six physiographic divisions
of Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Fig. 5.8 Distribution of agricultural land by elevation zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Fig. 5.9 Settlements along various elevation zones in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
xx List of Figures

Fig. 5.10 (a–c) Records suggest decreasing trends in rainfall but increasing
trends in temperature after the 1960s (more after the 1990s) at
elevation above 4000 meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Fig. 5.11 (a–c) Decreasing trends in the rainfall but increasing trends in
temperature after the 1960s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Fig. 5.12 (a–b) Decreasing trends in the rainfall but a slight increase trend
in temperature after the 1960s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Fig. 5.13 (a–b) Decreasing trends in the rainfall and temperature after the
1960s, especially after 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Fig. 5.14 (a–b) Periodic trends of average precipitation (mm) and
temperature ( C) in Mid-Hills of Nepal after the 1960s . . . . . . . . . . 358
Fig. 5.15 Temperature and precipitation trends in the Churia Range of
Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Fig. 5.16 Average precipitation and temperature are decreasing after the
1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Fig. 5.17 (a–c) Average rainfall and temperature for 1900–1912. Average
rainfall and temperature are decreasing from the 1990s . . . . . . . . . . 363
Fig. 5.18 Temperature and precipitation (1910–2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Fig. 5.19 Agricultural area, production, and yield from 1990 to 2015. All
data are normalized assuming the highest value as 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Fig. 5.20 Major cereal production in Nepal (1990–2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Fig. 5.21 Production, requirements, and balance status of major food
crops: 1990–2015 . . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . 366
Fig. 5.22 Area, production, and yield of rice paddy (1990–2015) . . . . . . . . . 373
Fig. 5.23 Maize production area, total production, and yield
(1990–2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Fig. 5.24 Wheat cultivation area, production, and yield in Nepal
(1990–2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Fig. 5.25 Barley production (1990–2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Fig. 5.26 Millet area, production, and yield (1990–2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Fig. 5.27 Oilseed production, area, and yield (1990–2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Fig. 5.28 Potato production (1990–2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Fig. 5.29 Sugarcane production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Fig. 5.30 Jute yield, production, and area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Fig. 5.31 Cotton yield, production, and production area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Fig. 5.32 Tobacco production, yield, and area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Fig. 5.33 Apple production in Nepal (1990–2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Fig. 5.34 Area, production, and yield of various pulses in Nepal: 2013 . . . 390
Fig. 5.35 (a–k) Average temperature and rainfall trends from 1900 to 2012
in Nepal by latitude and longitude and by elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Fig. 5.36 Flood and drought frequency 1987–2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Fig. 5.37 GDP at constant prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Fig. 5.38 Animal and poultry population
(Source: MoAD 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
List of Figures xxi

Fig. 5.39a Food shortage Karnali region (Red) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

Fig. 5.39b Investment on agriculture and contribution of agriculture to
GDP .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . 407
Fig. 5.40 (a–b) Food adequacy and deficiency in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Fig. 5.41 (a–g) Food adequacy and shortage in Nepal under various
consumption scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Fig. 5.42 Relationships between ages and energy generation by various
categories of males and females . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Fig. 5.43 (a–b) Energy and grain need per male and female person per day
in different activities . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . 415
Fig. 5.44 Different scenarios of food requirements in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Fig. 5.45 Yield of various crops (1990–2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Fig. 5.46 Import of various edible products in 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Fig. 5.47 Possible agricultural lands that are (a) below 3500 m of
elevation, (b) less than 15 slope, (c) 500 meters away from river,
and (d) 100 meters away on either side of road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Fig. 5.48 Nepali working in different countries for remittance purposes . . 429
Fig. 5.49 Percentage of population by gender and age who have some sorts
of land holdings in different provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Fig. 5.50 The layers of the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Fig. 6.1 Major rivers and basins of Nepal . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . 450
Fig. 6.2 Locations where lands are submerged during the monsoon
seasons due to the unilateral constructions of dams or bunds or
roads by India along the Nepal–India border . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Fig. 6.3 Distribution of glaciated area with elevation in the Hindu Kush
Himalayan region. Labels on the bar graph represent percent of
rivers at various elevations .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . 469
Fig. 6.4 Major water basins of Nepal .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . 475
Fig. 6.5 Distribution of glaciers by major river basins by elevation
classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Fig. 6.6 Decadal change in glacier number, area, and estimated ice
reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Fig. 6.7 Mahakali Basin Watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Fig. 6.8 Karnali Basin Watershed . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . 487
Fig. 6.9 Gandaki Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Fig. 6.10 Koshi Basin Watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Fig. 6.11 Babai-Madi Rapti and Their Tributaries’ Water Basin
Watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Fig. 6.12 Bagmati-Kamala and their tributaries basin Watershed . . . . . . . . . . 502
Fig. 6.13 Kankai-Mechi River and their tributary basins Watershed . . . . . . . 503
Fig. 6.14 (a–d) Average discharge rate (cubic meters/second) in the
southern river basins of Narayani, Bagmati, and Kankai . . . . . . . . 505
Fig. 6.15 (a–b) Precipitation patterns in the southern basins from 1900 to
2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
xxii List of Figures

Fig. 6.16 (a–d) Precipitation patterns in major water basin from 1900 to
2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Fig. 6.17 Effects of rainfall and temperature on the flow of major rivers . . 508
Fig. 6.18 (a–d) Average flow discharges in major basins—Mahakali,
Karnali, Gandaki, and Koshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Fig. 6.19 (a–d) Average rainfall patterns from 1900 to 2012 at elevation
5000–6500 meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Fig. 6.20 (a–d) Average temperature patterns from 1900 to 2012 at
elevation 5000–6500 meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Fig. 6.21 Energy consumption in Nepal: 2016 . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 513
Fig. 6.22 Status of hydropower .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . 524
Fig. 7.1 Real GDP, inflation, per capita income, and purchasing power
parity from 1980 to 2018 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Fig. 7.2 Gap between Export and Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Fig. 7.3 Budget of 2019–2020
Source: Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal 2020 . . . . . . . 584
Fig. 7.4 Current and capital expenditure in Nepal for 2007–2019
period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Fig. 7.5 Income inequality and disparity around the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Fig. 7.6 (a–d) Income inequality among selected countries and regions of
the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Fig. 7.7 Conceptual framework of environmental sustainability
Modified from The Environmental, Economic, and Social
Components of Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Fig. 7.8 Nepal wealth disparity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Fig. 7.9 Wealth inequality in Nepal by seven provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Fig. 7.10 (a–b) Multidimensional Poverty Index, Human Development
Index, and gross national income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Fig. 7.11 Remittance as a part of gross domestic product (GDP) . . . . . . . . . . 615
Fig. 7.12 Metaled or blacktopped road (BR) and dirt road (DR) by
elevation classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
Fig. 7.13 Proposed railway lines originating from Kyurung (Tibet-China)
and Raxaul (India) to Kathmandu Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
Fig. 7.14 Gaseous emissions under high and low efficient engines . . . . . . . . 637
Fig. 7.15 Airports in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
Fig. 7.16 Watershed of the proposed controversial Nijgadh International
Airport (NIA) site . . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. 642
Fig. 7.17 Locations of National Parks and Reserves, restricted areas, and
potential cable car sites in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Fig. 7.18 Number of hotels and their distributions in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
Fig. 7.19 Number of tourist arrived by geographic regions (2006–2016) . 645
Fig. 7.20 Tourist arrivals by purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
Fig. 7.21 Tourist arrivals by month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Fig. 7.22 Tourist arrivals by air and land transits and total earnings
(2003–2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
Fig. 7.23 Tourist arrivals by gender, age groups, and earnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Fig. 8.1 Nepal in six elevational classes . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. 678
Fig. 8.2 Interrelationships among altitude mean annual temperature, and
land use limits in Nepal
(Source: Modified from Oberholzen and Fonzen 1984) . . . . . . . . . . 679
Fig. 8.3a Land use and cover 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
Fig. 8.3b Land use and cover 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
Fig. 8.3c Land use and cover 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
Fig. 8.3d Land use and cover 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
Fig. 8.4 Rivers passing through different slope gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
Fig. 8.5 Roads passing through various slope gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
Fig. 8.6 Lengths of roads and rivers passing through different gradients
(slope classes) . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . 691
Fig. 8.7 National Parks, wildlife, and hunting reserve and conservation
areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
Fig. 8.8 Churia and Tarai regions with 62 distinct watersheds . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
Fig. 8.9 Effects of anthropogenic activities in the Tarai-Madhesh
ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
Fig. 8.10 Major soil types found in Nepal (different types of soils are
grouped together for mapping) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
Fig. 8.11 Climate mitigation scenario by conserving forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
Fig. 8.12 Priority areas for the management of Churia/Tarai-Madhesh . . . . 730
Fig. 8.13a High-carbon-sequestering tree species are dominant
in Churia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
Fig. 8.13b High-carbon-sequestering shrub species are dominant
in Churia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
List of Plates

Plate 2.1 Various activities in the rural areas of Nepal. (All pictures were
taken by one of the authors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Plate 3.1 Environmental anomalies in South Asia and Nepal .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. 120
Plate 3.2a Limestone topography of Churia (Kanchanpur, western Nepal) . . . 152
Plate 3.2b Stone crushing in Churia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Plate 3.3 Himalayan Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Plate 3.4 Langtang landslide after Gorkha earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Plate 3.5 Agroforestry or farm forestry in Nepal . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. 170
Plate 3.6 Forest fires in various locations during the summer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Plate 3.7 Lakes created due to the blockage of river water. (a). Rupa and
Begnas Lakes. (b) Phewa Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Plate 4.1 Single house built in the middle of field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Plate 4.2 (a–b) Capital’s Khulamunch (Auditorium) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Plate 4.3 Polluted water in Dhobikhola, Kathmandu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Plate 4.4 (a–i) River courses modification and wastes dumping without
treatments .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . 253
Plate 4.5 (a) Traffic in Lalitpur, (b) Traffic in Kathmandu, (c) Traffic in
Bangkok, (d) Road widening in Kathmandu, (e) Pollution due to
vehicles and constructions, and (f) Emissions from vehicles and
constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Plate 4.6 Crowded Kathmandu Valley . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . 290
Plate 6.1 Karnali River near Tallo Dhungeshwar, in Dailekh District . . . . . 465
Plate 6.2 (a) Watershed of Imja Lake; and (b) Imja Tsho/Lake (5010 m), a
glacial lake located in the northeastern part of Solukhumbu
District of Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Plate 7.1 Statue of Shamsher Bahadur Khatri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Plate 8.1 Rhinos in Chitwan National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704

xxv
xxvi List of Plates

Plate 8.2 Endangered wildlife in Chitwan National Park. Tiger in the

Chitwan National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
Plate 8.3 Deteriorating ecosystem of Churia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Population, gender ratio, annual growth rate and density . . . . . . . 40
Table 2.2 Selected population and development indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 2.3 Percentage distribution of economically active population
by type of major industries and gender: 1971–2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Table 2.4 Percentage distribution of population by 5 year age group
(1971–2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Table 2.5a Distribution of population by age and sex groups for urban/rural
areas and ecological belts (all figures in percent), 2011 . . . . . . . . . 49
Table 2.5b Distribution of population by age and sex groups for
development regions (all figures in percent), 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Table 2.5c Distribution of population by age and sex groups for analytical
domains (all figures in percent), 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Table 2.6 Age distribution by sex and 5-year age groups for rural
and urban areas of Nepal: 2001–2011 .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . 55
Table 2.7 Crude death rate . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Table 2.8 Intercensal changes (1981–2011) in mean age at marriage
by level of education and gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Table 2.9 Dependency ratio for census 1952–2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Table 2.10 Age pattern of population and life expectancy at birth from
1981 to 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Table 2.11 Aging indices (1971–2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Table 2.12 Total fertility levels by urban/rural and ecological regions . . . . . . 60
Table 2.13 Caste category of Muluki Ain (Main Legal Code), 1954 . . . . . . . . 63
Table 2.14 Top 15 caste/ethnic groups and mother tongues, 2011 . . . . . . . . . . 65
Table 2.15 Distribution of remittances by primary uses and origin of
remittance, 2011 .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 81
Table 2.16 Four major religions, 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Table 2.17 Population distribution and electoral constituencies of federal
provinces based on the 2011 census . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . 95
Table 2.18 Expenditure per geographic area and person for seven
provinces . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . 99

xxvii
xxviii List of Tables

Table 2.19 Average household size and its distribution by size categories,
2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Table 2.20 Distribution of food, housing, clothing, health, and schooling
consumptions by degree of adequacy (percentage), 2011 . . . . . . . 102
Table 3.1 Nepal: projected changes in temperature and precipitation . . . . . . 118
Table 3.2 Potential glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF), Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Table 3.3 Historical records of earthquakes in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Table 4.1 Regions of the world vary significantly by their levels of
urbanization (population in thousands) .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . 208
Table 4.2a Manufacturing employment and growth by sectors
(2002–2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Table 4.2b Percentage of employees by firm size and manufacturing
sectors . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 263
Table 4.2c Manufacturing employment by region and ecological zone
(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Table 4.3 Traffic volume and annual average daily traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Table 4.4 The number of vehicles in different years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Table 4.5 Urban vehicle operating costs “stop-start” conditions (Cost in
Nepali rupees/km) . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . 292
Table 4.6 Total gas (liters) consumed by different vehicles in the
Kathmandu Valley (2009–2034) . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . 294
Table 4.7a Gaseous emissions by various vehicles in tons (2009–2034) . . . 294
Table 4.7b Percentages contributions to gas emissions by various vehicles
within the Kathmandu Valley in different years . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . 294
Table 4.8 Different types of roads serving the Kathmandu Valley . . . . . . . . . 297
Table 5.1 Agricultural land areas by slope classes (hectares) above 4500 m
elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Table 5.2 Agricultural land areas by slope classes (hectares) between 4000
and 4500 m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Table 5.3 Agricultural land areas by slope classes (hectares) between 3000
and 3999.99 meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Table 5.4 Agricultural land areas by slope classes (hectares) between 2000
and 2999.99 meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Table 5.5 Agricultural land areas by slope classes (hectares) between 1000
and 1999.99 meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Table 5.6 Agricultural land areas by slope classes (hectares) (below
999.99 meters) . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . 359
Table 5.7 Production of cereals, cash crops, and pulses (2014/2015) in
Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Table 5.8 Summary on area, production, and yield by improved/local
seeds in irrigated and unirrigated conditions of paddy rice in
List of Tables xxix

2014/2015 [area in hectares, production in metric ton, and yield

in Kg/Ha] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Table 5.9 Area and production of tea (2013/2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Table 5.10 Seasonal rainfall trends in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Table 5.11 Possible areas for agriculture in various elevational ranges . . . . . 422
Table 5.12 Nepal’s landscape by slope classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Table 5.13 Land areas by slope classes in seven provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Table 6.1 Area distribution of glaciers by elevation classes of major basins
of Nepal in 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Table 6.2 Number, areas (km2) and estimated ice reserves (km3) of
glaciers by slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Table 6.3 Number, areas (km2), and estimated ice reserves (km3) of
glaciers by aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Table 6.4 Distribution of area of glaciers in Nepal in 1980, 1990, 2000,
and 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Table 6.5 Status and change in glaciers in Nepal in 1980, 1990, 2000, and
2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Table 6.6a Major basins, sub-basins, glacier number and their areas, ice
reserves, average elevations, and mean slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Table 6.6b Status and change of glaciers in the individual basins and
sub-basins in 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2010 . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . 481
Table 6.7 Area distribution of glaciers in Mahakali Basin in 1980, 1990,
2000, and 2010 by elevation classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Table 6.8 Morphological classification of glaciers in the Mahakali Basin in
2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Table 6.9 Status and change in glaciers in Mahakali Basin in 1980, 1990,
2000, and 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Table 6.10 Area elevation distribution of glaciers in Karnali Basin in 1980,
1990, 2000, and 2010 .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . 488
Table 6.11 Morphological classification of glaciers in the Karnali Basins in
2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Table 6.12 Status and change in glaciers in Karnali Basin in 1980, 1990,
2000, and 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Table 6.13 Area elevation distribution of glaciers in Gandaki Basin in 1980,
1990, 2000, and 2010 .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . 492
Table 6.14 Morphological classification of glaciers in the Gandaki Basin in
2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Table 6.15 Status and change in glaciers in Gandaki Basin in 1980, 1990,
2000, and 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Table 6.16 Area elevation distribution of glaciers in Koshi Basin in 1980,
1990, 2000, and 2010 .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . 497
Table 6.17 Morphological classification of glaciers in the Koshi Basin in
2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
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 CHAPTER V.
THE NAVAL BRIGADE LANDS.

W HEN I went on deck the following morning, I found that the

steam-pinnace had towed the Flying-fish to an anchorage in
the roadstead not many cable lengths from the Rattler. I at once
observed the strong resemblance she bore to the Snapping Turtle,
and I no longer felt surprise at the mistake Mr. Osborne had made at
Santiago de Cuba.
Mr. Thompson was standing by the taffrail narrowly observing her
through a telescope.
“I should like to see a race between her and the Snapping Turtle,
sir,” I said to him. “I’m not surprised the Yankee skipper was so keen
on it, for they’re wonderfully alike in build and rig.”
“Indeed they are,” answered the lieutenant; “one might almost call
them twin-vessels. The main difference is that the American’s masts
rake more.”
“It’s a curious thing about the cargo having been all taken out of
the Flying-fish, sir; and by all accounts it’s a valuable one.”
The gunnery lieutenant turned and looked at me keenly.
“You young rascal,” he said, “you’re trying to pump me; but you do
it in such a clumsy way that I can’t help seeing through you.”
I felt rather confused.
“Well, sir,” I said, “I do hope that I may be allowed to go on the
expedition up country if it is true that a force is to be landed.”
“It will be no secret in an hour’s time, Darcy, so I may as well tell
you that to-morrow morning a naval brigade is to be landed in order
to hunt down the mutineers and rebels; and I think there is a very fair
chance of your being able to go. The captain, I believe, has
permission from the captain-general to take any steps he may think
necessary to bring the delinquents to justice.”
I begged the gunnery lieutenant, who had always shown me great
kindness, to try to get me appointed to the expedition, and he
promised to use his influence in that direction. I then ran off to the
sick-bay to see my friend Charlie and tell him the news, which I felt
sure he had not as yet heard. I found him much better; and the
surgeon, who was just leaving the sick-bay as I entered, told me that
I need have no fear as to his recovery.
This was very good news; but I found that I had been forestalled
as news-carrier by Dr. Grant, and that Charlie was as well informed
on the subject of the expedition as I was myself.
“It’s jolly hard lines that I can’t go, old chap,” he said to me; “but
the surgeon says I must be on the broad of my back and nurse this
wretched old head of mine for some time to come. Pleasant
prospect, eh?”
“I’m very sorry indeed,” I answered; “and you must try to console
yourself with the fact that you’ve still a head screwed tight and fast
on your shoulders. Poor Lobb had his taken off by a round-shot.”
“Oh, I’m as grateful as anything, of course, Jack; not only on my
own account, but because as an out-and-out patriot I have the best
interests of my country at heart. What an irreparable loss it would
have been to Great Britain if my brains had bespattered the battle-
field! National mourning for a fortnight, eh, and messages to my
bereaved relatives from the Queen and the other members of the
royal family, to say nothing of minute guns, half-mast flags, and a
tomb near Nelson’s in the crypt of St. Paul’s? By Jove! it makes me
quite excited to think of it.”
“Has Grant ordered you any soothing draught?” I asked, hunting
about with pretended anxiety amongst a whole brigade of medicine-
bottles that stood upon a table at my elbow.
“Yes; Mother Gimcrack’s soothing syrup!” said my chum with a
laugh. “Good for teething babes; and do you know, Jack”—this very
solemnly—“I lost two or three of my front teeth in that nasty
somersault I took yesterday. My beauty is gone for ever and ever!”
I had noticed the disfigurement my friend referred to, but had not
alluded to it for fear of hurting his feelings.
“There is always a silver lining to the cloud,” continued Charlie
more cheerfully. “That rascal of a gunroom steward won’t be able to
palm off on me any longer his wofully tough salt horse and brickbat
biscuit. No; he’ll have to feed me on a special diet of Brand’s beef
jelly, Benger’s food, turtle soup, and jams of all sorts, varied
occasionally by oysters (real natives of course), tipsy cake, and fruit
jellies. Not a bad idea, eh? I’ll give you a tuck-in now and again,
Jack, as you’re a good chum to me!”
“Thanks, awfully!” I said; “but I’m certain the steward would rather
go to the expense of buying you a new set of teeth from a London
dentist, than feed you up on all the delicacies of the season for the
rest of the commission. Now I’m certain you oughtn’t to talk any
more, Charlie, so I’m going to make myself scarce; and you must try
to sleep till dinner-time, when I shall come and see you again.”
Half an hour later the Rattler was a scene of great excitement, for
orders had gone forth that immediate preparations were to be made
for landing a powerful naval brigade. I was very quickly caught up in
the whirl of excitement, for Ned Burton, the coxswain of my boat,
came hurrying to me to say that he had received orders from the first
lieutenant to get the second cutter in readiness to assist in landing
men, stores, and ammunition.
“It’s to be a picked force, sir,” said the seaman in conclusion, “and
I’m glad to say that we’re both detailed for service.”
“I’m delighted to hear it,” I answered, “for I was half afraid that
midshipmen would be excluded. When do we land, Ned?”
“I think in the evening, sir, so as to be ready for a start in the
morning. We can’t take no field-guns, more’s the pity, for they say
the country is a sight too hilly for anything but mountain guns.”
“How about the commissariat, ammunition, tents, and so forth?” I
asked; “we shall require transport animals of some kind.”
 “I believe the Spanish Government is going to let us have a lot of
mules that are accustomed to that sort of work,” said my coxswain.
“Oh, we shall pig it out somehow, I dare say,” I exclaimed with a
laugh, “and it would be rather fun to rough it a bit.”
That evening we occupied the fort in force. The dead had been
buried at an early hour in the morning, and so there was little or no
trace of the struggle that had taken place so recently, except in the
fort itself, where the dismounted and spiked guns told their own tale.
In all we numbered one hundred officers and men, well supplied with
all that was necessary for a short campaign. At the time of my story,
machine-guns had not been invented, and that underhand weapon
of warfare, the torpedo, was unknown. A few of the former would
have been extremely serviceable to our brigade on this occasion; but
still we were extremely well armed in accordance with the ideas of
that day, each man being supplied with a breech-loading rifle, a
cutlass which could be used as a sword-bayonet if necessary, and a
revolver. An ammunition-pouch, a blanket, a water-bottle, and a pair
of leggings for each man completed the equipment, nothing being
showy, but everything extremely serviceable.
As before, Mr. Thompson was appointed to command the brigade,
as he had had a great deal of experience in shore-going expeditions
in a previous commission on the west coast of Africa. Two
lieutenants, the captain of marines, Dr. Grant, four sub-lieutenants,
the gunner, Fitzgerald, and myself made up the list of officers; and
about seventy picked blue-jackets and twenty marines composed the
rank-and-file. No commanding officer could have wished for finer
men. Not only was their physique splendid, but they were tried,
trustworthy fellows who had all seen service on previous occasions,
and could be relied on to do their duty in the direst emergency.
Tenacious bull-dogs! that’s what they were. It would be impossible
to describe them better in a couple of words.
 CHAPTER VI.
“COLD PIG” AND “SLING THE MONKEY.”

I WAS effectually roused from my slumbers on the following

morning by the shrill bugle-calls which the drummer seemed to
take a delight in blowing as near the gunroom tent as possible. On
murderous thoughts intent, and clad in very scanty apparel,
Fitzgerald and I made a desperate sortie, one carrying a huge bath-
sponge saturated with water, and the other a well-knotted towel.
“What a lark!” exclaimed Fitzgerald, capering about with delight;
“cold pig for the drummer, and a lambasting afterwards to warm him
up and prevent any possibility of his catching cold whilst so far away
from his mammy’s protecting care!”
Dawn had scarcely broken, and it was almost dark outside the tent
and rather unpleasantly chilly. The bugle-calls had ceased, but we
thought we distinguished the drummer some yards away just upon
the point of raising his instrument of torture to his lips again.
“I’ll put a stopper on his little game,” said Fitzgerald hastily to me.
“Ready! present! fire!” and he hurled the heavy sponge with
admirable aim straight at the dusky little figure; whilst I darted
forward with a sort of Red Indian war-whoop, waving the knotted
towel over my head.
The sponge landed with a splosh full upon the head of the
individual it was intended for, and the latter staggered and gave a
shout of dismay and disgust as the highly-unpleasant projectile came
into contact with him.
“Good shot!” I cried exultingly. The next moment I recoiled in
horror, and Fitzgerald turned deadly pale, for we recognized in our
unlucky victim the short but sturdy Mr. Triggs, the gunner, who, being
a very early riser, had taken it into his head to emerge from his tent
and endeavour to make out the Rattler through a pair of night-
glasses. How would he take our explanation that we had mistaken
him for the drummer-boy tooting on a bugle?
Before we had time to think or apologize for our mistake, the
sponge was sent hurtling back through the air by the muscular arm
of Mr. Triggs. I was relieved to see that it was aimed at the real
delinquent, Fitzgerald, and not at me.
“O you mischievous middies!” shouted the gunner, running
towards us; “you’re always up to some tomfoolery or other!”
Fitzgerald saw the sponge flying towards him, and tried to dodge
it, but as ill luck would have it trod with his bare foot upon a sharp
stone. The pain was so great that it brought him to the ground; but in
trying to save himself he threw out his arms and they unfortunately
encountered me, and I felt myself seized in a grip which there was
no shaking off. In a moment we were both sprawling upon the
ground, arms and legs inextricably mixed up in a sort of “limb hotch-
potch.”
The gunner, chuckling with delight at our misadventure, now came
running up, his hair and face dripping from the effects of his lately-
inflicted “cold pig.”
“If I don’t pay you youngsters out, my name ain’t Timothy Triggs!”
he exclaimed; “and ’tis a grand opportunity I’ve got,” and so saying
he snatched the knotted towel out of my hand, and began
belabouring us both with it with remarkable muscular energy.
“Stop, stop, stop!” I yelled; “we mistook you for the drummer, and
are awfully sorry, Mr. Triggs!”
Whack, whack, whack! The blows fell with wonderful regularity and
with marvellous impartiality, first on Fitzgerald and then on me.
All this time the gunner was chuckling with suppressed laughter,
for he was thoroughly enjoying the joke, being at heart a most good-
natured man.
“You can just imagine you’re playing ‘sling the monkey,’” he
exclaimed; “’tis a right good game and no mistake!”
 Fitzgerald and I, however, had by this time managed to
disentangle our arms and legs, and we were on our feet again in a
moment. We did not at all appreciate this novel kind of “sling the
monkey.”
“Is that the enemy coming over the hill?” I exclaimed in an alarmed
voice, and pointing away to the rising ground which, beyond the
confines of the fort, rose steep and dark against the primrose-tinted
sky.
Mr. Triggs promptly turned his head to look, and in an instant I had
snatched the towel from his hand.
“Cut and run, Fitz!” I cried; “I thought I’d gammon him,” and so
saying I fled precipitately in the direction of the gunroom tent, my
brother-middy hobbling after me as fast as his wounded foot would
allow.
Mr. Triggs, however, did not attempt to give chase, feeling, I
suppose, that his skylarking days—now that he was on the shady
side of fifty—were over. So the worthy warrant-officer contented
himself with keeping up a hot and strong running fire of anathemas
upon us as long as we remained in sight.
“The bath-sponge, Fitz, the bath-sponge!” I gasped out, as I ran
panting into the tent and flung myself upon the ground, which formed
the only flooring.
“By Jove! I forgot all about it,” said my hobbling messmate; “I hope
old Triggs won’t appropriate it.”
At that moment the real drummer-boy passed our tent whistling a
merry air.
I promptly stopped him.
“Do you mind seeing, like a good fellow, if there’s a bath-sponge
lying just over there by that tent?” I said.
“All right, sir, I’ll have a look,” answered the drummer-boy, good-
naturedly, and off he went.
In a minute or two he returned with it.
 “Here you are, sir. Been playing Aunt Sally with it, I suppose?”
“No, Uncle Triggs,” I said laughingly. “You’ve had an awfully
narrow escape, bugler, only you don’t know it. I should strongly
advise you not to come near the gunroom tent in the early morning,
for Mr. Fitzgerald there always gets a violent attack of homicidal
mania about that time.”
An hour later the tents were struck and we had started on our
march up country to the tune of “Rule Britannia,” played with
tremendous energy by our fife-and-drum band.
Little did I anticipate what was before me—such adventures as
even in my wildest dreams had not occurred to my mind.
 CHAPTER VII.
NED AND THE MULE-DRIVER.

W E had two sets of native auxiliaries. One consisted of a fine lot

of Spanish baggage-mules, strong hardy beasts, thoroughly
acclimatized, and remarkably sure-footed; and the other a little bevy
of guides, interpreters, and spies, without whose aid we could have
accomplished little or nothing, for we were entirely ignorant of the
country we were about to traverse, and our knowledge of Spanish
was confined to about a dozen words or so.
The spies, some of whom were negroes and the others half-
castes, assured us that they had tracked the mutineers for some
distance, and were well acquainted with the route they had taken,
which was a beaten track leading straight into the interior. These
swarthy fellows also asserted that a body of insurgents had
accompanied the lawless crew of the Flying-fish in their retreat. We
questioned them as to any knowledge they might have acquired with
regard to the whereabouts of the valuable cargo which it was the
object of our expedition to recover. About that they declared that they
knew nothing whatever, although they confessed to having heard
rumours that large bodies of men were passing and repassing
between the shores of the creek and the spurs of the inland hills
during the whole of the day before the Rattler’s arrival upon the
scene.
“’Tis a good thing we’ve no field-guns and limber-waggons with
us,” said Ned Burton to me as we marched along; “they’d have
delayed us terribly, and prevented our making forced marches.”
“You think we’ll soon come up with them then?” said I. “For my
own part I hope the fun won’t be over too soon. If we returned
victorious in a couple of days, the fellows left on board would be sure
to jeer at us, and say we had only gone for a sort of picnic into the
mountains.”
 “Ah, ’twill take more than a couple of days even under the most
favourable circumstances,” answered Ned. “I take it these merchant-
service fellows haven’t got marching-legs, so to speak, and are
perhaps encumbered with wounded men, but still they’ve got a pretty
fair start, you see, and that ain’t a thing to be sneezed at.”
“The difficulty will be to find where they have hidden away the
booty,” I said; “no doubt the insurgents have put them up to a wrinkle
or two, knowing every inch of the country as they do.”
“Doesn’t the Rattler look jolly?” exclaimed an enthusiastic voice at
my elbow.
I turned and beheld Fitzgerald, who still had a slight limp as a
legacy from the morning’s fracas.
“Poor old ‘hop-and-go-one,’ what’s he trying to say?” I asked in a
jocose tone, and clapping him on the shoulder rather harder than
was altogether necessary.
“‘Do you bite your thumb at me, sir?’” demanded Fitzgerald,
tapping his sword-hilt with his left hand, and trying hard but very
unsuccessfully not to laugh.
“‘I do bite my thumb, sir,’” I answered promptly, and trying to put on
a swashbuckler air; “but I need not say that I should infinitely prefer
to bite yours or even Mr. Triggs’s.”
“Then old ‘hop-and-go-one’ and old ‘hop-o’-my thumb’ would be
sworn chums for ever and ever,” laughed Fitzgerald; “but at this
moment I don’t want to fall out with you, honour bright! I want you to
look back at that magnificent view, and the dear old Rattler in the
middle of it. I never saw a more lovely picture!”
Fitz was an artist of no mean capacity, and I strongly suspected
that he had at that moment a paint-box and brushes in his pocket.
Hand-cameras would have enchanted him, but they had not then
been invented.
It certainly was a lovely view, and I felt grateful to my brother-
middy for calling my attention to it.
 We had been winding gradually along the summit of a low range of
hills, on the outermost spur of which was situated the fort we had just
evacuated. The gradient was upwards, though in no place steep,
and we had now reached a somewhat extensive plateau covered
with short springy sward. From this point of vantage we had a full
and extensive view of the winding tortuous creek; the hills, clad with
palm groves, which enclosed it; and the broad blue sea beyond,
glittering in the sunshine, and here and there barred with purple
cloud-shadows. For the primrose streaks of colour in the sky had
melted away as if by magic, and the glorious sun had recalled a
sleeping world to life. In the roadstead our beautiful frigate lay calmly
and serenely at anchor, her guns frowning from the portholes, and
her shapely hull and taut spars and rigging reflected with
extraordinary fidelity in the waters which appeared to sleep in the
warm rays of the sun. Astern lay the Flying-fish, which, though a
well-built vessel, lacked the trim appearance and impressiveness of
the British man-of-war. Above, the blue vault of heaven stretched
away into limitless infinity, its tint of deepest azure only broken here
and there by a few sluggishly-moving clouds and the white wings of
innumerable sea-gulls.
As we gazed admiringly at our floating home we saw the proud
white ensign slowly ascend to her gaff, drooping listlessly in the
stagnant air; and the distant strains of “God save the Queen” came
faintly to our ears through the still, clear atmosphere of a Cuban
early morning.
“Eight bells!” I cried. “If we were on board the old hooker, Fitz, we
should be just sitting down to eat salt-junk and swill gunroom catlap.”
“Instead of which we’re out upon the war-path,” said Fitzgerald,
“and, like Fenimore Cooper’s Indian braves, are dying to scalp the
enemy.”
A halt was called just at this moment on account of a stampede
amongst some of the baggage-mules.
The gunnery lieutenant, who was very anxious to push on and find
traces of the enemy, was exceedingly angry at this unlooked-for
delay.
 “Mr. Darcy,” he sang out to me, “ascertain at once the cause of
that stampede among the mules; and if it was due in any way to the
cruelty of the Spanish drivers, have the delinquents brought before
me, and I’ll give them a lesson they won’t forget in a hurry.”
I touched my cap and ran off to the rear to make inquiries,
expecting endless difficulties in having to conduct an investigation
with native mule-drivers who were most probably as ignorant of the
English language as I was of Spanish.
Meanwhile about a dozen of the mules were careering about wildly
in the neighbouring ravines, pursued by their shouting and
screaming owners. Some of the frightened animals had already rid
themselves of their burdens, and the ground was strewn with bags of
biscuit, preserved provisions, and cases of ammunition.
The worthy Mr. Triggs proved to be a friend in need to me, for on
reaching the spot where the main body of the baggage-animals was
collected, I found him firmly holding a swarthy Cuban by the scruff of
the neck and administering to another portion of his body some
hearty kicks.
“This is the rascal that caused all the mischief with the mules, Mr.
Darcy,” he exclaimed in rather breathless tones as I ran up. “The
cruel brute broke several sticks over the back of a poor mule that
had gone dead lame, and the wretched animal was in such pain and
so frightened that it broke away, and seems to have infected a lot of
the others with its terror.”
I promptly seized the culprit by one arm.
“You come along with me,” I said; “our chief is going to have you
tried by a drumhead court-martial, and perhaps shot, according to
the regulations of war.”
I do not know if the wretch understood what I was saying, but he
commenced to struggle and shout defiantly in his native tongue.
Mr. Triggs, however, seized him by the other arm in an iron grip,
and, in spite of his writhings and kickings, we hurried him forward to
the spot where the gunnery lieutenant was standing awaiting events.
 The gunner related to his superior in a few words how he had
caught the culprit in the very act of brutally ill-treating a helpless
lame mule.
“Is there an interpreter there?” demanded Mr. Thompson.
A respectable-looking elderly Spaniard stepped forward and took
off his sombrero with a sweeping bow.
“Be good enough to tell this fellow that he is a heartless cowardly
brute,” said the lieutenant sternly, and pointing to the still defiant-
looking mule-driver; “ask him what he means by such conduct.”
The Spaniard interpreted the officer’s words, but the culprit
obstinately and sullenly refused to answer a word.
“Where is the stick with which he belaboured the poor mule?”
demanded the gunnery lieutenant.
“Here it is, sir,” said Ned Burton, coming up at that moment with a
long, business-like cane in his hand.
“We’ll now give him a taste of what the poor mule felt,” said the
lieutenant. “A couple of you smart blue-jackets tie the fellow up to
that stump of a tree.”
The culprit resisted with all his strength, and attempted to bite,
scratch, and kick; but the two brawny seamen made short work of
his struggles, and soon had him securely lashed to the tree.
“One dozen,” said Mr. Thompson, nodding to Ned Burton
significantly.
My coxswain touched his cap, grinned, and rolled up his sleeve in
a workmanlike manner.
“Trust me to polish him off!” I heard him mutter to himself; “I can’t
abide them furriners that wreaks their bad temper on dumb animals
that can’t ’it you back agin—smother me if I can!”
As soon as the fellow’s flogging was over, he was turned out of the
camp and told that his services were no longer required. Then, the
scattered mules having been secured again, we once more set out
on our march towards the interior.
 The sun had now attained to a considerable altitude in the
heavens, and as there was an absence of wind, even upon the
heights, the heat and glare became intense. Not a single grumble
was heard, however, the men being much too gay and light-hearted
to care whether they were baked like salamanders or not. Our spirits
were kept up by the novelty and excitement of active service on
shore and the assurances of the guides that ere long we should
reach the outskirts of a forest, which it would be necessary to
traverse, and where plenty of shade would shield us from the sun’s
overpowering rays.
“Give me old Father Sol and an open country,” observed Ned
Burton to me, “in preference to jungle and the shade of trees. I’d
sooner chance a sunstroke than the ambush of a skulking enemy!”
“You think they may lie in wait for us,” I said. “If they do we shall
give them a drubbing.”
“I wouldn’t put it past them,” said my coxswain. “These Cubans, I
believe, are as wily as sarpents; and as to drubbing them and their
mutinous pals, it’s just a question of whether they’ve the sperrit to
meet us in the open or not. If they have, well, we shall just eat ’em
up. Trust the Rattler boys for an out-and-out shindy, Mr. Darcy.”
I was on the point of replying to my coxswain, when my attention
was entirely absorbed by the sudden apparition of a large and
compact cloud of horsemen emerging from behind some steep
scarped rocks immediately in front, and some four or five hundred
yards distant from the head of our column. They appeared to be
about to charge us.
“Cavalry, as I’m a living sinner!” exclaimed Ned, slipping a
cartridge into his rifle. “I’m jiggered if that don’t beat everything!”
It was certainly strange to find that the enemy had already secured
some mounted allies. It looked as if we should find this expedition no
child’s play—in fact, a great deal more like catching a Tartar.
“Prepare for cavalry!” thundered the gunnery lieutenant. “Keep
steady, men, and we’ll soon send them to the right about.”
 The horsemen were evidently provided with carbines, for as they
wheeled up into position they fired a wild volley at us, and then
dashed forward at full gallop straight in our direction.
 CHAPTER VIII.
“PREPARE FOR CAVALRY!”

T HE Rattler’s officers had reason to be proud of their little brigade

of seamen and marines. In this sudden emergency they were
calm, cool, and self-reliant. Their discipline and the celerity of their
movements were beyond praise. It was a severe test, and they came
out of it with flying colours.
As the enemy’s irregular cavalry came thundering down towards
us over the broken ground, we formed square, and, with loaded rifles
and fixed bayonets, stood ready to receive them. There was no time
to get the baggage-animals and native drivers into the centre of the
square, and so they were forced to remain huddled together in the
rear—a squad of marines being told off to guard them to the best of
their ability.
The horsemen seemed nothing daunted by our steadiness and
military formation, but swept on at a gallop. Two of their steeds,
however, stumbled badly on the rough ground and threw their riders,
after which they rushed away in the direction from which they had
come like mad creatures.
I was all excitement at the idea of this unexpected brush with the
enemy, and drew my loaded revolver from my belt. Ned Burton was
standing up just in front of me in the square, looking the essence of
determination and tenacious valour. The outer ranks were kneeling.
The rays of the tropical sun flashed on the serried lines of bayonets
and glinted on the less polished rifle barrels.
On came the cavalry with desperate bravery. Even on that rocky
ground they raised a cloud of dust. The horsemen had slung their
carbines and drawn their sabres, the blades of which flashed
ominously over their heads like the gleams of sheet lightning.
 “Give the swabs a volley,” muttered Ned Burton, “and we’ll empty
some of their saddles for ’em.”
At that very moment the order to fire was given.
Little tongues of flame and puffs of grey smoke darted from the
muzzles of the rifles defending one side of the square, and the crash
of a volley of musketry rang out into the air with almost deafening
effect. Amid it all I seemed to hear distinctly the thunder of the
chargers’ hoofs.
“Give them another volley!” shouted the gunnery lieutenant; and
darting about, hither and thither, amid the blinding, choking smoke,
we juniors repeated his order.
It was too late.
They were dashing horsemen these irregular cavaliers of the
enemy, for our steady, well-directed fire did not check them or smash
up their formation as we had expected. Though many of their
saddles had been emptied, a cheer of defiance arose from their
ranks as they dashed on into the curtain of smoke which enveloped
us, and which the sluggish air seemed powerless to disperse. When
they were almost upon us, their wings wheeled to right and left and
hurled themselves upon the two side faces of the square, while the
centre squadron dashed in upon the ranks where Ned Burton and I
were standing awaiting the onset.
“No more cartridges; it’s steel to steel!” said my coxswain grimly,
as he gripped his rifle firmly and prepared for the shock.
In another moment it came. Through the slowly-dispersing
vaporous smoke I saw the towering forms of the snorting chargers
and the fierce-looking, swarthy faces of their riders. Shouts of
defiance and rage arose on all sides, together with the angry clash of
steel as sabre and bayonet contended for the mastery, though these
sounds were almost drowned in the sharp stinging reports of the
revolvers brought into use at close quarters by the officers.
One naturally hesitates to speak of one’s own acts on an occasion
of this sort for fear of being thought egotistical; but being bound to
describe what actually occurred, I cannot avoid stating that I saved
my coxswain’s life on the occasion of this cavalry charge, and I am
very thankful that I had it in my power to do him that service.
It was a simple matter. Just at the point where Ned was standing
and forming part of the hedge of steel, the full brunt of the cavalry
charge seemed to fall, and for a few seconds I really almost feared
that the face of the square would be driven in. Certainly there was a
little disorder for a moment, and a swaying motion in the ranks which
told its own tale. However, it was only for a moment; for it is just at
these critical times that the tenacity of the British bull-dog comes into
play.
Amidst the hurly-burly of the mêlée I caught sight of Ned Burton
hard pressed by two horsemen. He seemed to have been brought to
his knees almost under the hoofs of one of the horses, while the two
horsemen were bending forward in their saddles and aiming terrific
blows at his head with their sabres. Ned was endeavouring to the
best of his ability to protect himself, but there was no doubt that he
was in great jeopardy.
My revolver was fortunately still loaded with three cartridges, and I
immediately took steady aim at the horseman nearest to Ned. No
bullet ever went truer, for it pierced the man’s heart, and he fell from
the saddle without even a groan and lay dead at my coxswain’s feet.
His steed, recognizing that there was no longer a restraining hand on
the bridle, took to his heels, and, with distended nostrils and wildly
tossed mane, galloped away from the battle-field.
Almost at the moment that I had accomplished this feat, the
charger of the other horseman was shot dead by one of our seamen,
and his rider was thrown to the ground with some violence. I instantly
rushed forward, seized the man, and demanded his surrender. Not
liking the look of my revolver, the barrel of which was within a couple
of inches of his temples, the fellow sullenly acquiesced, and I had
him disarmed and sent into the square under an escort. Ned had
nearly been crushed by the falling horse, but had fortunately
escaped with a few bruises.
The square remained unbroken. On three of its faces the
squadrons of horsemen had dashed like little whirlwinds, but in no
case had an entrance been forced. A fierce hand-to-hand struggle
had taken place for a few moments, but on every side our men were
triumphant. The cavalry charge was fairly repulsed, and as the
horsemen beat a hasty retreat they were terribly harassed by the
withering fire of our riflemen. We had not gone unscathed, however,
for one of our sub-lieutenants and a marine had been killed, and we
had one man seriously and three slightly wounded. In the volley from
their carbines the enemy had wasted their ammunition sadly, for not
a single shot took effect, all the casualties having occurred during
the hand-to-hand struggle. The enemy, we found, had suffered
severely, having lost eleven men killed outright and seven horses,
whilst we found upon the field eighteen wounded men, of whom five
or six were mortally injured. We had also secured half a dozen
prisoners, all of whom were Cuban insurgents. Needless to say, we
questioned these fellows closely; but they obstinately kept their lips
sealed and would divulge no secrets, though we tried to impress
upon them how foolish they were to league themselves with such
disreputable scoundrels as the mutineers of the Flying-fish.
The spot where this skirmish took place was not more than four
miles distant from the creek where we had landed, although any
view of the latter was shut out by an intervening ridge. We could see
the distant blue ocean stretching away to the horizon line, and dotted
here and there with the sails of passing vessels, but the Rattler and
the Flying-fish were invisible.
We at once told off a party to convey the wounded back to the
shores of the creek, that they might be taken on board the frigate as
quickly as possible. Mr. Triggs was placed in charge of this
detachment, which included the prisoners, and had orders to rejoin
the main body as expeditiously as he could, so that there might be
no delay.
A fatigue party was also told off to bury the dead—a mournful duty
which brings forcibly to one’s mind the horrors of warring with one’s
fellow-creatures.
Fitzgerald and I felt this most acutely, for we had lost a very dear
messmate, and it was part of our sad task to assist to lay him in his
narrow grave in this foreign land far from his home and kindred.
“It will break his mother’s heart,” said a mournful voice near us, as
we began to fill up the poor fellow’s last resting-place with the sand
which we had dug out.
I turned and saw that it was Dr. Grant who had spoken.
“You know her?” I said interrogatively.
The surgeon nodded assent. Then he quoted,—

“We laid him in the sleep that comes to all,

And left him to his rest and his renown.”