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Synopsis Report

on

OPTIMIZATION OF WEAR CHARECTERSTICS OF ALMMC

REINFORCED WITH CuO NANO PARTICLES

Submitted to

Department of Mechanical Engineering

in partial- fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology

by

SHIKHAR CHAUBEY (200110056)

TARUN PRATAP SINGH (200110068)
DIVYANSH VAIBHAV (200110075)

Under the Guidance of

Dr. YASHVIR SINGH

Associate Professor
HBTU, MED

Harcourt Butler Technical University

Kanpur
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

As students of mechanical engineering course, we take the opportunity to thank Harcourt Butler
Technical University, Kanpur for introducing the course of Bachelors of Technology, to make
the students as a pivotal center in development of new India m. It gave us a real time experience,
as how an industry works.
We would also like to express our heartful thanks to Dr. Anand Kumar, Head of Department,
Mechanical Engineering for his never-ending support and guidance and for granting permission
to do the project using the equipment present in the laboratory.
We are particularly indebted and thankful to Dr. Yashvir Singh, Associate Prof., MED,
HBTU Kanpur, who served as our supervisor/mentor for completing this project, from
conception to the very end. Preparing a project of this nature is a difficult task and we were
fortunate enough to get his support.
We also express our gratitude to all those people, who have provided us all the necessary
information throughout the subject knowledge and information to carry out the project and
people who were directly and indirectly instrumental in enabling us to stay committed for
the project.

Shikhar Chaubey (200110056)

Tarun Pratap Singh (200110068)

Divyansh Vaibhav (200110075)

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “Optimization of wear characteristics of Aluminum
Metal matrix composite reinforced with CuO (Copper Oxide) particle” submitted in the
partial-fulfillment of requirement for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Mechanical Engineering, Harcourt Butler Technical University, Kanpur has been carried out
by the following students under my supervision.

Shikhar Chaubey (200110056)

Tarun Pratap Singh (200110068)

Divyansh Vaibhav (200110070)

The content present in this project report has not been submitted elsewhere for award of any
degree, diploma or a certificate.

Date:
Dr. Yashvir Singh
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
HBTU, Kanpur
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INDEX

TOPIC PAGE NO

1. Introduction 6-10
1.1 Metal matrix composite (History)
1.2 Aluminum metal matrix composites
1.3 Optimization
1.4 Overview of wear characteristics of metal

2. Literature review 10-12

3. Material and Methods 13-21

3.1 Copper Oxide
3.2 Aluminum
3.3 Tribology
3.4 Other Reinforcement
3.5 Silicon Carbide
3.6 Boron Carbide
3.7 Graphite
3.8 Aluminum Oxide/ Alumina
3.9 Molybdenum Disulfide
3.10 Hexagonal boron nitride

4. Apparatus Required 21

5. Results and Discussions 22-33

5.1 ANNOVA of COF and Wear
5.2 Mean Effect Plots
5.3 Surface Plots
5.4 Contour Plots
5.5 Surface Characterization
5.6 SEM Result

6. Conclusion 34
7. References 35
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ABSTRACT

Considering the mechanical properties of metal matrix composite, like high strength to weight
ratio, less corrosive nature, high wear resistance and so forth they are becoming subject of keen
interest to researchers and industries. Aluminum is widely used because of its low cost and
light weight and usage in automobile industries we can say there is need to improve the wear
strength of Aluminum alloys which are otherwise relatively soft metal, and can’t be directly
used where application is rough. Nanoparticles can be reinforced to improve the wear
characteristics of Al alloy. In this report Al -7075 metal is reinforced with CuO (Copper Oxide)
nanoparticles in varying weight percentage and tribology test is performed to find the optimum
value of concentration percentage and load to minimize the wear and coefficient of friction.
The mathematical techniques used for design of experiment (DOE) were ANOVA and
regression equation. The input (signal) factors under consideration were sliding speed, Load
and weight percentage of CuO in metal matrix composite. The experiments and results found
helped to conclude that addition of Copper Oxide particle improves the dry wear characteristics
such as COF and wear (in g) of Aluminum alloy. The ANOVA results reveal that the input
characteristics should be 60N load at 132.3232 RPM at 6% wt. concentration of CuO
nanoparticles to get the optimum value of coefficient of friction and wear.
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Chapter 1. Introduction

1.5 Metal matrix composite (History)

Composites have been used in the daily practice as long as the human civilization existed. For
example, the early humans used air dried brick made by a lattice made of brushwood that is
reinforced by a sticky daub of soil, clay, dung or fiber. The fundamental of metal matrix is to
combine metal matrix phase with fiber reinforcement.
Different properties materials are reinforced so that one material reinforces other material in
such a way that the characteristics of final composite is enhanced as compared to primary
materials. In mid-20th century research began exploring incorporation of hard material in fabric.
Earliest example of this approach is use of tungsten carbide to improve its wear resistance.

Aluminum based metal matrix composite gain traction between 1960 -1970 pulled by need for
improved mechanical properties. Aluminum based MMC emerged as one of the
most promising candidate for the wear resistant application. One of the common applications
are diesel engine pistons, cylinder liner, brake drum and brake rotor in train and automobiles.

Over the duration of more advancement in matrix making techniques and additive
manufacturing using CNC machine gave precise control over the reinforcement being
manufactured, powder metallurgy is the most widely used method for fabrication of metal
matrix composites. In recent days nanoparticles are being extensively used as reinforcement
owing to their excellent abrasive properties. Research on hybrid composite is also taking leaps
and bounces. Use of the Metal matrixes is story of continuous innovation over a period of time.
We are trying to add some value in preexisting research volume about metal matrices.

1.6 Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites

The Aluminum metal matrix composite is a class of light weight and resistive to corrosion and
hard aluminum centric material system. It has continuous or discontinuous fibers, whisker or
particulate in volume percent from as low as 5 to as up to 30%. Their properties can be adjusted
to demands of different industrial application like aeronautics, automobiles
Missile, jets, nuclear reactors etc.

Aluminum was reinforced using Copper Oxide (CuO), it is particulate composite amounts to
20% concentration by weight which showed increase in wear characteristics. Secondly
Alumina (Al2O3),5-15% weight concentration to increase microhardness and density

The popular method for making Aluminum metal matrix composites are as follows, starting
with, Powder metallurgy (sintering), done by using dry powder of Aluminum as well as
reinforcement and heating them to the melting temperature of metal, Stir Casting is done using
a stirrer is used to keep in check the molten metal and speed is controlled using mechanical,
electrical, centrifugal and other ways and gradually speed is decreased to zero as material cools
down. Infiltration is another new method in practice to mix the reinforcement.

The Al MMC’s are desirable because of the following properties

(i) High strength at elevated temperature
(ii) High stiffness
(iii) Low density
(iv) High thermal conductivity
(v) Excellent wear resistance
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In the context of current project, it is more or less established themselves as decent wear
resistant material especially as far as sliding wear is considered. Al MMC came to fulfilling
the demand of industries about three decades ago or so when existing method of alloy making
failed to meet the needs of production houses. Throughout the existing research it is obvious
that reinforced composite has properties superior to those of the normal alloys of Aluminum.
There are widespread of MMCs but still there is no mass utility of these composite specially
made through liquid metallurgy route. There is wide gap in research when it comes the research
in area of AlMMC’s machining, joining and its repeatability at the large scale.

AlMMC’s as other new technologies in composite field faces several disadvantages which is
inhibiting it widespread use since casted MMC’s don’t have very smooth microstructure and
homogeneity which affects its characteristics. Secondary processes like heat treatment,
machining and forming doesn’t go well with such composites, which in turn means within
once ALMMC’s should be made according to its target use. There are very few pair which can
form MMC’s with each other narrowing the band of study and applications.

Other more specific use of such Aluminum composite is in brake drum, casing, head light
combos, mining equipment and so on.

1.7 Optimization
Optimization and plan of explore are basic apparatuses which are utilized to make strides
quality of items within the businesses. The inquiries about are moreover utilizing these
strategies to decrease the exploratory endeavors being conducted for a specific inquire about.
It gives modestly great comes about inside workable resilience. Concept is truly basic for
illustration consider having three input variables controlling a particular output in explore
rather than performing try on interminable inputs ready to simply take few inputs figure get
their individual yield and apply ANOVA utilizing procedures like Taguchi to urge an
optimized result. In Businesses Plan of Explore method are utilized to discover most
productive way to create a item. It leads to diminishment in taken a toll of the fabricating
items by optimization of the fabricating prepare. A brief stream chart of the Optimization
DOE is appeared in figure 1.3.1.

DOE is a statistical method used to systematically plan, conduct ,analyze and interpret
experiment to obtain valid and reliable results.

Fig 1. Schematic showing the flow of design of experiment. source: Ashwin more
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DOE took its root from its application in agricultural research by Ronald Fisher, from which it
was adapted to manufacturing, engineering and fields like medicine. There are different type
of DOE tool available in practice however best of which depend on specific situation. Factor
needed to analyzed while selecting a particular DOE are number of factors, the number of
levels for each factor, the desired level of confidence and so forth and time constraints.

A few common steps which an engineer using design of experiment must consider are clear
objective and select process variable, secondly select doable experimental design.
Thirdly he/she executes the selected design later Ensuring that the data are consistent with
experimental assumptions. Analyze the results obtained and have choice to change the plan in
later stages, conclude the topic well.

Fig 2. Steps taken for design of experiment (source: advance innovation group)

Components of design of experiment

(i) Factors:- These are variable affecting the outcome of an experiment
(ii) Levels:- These are value at which factors are set during an experiment
(iii) Response Variable: - The output variable that is measured or observed.
(iv) Treatment:- The combination of factors level applied to practical experimented unit.
(v) Replication: - These are process of repeating the experiment to reduce variability
and enhance reliability.

Let us now move to discussing the various software being used in experiment
• Minitab (Used in this project): - It is most popular statistical
software package widely used for DOE .It comprises of all the
factorial design , Response surface method and mixture design. It
has vibrant graphical and statistical analysis features.
• JMP: - It is a software as a service tool. It offers range of
techniques like factorial design and mixture design.
• R:R :- It is an open source programming language for statistical
computing and
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graphics. It provides extensive flexibility and customization option to design

experiments ,analyzing data and perform advanced statistical modelling.

1.8 Overview of wear characteristics of metal

In spite of the fact that there are still numerous holes in our information of
the components included in tribological intelligent, there's adequate data accessible to
characterize the commonly experienced wear instruments. Numerous procedures are right
now accessible to adjust surfaces to move forward their wear characteristics, but these
are more often than not connected after a issue has gotten to be clear in benefit.
These procedures are not usually included within the unique plan since most
engineers don't appreciate the impact of working conditions on the life of components.
The exact part of physical and mechanical properties of metals in wear is small caught on.
Much exertion has been exhausted in our understanding of bulk
properties. Impressively more exertion is presently required to get it surface properties.
Halling has expressed that the major development region for the following decade
lies within the part of surface medications for making strides tribological characteristics24.
These, be that as it may, are as of now getting to be accessible speedier than our rate of
understanding of their exact tribological properties: -

(i) Adhesive wear: Adhesive wear occurs when two nominally flat solid bodies are in
sliding contact. Adhesion occurs at the interface the contact is sheared by relative
motion, which may result in detachment of a fragment from one surface and
attachment to the other. As the sliding continues, the transferred fragments may be
transferred back to the original surface or may form loose wear particles. Some will
be fractured by a fatigue process during repeated loading and unloading actions.

Fig 1.5.1 diagram showing mechanism of adhesive wear (source: research gate)

(ii) Abrasive wear: - Abrasive wear is a wear process that damages the material surface
as a result of the impact of the hard material in contact with the surface. It also
occurs when a hard or material interacts or slides on a soft surface, causing the
material to fall. This is a type of wear caused by loading the remaining part of the
material whose hardness is equal to or less than the hardness of the load. Our body
wears it. The removal of hard material from the surface is called double body wear.
Our body wear occurs when material is weak and allowed to roll and slide across
the surface. Figure 1.5.2 is a schematic diagram of abrasive wear.
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Fig 1.5.2 diagram of an abrasive wear (source: research gate)

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CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

From the discussion concluded above it is very much established that Aluminum metal matrix
composite is one of the major composites which can be used for daily purpose. Aluminum’s
mechanical properties are enhanced among which wear characteristics and relative coefficient
of friction have key importance, it is a multidisciplinary effort that includes material science
(composite), manufacturing and mechanical engineering. Continued efforts have been over the
time as far as sphere of ALMMC are concerned. Aluminum alloy has lower wear resistance and
lower resistance to high temperature which is the major concern to use it for industrial purpose,
researchers have well known this problem and graphene and SiC has been used as reinforcement
to increase wear strength. The current project is also an extension and a small contribution to
the existing research using CuO nanoparticles as reinforcement.

The existing research content is enough to keep making the effort in given sphere .Graphene
has been majorly used as a reinforcement as it having good lubrication properties and being
harder than diamond and stronger than steel this was investigated by(2024 paper Diamond and
Related Material Publications Author :J Lokesh Kumar, P Gurusamy, N Gayathri, V
Muthuraman).In the paper it was represented that the increase in concentration of graphene
played an important role in increasing the hardness but above 4% graphene the microhardness
decreased .It was concluded that the wear resistance of Al/10% TiB2/ 4% GNPs increased by
71.3%compared with other Aluminum alloy .Wear loss characteristics were also optimized
using central composite design and TEM (Transmission Electron Microscopy) has been used
to investigate the interfacial strength of Aluminum alloy composites.

The addition of non-conventional reinforcement like Zinc Bromide, and Titanium Dibromide
Copper Oxide, Zirconium Dioxide have gained traction in the recent to make AlMMC fused
with them. In context of which a research paper published in December 2023 author (Ji Dong
Zhang, Lan Zhang, Hui Zhong Ma ) .The addition of ZrO2 resulted played a pivotal role to
increasing and subsequently decreasing the density, hardness and elongation. When 4 wt.% of
ZrO2 was added wear rate of composite was higher than 7075 Al alloy and the wear mechanism
changed from adhesive to abrasive wear and the MMC was manufactured using plasma
sintering method.

The analysis of Aluminum metal matrix is also being constantly investigated and research have
been done over combining two or more nanoparticles, overcoming wear and friction has been a
major concern for researchers. Unconventional Aluminum Nanocomposites made of cerium
oxide , ceria nanoparticles (CeO2) and graphene nanoplatelets reinforced in Al-6061 alloy have
been subjected to wear test at temperatures ranging from 250 0C to 1000 0C at different loads
ranging from 14 N to 61 N, other input parameters of sliding velocity and distance held constant
at 3m/s and 2000 m, the result show that addition above 3%wt concentration reduces the wear
rate ,specimen reinforced with 3% wt. of cerium dioxide showed the least wear rate ,these results
are concluded by research done by teachers like Dinesh Kumar, Surjeet Singh, Satnam Singh.
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Aluminum metal matrix composite is quiet essential in manufacturing industries , aerospace,

automotive, shipbuilding ,particulates like magnesium alloy is used to decrease component weight and
increase fuel efficiency, friction stir processing (FSP) has been used for Mg alloys earlier to improve
mechanical characteristics of Aluminum .Metallurgical investigation have revealed a dispersion of
nanoparticle in stir zone as well as defined interface between the nanoparticles and matrix and no indication
of intermetallic production. These results have been incubated from the paper: Optimization of
control factors of mechanical properties of friction stir processed AZ91B/Al2O3 nanocomposites
(Author: Iberahin Jusoh). The concluded results are that FSPed composite joints had
significantly better mechanical properties, joints with reinforcement produced finer grain
structures than base metal joints .The optimization used a L16 array and also studied welding
joint of this composite. The result concluded that friction stir casting method is effective method
to produce the composite. Investigation revealed a consistent and homogenous distribution of
nanoparticle in composite. The interface was well defined and microstructure relatively smooth
as compared to other processes.

Based on the above literature review and using techniques mentioned in the above studies this
particular project was carried out using CuO nanoparticles as reinforcement. These literatures
served as primary reference material which helped to decide which all test to carried to confirm
conclusion of this project.
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Chapter 3. Material and Methods

3.1 Copper Oxide

Metal oxide nanoparticles such as copper oxide (CuO) have attracted attention due to their
antimicrobial and bactericidal properties and can be used in many biomedical applications. Copper
oxide has been used in manufacturing of super capacitors, near-infrared filters, magnetic material,
electronic material, electronic material, electrical material, etc. It is a material with optical, electrical
and magnetic properties used in various applications which are listed above. The most important thing
in particle synthesis is the control of particle size, shape and crystalline structure, and to achieve this
goal, different synthesis methods such as Sono chemical method, sol-gel method, laser Ablation,
electrochemical methods, chemical precipitation and surfactant have been developed.

The synthesis process of CuO NPs has been successful in the last decade due to its biomedical and
commercial applications. The synthesis process is important for the performance of the final nano
system as it allows the size and shape of the nanoparticles to be controlled. Moreover, these
nanoparticles exhibit various optical and magnetic properties, mechanical properties, and resistance,
unlike bulk particles. Various methods have been used for the synthesis of CuO NPs and the most
important methods with the same results are listed in.

Other methods such as hydrothermal, thermal oxidation, alcohol have been developed for the synthesis
of CuO NPs. synthesis method, liquid ammonia method and microwave-assisted synthesis method etc.
One method is to add sodium carbonate to copper sulfate and calcination to produce spherical CuO
nanoparticles. for biomedical applications. For example, this nanostructure appears to boost the
immune system against antibiotic-resistant bacteria while maintaining biocompatibility and small size.

Green synthesis involving CuO nanoparticles for biomedical purposes has received widespread
attention. Green synthesis is a synthetic choice because it is safer for biological organisms,
environmentally friendly, and the physical and chemical properties of nanoparticles are still suitable
for biomedical applications.
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PREPERATION METHOD SIZE

Electro-chemical method 4

Sono chemical 20-30

Sol-gel method 7-9

Microemulsion 5-25

Precipitation method 4

Microwave irradiation 3-5

3.2 Aluminum
The realm of engineering materials is constantly pushing boundaries, and 7075 aluminum stands
as a testament to this innovation. The development of Aluminum 7075 can be found in the early
20th century when aluminum alloys were first being enlightened for industrial use. The secret
behind 7075's exceptional qualities lies not just in the base aluminum itself, but in the masterful
blend of additional elements.

Aluminum 7075 is the first high-strength alloy which is composed of zinc as the highest
contributing element in the alloy which significantly boosts the alloy's strength. Magnesium
addition offers a double benefit by further strengthening the alloy and enhancing its resistance to
corrosion. Copper steps in next, adding another layer of strength, but with a slight trade-off of
increased susceptibility to corrosion. Finally, trace amounts of other elements like silicon and iron
play supporting roles, meticulously fine-tuning the final properties of the alloy. Hence this
proportional blend results in the enhanced mechanical property to the aluminum alloy.

Table 1: Chemical Composition of Aluminum 7075 Alloy

Element Chemical composition (wt.%)

Zn 5.6
Mg 2.5
Cu 1.5
Mn 0.04
Fe 0.3
Si 0.08
Al 91.48 (bal.)
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Al 7075 is also known as Aircraft Aluminum as it is widely used in the Aerospace industry due to
its high strength, light weight, corrosion resistance and better machinability. These mechanical
properties make 7000 series Al alloy a better choice than the 2000 series Al alloy for industrial
applications.

The exceptional strength-to-weight ratio of 7075 aluminum makes it the undisputed champion for
a vast array of demanding applications. This thesis will explore how the unique properties of 7075
translate into real-world benefits across various industries. The aerospace industry utilizes 7075 to
construct lightweight yet incredibly strong aircraft components. The high-performance world of
bicycles and sporting goods leverages 7075 to create equipment that empowers athletes to achieve
their peak potential. From automotive parts like wheels and suspension components to valves and
gears, 7075 aluminum continues to be a vital player in pushing the boundaries of design and
performance across numerous industries.

The microstructure, the arrangement of its tiny building blocks, plays a critical role. The size of
these building blocks, called grains, is particularly important. A fine-grained structure in 7075
aluminum hinders the movement of dislocations, microscopic defects that allow the metal to
deform. These fine grains make it much harder to bend or break the material, contributing to its
exceptional strength.

Understanding this microscopic world is crucial. By manipulating the microstructure through heat
treatment processes, material scientists can tailor the properties of 7075 aluminum to specific
needs. Optimizing the size, distribution, and type of precipitates allows for fine-tuning the strength,
toughness, and fatigue resistance of the final product. In essence, the exceptional mechanical
properties of 7075 aluminum are a result of a well-orchestrated dance between its composition and
its intricate microstructure.

Fig. Block of Al 7075

Another key player at the microscopic level is the presence of precipitates – tiny particles of
different phases formed during processing. These precipitates act as additional obstacles for those
same troublesome dislocations. The specific type and distribution of these particles depend on the
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heat treatment the aluminum undergoes. Common precipitates include intermetallic compounds
rich in zinc and magnesium, which further strengthen the material through a mechanism called
precipitation hardening. While these precipitates enhance strength, they can also influence
toughness, the ability to absorb energy before breaking. Certain types, particularly those with a
plate-like shape, can deflect or even crack propagating through the material, making it tougher.

Table 2: Aluminum 7075 Mechanical Properties

Brinell Hardness 150

Young’s Tensile Modulus 70GPa
Tensile Strength: Ultimate (UTS) 560UTS
Tensile Strength: Yield (Proof) 480MPa
Elongation at break 7.9%
Fatigue Strength 160Mpa
Poisson’s Ratio 0.32
Shear Modulus 26GPa
Shear Strength 330 GPa

3.3 Tribology
In the realm of material science, tribology emerges as a critical bridge connecting material
properties with real-world performance. It delves into the fascinating world of interacting surfaces
in relative motion, focusing on three key aspects: friction, wear, and lubrication. Understanding
these aspects is fundamental to designing materials that function optimally in various applications.

Friction, the force resisting relative motion between contacting surfaces, is heavily influenced by
material properties. Surface roughness, hardness, and elasticity all play a role. For instance,
smoother surfaces generally experience less friction than rougher ones. Material hardness also
dictates how readily surfaces deform under contact, impacting friction. Tribologists use this
knowledge to tailor material selection. Imagine designing bearings – a material with low friction
and high wear resistance is ideal.

Wear, the undesired removal of material from a surface due to contact and motion, is another
crucial aspect in material science. Different wear mechanisms, like abrasion (scratching) and
adhesion (material transfer), can cause components to deteriorate. Understanding how these
mechanisms interact with material properties is vital. For example, a material with high hardness
might resist abrasive wear well, but be susceptible to adhesive wear if it readily bonds with the
contacting surface. Tribologists use this knowledge to inform material selection and potential
surface treatments to mitigate wear.

Lubrication, plays a vital role in material science. Lubricants, carefully chosen based on their
material properties, are introduced between surfaces to create a thin film that separates them. This
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film reduces friction and wear by minimizing direct contact. The effectiveness of a lubricant
depends on its compatibility with the contacting materials. For instance, some lubricants might
react with certain materials, leading to increased wear. Tribologists understand these interactions
and recommend lubricants that synergize with the chosen materials to achieve optimal
performance.

3.4 Other Reinforcement

Metal matrix composites (MMC) reinforced with continuous fibers and whiskers were
developed in the 1970s and led to success in development of better composite materials having
different physical and chemical materials. When combined, they create products with many
features. Composite materials are heterogeneous on a microscopic scale and homogeneous on a
macroscopic scale. There are generally two components in MMC: matrix and reinforcement.
These materials are combined in a way that is both effective and reduces the impact of their
disadvantages. Compared with the parent material, metal matrix composites have advantages
such as specific strength, higher temperature resistance, lower coefficient of thermal expansion
and better wear resistance. These products are ideal for use in the automotive, aviation, aviation
and electronics fields. However, improving the behavior, thermal properties and mechanical
properties have been the focus of research for many years.

3.5 Silicon Carbide

Metal matrix composites (MMCs) depict a powerful approach to material design and its
application, combining the desirable properties of metals with the exceptional characteristics of
ceramic reinforcements. Among these reinforcements, silicon carbide (SiC) prevails supreme,
providing a unique blend of properties that empower MMCs to stand out in demanding
applications. Let's delve deeper into the existence of SiC, exploring its properties and how it
advances the performance of aluminum MMCs.

Fig: Silicon Carbide powder

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SiC has an impressive arsenal of properties that make it an ideal candidate for reinforcement.
Firstly, its exceptional hardness surpasses even many steels, which translates into excellent wear
resistance. This makes SiC the perfect choice for components that are subject to high friction and
abrasion. Secondly, SiC exhibits phenomenal strength, both in tension and compression, allowing
it to withstand immense forces without breaking. In addition, SiC is a master of thermal
conductivity and efficiently conducts heat away from the source. This property is invaluable in
applications where heat management is critical for optimal performance. Finally, SiC shows
remarkable resistance to corrosion and degradation in various environments, ensuring reliable
performance over long periods of time.

The exceptional properties of SiC lead to significant advantages when used in aluminum MMCs.
The most significant advantage is the dramatic increase in strength. The introduction of SiC
particles significantly increases the strength of the aluminum matrix, creating a composite material
that can withstand much higher loads without deforming or failing. This newly gained strength is
particularly valuable for applications such as engine components and high-performance aerospace
parts. In addition, the inherent hardness of the SiC particles lead to a higher wear resistance of the
entire MMC. This is a decisive advantage for components such as gears, bearings and pump
linings, which are constantly exposed to wear during operation. In addition, the SiC reinforcement
increases the stiffness of the aluminum matrix, making the composite material less susceptible to
bending or deformation under load. This increased stiffness proves crucial for applications that
require dimensional stability under load. Finally, the high thermal conductivity of the SiC particles
improve the overall heat dissipation of the MMC. This allows the components to operate at higher
temperatures without compromising performance, making them ideal for applications in high heat
environments.

Table 3: Physical properties of SiC

Density 3.02 g/cm3

Open porosity <0.1%
Bending strength 280 MPa
Thermal Conductivity 45 W/mk
Elastic modulus 300 GP

While CuO offers a wealth of advantages, there are a few things to consider. One drawback is its
inherent brittleness, a property that many ceramics exhibit. This means that SiC-reinforced MMCs
can be prone to cracking or fracturing under certain conditions. Careful design and processing
techniques are crucial to avoid this and ensure optimal performance. In addition, the use of SiC
particles can make MMCs more difficult to manufacture compared to unreinforced aluminum.
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Techniques such as stir casting and powder metallurgy are often used to overcome these complex
manufacturing processes. Finally, CuO is a relatively expensive material compared to aluminum,
which can impact the overall cost of the MMC.

Despite these considerations, the advantages of SiC-reinforced aluminum MMCs make them a
highly sought-after material for various demanding applications. From automotive parts like
pistons and brake discs to aerospace components like landing gear and high-performance engine
parts, these MMCs excel due to their exceptional strength-to-weight ratio, wear resistance, and
high-temperature performance. The sporting goods industry also leverages SiC-reinforced MMCs
in high-performance equipment like baseball bats and golf clubs, where the lightweight strength
and stiffness offered by these composites are highly desirable.

Silicon carbide emerges as a champion reinforcement material for aluminum MMCs. Its
exceptional properties contribute significantly to the enhanced performance of these composites,
making them a valuable asset in various applications across diverse industries.

3.6 Boron Carbide (B4C)

Boron carbide is a material formed by the chemically combining C and B2O3 in a furnace, which
is then processed and optimized by removing impurities. B4C has a density of 2.52 g/cm3 and a
melting point as high as 24450C. Boron carbide, is one of the hardest materials, is a reinforced
material which is known for its stability, emerging from the soil as a black substance with a
metallic color. Additionally, its density is lower than Al2O3 and CuO.

3.7 Graphite (Gr)

It is one of the known light reinforced materials, with a good physical strength, most reliable form
of carbon as standard, and has excellent chemical, thermal and electrical properties. Its natural
strength and hardness are higher than other materials and controls the material in the body.
Strength and temperature stability over 3600 °C. Carbon exists in two crystalline allotropic forms
one is diamond and the other is graphite. Graphite, due to these properties, it is used as an
additional material in metal matrix composites.
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3.8 Aluminum Oxide / Alumina (Al2O3)

An Aluminum oxide is made up of Aluminum and oxygen and is a non-conductor of electricity
with high thermal conductivity like the material ceramics. Alumina translates to AMMCs that can
withstand considerably higher loads, resist wear and tear more effectively, and even perform well at
elevated temperatures. The addition of alumina particles also enhances the overall stiffness and, to
some extent, the thermal management of AMMCs. alumina-reinforced AMMCs find applications
in various demanding sectors due to their exceptional strength-to-weight ratio, wear resistance,
and high- temperature performance.

Titanium carbide (TiC) stands out as a robust reinforcement material for Aluminum Metal Matrix
Composites (AMMCs). Its exceptional properties contribute significantly to the enhanced
performance of these composites. Primarily, TiC boasts phenomenal hardness, surpassing even
high-strength steels. This translates to outstanding wear resistance, making AMMCs reinforced
with TiC ideal for components that experience significant friction and abrasion. Additionally, TiC
exhibits exceptional strength in both tension and compression, allowing AMMCs to withstand
immense forces without failure. Furthermore, TiC demonstrates good thermal stability, retaining
its strength and other properties at elevated temperatures, making these composites well-suited for
high-heat environments.

3.9 Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS2)

Molybdenum disulfide is found with good lubrication properties and has low strength and flexibility,
as well having good chemical and thermal stability. They form a very good dry lubricating film.
Molybdenum disulfide particles have low friction coefficient, good catalytic activity and good physical
properties. In addition, its large dynamic surface area has greater reactivity and wider adsorption limits
compared to other materials. Strengthening MoS2 as a hybrid support increases the wear resistance of
the composite by protecting the metal-metal from the stable MoS2-rich mechanical hybrid layer

3.10Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN)

Since h-BN acts as a lubricant to increase the strength and self-lubricating power of Al-MMC, research
on the use of h-BN nanoparticles, which are widely used in the automobile industry today, in the Al
matrix is very important. . For the production of plain bearings, lightweight cylinder liner, pistons and
high-speed and glass-faced joints. Boron nitride (h-BN), with a grain size of 150 μm or more, is an
additive material with a crystalline structure, excellent lubricity, and density (2.28gm/cm3). Excellent
wear resistance and chemical stability.
 P a g e | 21

Chapter 4. Apparatus Required

A pin-on-disc apparatus is a device used to assess the tribological characteristics of materials,
specifically their wear and friction properties. It operates by simulating a sliding contact between
two materials. The apparatus consists of a rotating disc and a stationary pin. The materials being
tested are typically paired, with one material forming the pin and the other the disc.

During a test, the pin is pressed against the rotating disc with a controlled load. The disc's rotational
speed can also be varied depending on the desired test conditions. As the disc spins, the pin rubs
against its surface, mimicking real-world sliding wear. The apparatus can measure the frictional
force generated between the pin and disc throughout the test. This data provides valuable insights
into the material's frictional behavior.

By analyzing the wear on the pin and disc after the test, researchers can gain insights into the
material's wear resistance. The depth or volume of material worn away can be measured using
specialized techniques. Additionally, the apparatus can be equipped to monitor temperature during
the test, which can influence wear and friction. Overall, the pin-on-disc test offers a simple yet
effective method for tribological evaluation of materials.

Fig 3.2 Pin on Disk Test

3
P a g e | 23

Chapter 5. Results and Discussions

5.1 ANNOVA of COF and Wear:

Analysis of variance or ANNOVA was used to determine the influence of the input parameters such as
Load, sliding velocity, nanoparticle concentration, on the output parameter which are COF and Wear,
also the Taguchi L9 array is used for design of experiment.
Table-- shows the ANNOVA of COF and p-values of load, sliding velocity, and nanoparticle are less
than 0.05 which suggests that all are statistically significant. The contribution percentage of load,
sliding velocity and nanoparticle is respectively.
Table - shows the ANNOVA of Wear and it depicts that the p-value of load and nanoparticle is less
than 0.05 which suggests that they are statistically significant while the p-value of sliding velocity is
greater than 0.05 and is not significant parameter for Wear. The contribution percentage of load,
sliding velocity and nanoparticle is respectively.
The experimental reliability is very high because of R-sq (adj) value is 99.97%, for COF and Wear.

Regression Analysis: COF versus Load (N), Sliding Speed on. (Wt.%)

Analysis of Variance

D Adj Adj F- P-
Source F SS MS Value Value
Regression 6 0.434513 0.072419 751.75 0.001
Load (N) 1 0.086160 0.086160 894.40 0.001
Sliding Speed (rpm) 1 0.047739 0.047739 495.57 0.002
Con. (Wt.%) 1 0.086201 0.086201 894.82 0.001
Load (N)*Load (N) 1 0.080401 0.080401 834.61 0.001
Sliding Speed (rpm)*Sliding Speed (rpm) 1 0.074498 0.074498 773.34 0.001
Con. (Wt.%)*Con. (Wt.%) 1 0.035112 0.035112 364.49 0.003
Error 2 0.000193 0.000096
Total 8 0.434706

Model Summary

S R-sq R-sq(adj) R-sq(pred)

0.0098150 99.96% 99.82% 99.10%
 P a g e | 25

Coefficients

SE Coef T- Value P-Value VIF

Coef
Term
Constant 1.1961 0.0281 42.60 0.001
Load (N) -0.013981 0.000467 -29.91 0.001 49.00
Sliding Speed (rpm) -0.002360 0.000106 -22.26 0.002 28.00
Con. (Wt.%) 0.07203 0.00241 29.91 0.001 13.00
Load (N)*Load (N) 0.000056 0.000002 28.89 0.001 49.00
Sliding Speed (rpm)*Sliding Speed 0.000005 0.000000 27.81 0.001 28.00
(rpm)
Con. (Wt.%)*Con. (Wt.%) -0.003681 0.000193 -19.09 0.003 13.00

Regression Equation
COF = 1.1961 - 0.013981 Load (N) - 0.002360 Sliding Speed (rpm) + 0.07203 Con. (Wt.%)
+ 0.000056 Load (N)*Load (N) + 0.000005 Sliding Speed (rpm)*Sliding Speed (rpm)
- 0.003681 Con. (Wt.%)*Con. (Wt.%)

Regression Analysis: Wear (g) versus Load (N), Sliding Speed, Con. (Wt.%)

Analysis of Variance

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value

Regression 6 0.42968 0.071615 7082.76 0.000
Load (N) 1 0.022065 0.022065 2182.29 0.000
Sliding Speed (rpm) 1 0.041423 0.041423 4096.77 0.000
Con. (Wt.%) 1 0.025961 0.025961 2567.53 0.000
Load (N)*Load (N) 1 0.008235 0.008235 814.42 0.001
Sliding Speed*Sliding Speed (rpm) 1 0.017987 0.017987 1778.91 0.001
Con. (Wt.%)*Con. (Wt.%) 1 0.007160 0.007160 708.14 0.001
Error 2 0.000020 0.000010
Total 8 0.429708

Model Summary
S R-sq R-sq(adj) R-sq(pred)
0.0031798 100.00% 99.98% 99.90%
 P a g e | 25

Coefficients
SE T- P- VI
Term Coef Coef Value Value F
Constant 0.27799 0.00910 30.56 0.001
Load (N) -0.007075 0.000151 -46.71 0.000 49.00
Sliding Speed (rpm) 0.002198 0.000034 64.01 0.000 28.00
Con. (Wt.%) 0.039528 0.000780 50.67 0.000 13.00
Load (N)*Load (N) 0.000018 0.000001 28.54 0.001 49.00
Sliding Speed (rpm)*Sliding Speed -0.000002 0.000000 -42.18 0.001 28.00
(rpm)
Con. (Wt.%)*Con. (Wt.%) -0.001662 0.000062 -26.61 0.001 13.00

Regression Equation
Wear (g) = 0.27799 - 0.007075 Load (N) + 0.002198 Sliding Speed (rpm) + 0.039528 Con. (Wt.%)
+ 0.000018 Load (N)*Load (N) - 0.000002 Sliding Speed (rpm)*Sliding Speed (rpm)
- 0.001662 Con. (Wt.%)*Con. (Wt.%)

5.2 Mean Effect Plots:

Fig--shows the main effect plots of COF, which depicts that mean COF increases as load
increases, it also increases with sliding velocity but the increase is gradual and it decreases as
nanoparticle concentration varies from 0% to 6% and increases from 6% to 12%. The value of
COF at 0wt% is more compared to 12wt%.
Fig--shows the main effect plots of wear, which shows that mean of wear increases as load
increases, and it also increases gradually with sliding velocity 100rpm to 300rpm and then COF
decreases from 300rpm to 500rpm while, it decreases as nanoparticle concentration varies from
0% to 6% and increases from 6% to 12%. The wear is lower at 0wt% compared to 12wt%.

Main Effects Plot for COF

Means
(N)
0.5

0.4
Mean of COF

0.3

0.2

0.1
50 100 150 100 300 500 0 5 10

All displayed terms are in the model.

 P a g e | 26

Mean of Wear (g)

Optimal Load (N) Sliding Con. (Wt

High 180.0 500.0 12.0
D: 1.000 Cur
[60.0] [132.3232] [6.5455]
Predict Low 60.0 100.0 0.0

Composite
Desirability
D: 1.000

COF
Minimum
y = 0.1032
d = 1.0000

Wear (g)
Minimum
y = 0.1343
d = 1.0000
 P a g e | 26

5.3 Surface Plots

0.55

0.40

0.25
12

8
0.10
4
00
250
400 0
550

0.6

COF 0.4

12
0.2
8
4 Con. (Wt.%)
50
100 0
150
Load (N)
 P a g e | 27

Surface Plot of COF vs Sliding Speed (rpm), Load (N)

0.6

0.4
COF

550
0.2
400

250 Sliding Speed (rpm)

50
100
150 100

5.4 Contour Plots

500
Wear (g)
< 0.10
0.10 – 0.15
0.15 – 0.20
0.20 – 0.25
400 0.25 – 0.30
0.30 – 0.35
Sliding Speed (rpm)

0.35 – 0.40
> 0.40
Hold Values
300
Con. (Wt.%)

Con. (Wt.%) 6.5

200

100
60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Con. (Wt.%)

Con. (Wt.%)

5.5 Surface Characterization

Con. (Wt.%)
Sliding Speed (rpm)
P a g e | 28
 P a g e | 29

Surface Plot of Wear (g) vs Con. (Wt.%), Sliding Speed (rpm)

0.3

Wear (g)
0.2
12

0.1 8

4 Con. (Wt.%)
00
250 400 0

550
Sliding Speed (rpm)

Surface Plot of Wear (g) vs Con. (Wt.%), Load (N)

Hold Values
Sliding Speed (rpm1)33

0.6

Wear (g) 0.4

12
0.2
8
4 Con. (Wt.%)
50
100 0
150
Load (N)
 P a g e | 30

Surface Plot of Wear (g) vs Sliding Speed (rpm), Load (N)

0.4

Wear (g) 0.3

0.2 550

400
0.1

50
100
150 100

The table gives the details about the test samples used for pin on disc. The surface properties
and features are explained in the SEM images.
Specimen Load(N) Disk Nanoparticle(wt.%)
Name Rotations(rpm)
S1 60 100 0
S2 120 300 0
S3 180 500 0
S4 60 100 6
S5 120 300 6
S6 180 500 6
S7 60 100 12
S8 120 300 12
S9 180 500 12
 P a g e | 31

5.6 SEM Result

In this figure there is low load(60N) and high rotation(500rpm), high concentration of CuO(12%wt) of
the disc which results in the pull out of particles due to abrasive wear.

In this figure the load is low and the speed of rotation is high this leads to crater formation due to delamination
of layers. In this image debris is also visible which is due to the errors while cutting the pins.
 P a g e | 32

In this figure there is oxidation and delamination present, the delamination is due to abrasive wear. This is the
case of high load(120N),high rotation of the speed(300rpm) and high weight percentage(12%).

In this figure the load is high(120N), the speed of rotation is high(100rpm) and the weight (6%) so this leads to
the formation of layers and abrasive wear due to oxidization which is visible in the white area .
 P a g e | 33

5.7 XRD Result and Crystallite Size

The Crystallite size was calculated using the XRD results using the Scherrer equation given as,

K- Shape Factor = 0.9

λ = wavelength of source (0.154 nm)
β = FWHM
θ = Peak positions
D = Crystallite size in nm
The value of D is 19.52 nm
 P a g e | 34

6. Conclusion
AL 7075 alloy was reinforced with Copper Oxide Nanoparticles in different amount using stir casting
method. Taguchi regression analysis was used to optimize the input parameters of load, sliding speed
and concentration % to minimize the wear and coefficient of friction obtained. Conclusions obtained
from this study are:

1) Employment of CuO nanoparticles in Aluminum alloy increased the wear strength of the material
which can be used for various application

2) Wear strength was affected by all input parameters which were basically concentration%, load
applied and sliding speed.

3) The minimum wear and coefficient of friction was obtained at 60N load, sliding speed of
132.3232 RPM and 6.54% by wt. of CuO.

4) Result was validated by performing and experiment on the obtained values, SEM test and XRD
were performed to know the microstructure after wear and size of nanoparticles.
 P a g e | 35

REFRENCES

[1] P.A. Bajakke, V.R. Malik, A.S. Deshpande, Particulate metal matrix composites and
their fabrication via friction stir processing–a review, Mater. Manuf. Process. 34 (8)
(2019) 833–881.
[2] D.Y. Kim, H.J. Choi, Recent developments towards commercialization of metal
matrix composites, Materials 13 (12) (2020) 12–35.
[3] J. Jiang, Y. Wang, Microstructure and mechanical properties of the reformed
cylindrical part of 7075 aluminum matrix composite reinforced with nanosized SiC
particles, Mater. Des. 79 (2015) 32–41.
[4] J .Lokesh Kumar ,P .Gurusamy ,N .Gayathri ,V .Muthuraman, Influence of graphene nanoplates and
titanium dibromide particulate on wear and interfacial bonding properties of sintered Aluminum alloy
composites – Diamond and Related Materials 144 (2024) 111035 , journal homepage:
https://www.elsevier.com/locate/diamond
[5] Ji-dong Zhang , Lan Zhang , Hui -zhong Ma , Effect of ZrO2 additions on the microstructure,
mechanical and wear properties of ZrO2/7075 Aluminum alloy composite- Materials Today
Communications 37 (2023) 107437
[6] Dinesh Kumar , Surjit Angra , Satnam Singh , High-temperature dry sliding wear behavior of hybrid
aluminum composite reinforced with ceria and graphene nanoparticles – Engineering Failure Analysis
151 (2023) 107426
[7] Abdul Aabid, Mohammed Ali Murtuza , Sher Afghan Khan , Muneer Baig , Optimization of dry
sliding wear behavior of MMC's Aluminum-based hybrid using experimental and DOE methods –
Journal of materials research and technology 2022;16:743E763.
[8] Iberahin Jusoh, Optimization of control factors on mechanical properties of friction stir processed
AZ91B/Al2O3 nanocomposites - Journal of Engineering Research 11 (2023) 236–246.
[9] R.Ambigai , S.Prabhu Optimization of friction and wear behavior of Al-Si3N4 nano composite and
Al-Gr-Si3N4 hybrid composite under dry sliding conditions - Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 27(2017)
986-997
[10] BALAJI V,SATEESH N,MANZOOR H M. Manufacture of Aluminum metal matrix composite
(Al7075-SiC) by stir casting technique [J].Materials Today:Proceedings,2015,2(4-5):3403-3408.
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Rajwinder Singh Gill, Partap Singh Samra,

Amresh Kumar. "Effect of different types of
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A review of recent studies", Materials Today:
Proceedings, 2021
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